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THE  LIBRARY  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF 

NORTH  CAROLINA 


ENDOWED  BY  THE 

DIALECTIC  AND  PHILANTHROPIC 

SOCIETIES 


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Book  2 


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This  book  is  due  at  the  LOUIS  R.  WILSON  LIBRARY  on  the 
last  date  stamped  under  "Date  Due."  If  not  on  hold  it  may  be 
renewed  by  bringing  it  to  the  library. 


DATE 
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NEW    GEOGRAPHIES 

SECOND    BOOK 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   ■    CHICAGO 
SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  ■  BOMBAY  ■  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


NEW    GEOGRAPHIES 


SECOND    BOOK 

- 


BY 

RALPH    S.    TARE,    B.S.,  F.G.S.A. 

LATE    PROFESSOR    OF    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK   M.   McMURRY,   Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ELEMENTARY    EDUCATION    AT    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


WITH  MANY  COLORED   MAPS  AND   NUMEROUS   ILLUSTRATIONS 
CHIEFLY  PHOTOGRAPHS   OF  ACTUAL    SCENES 


Nrfo  gorfe 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

191. 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1910, 
By   THE  MACMILLAX   COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped      Published  April,  19x0.       Reprinted 
August,  October,  December,   1910;    June,  1911;    June,  1912; 
March,  August,  1913  ;   April,  August,  1914;  May,  August,  1915; 
January,  1916. 


Ifprtoooo  ^tesss 

J.  8.  Cushlng  Oo.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


Place  of  General  Geography  in  this 
Volume.  —  The  most  difficult  part  of 
common  school  geography  is  that  deal- 
ing with  the  motions  of  the  earth,  lati- 
tude and  longitude,  winds,  rainfall, 
ocean  currents,  and  temperature.  Yet 
these  subjects  are  almost  universally 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  advanced 
book,  so  that  their  treatment  follows 
immediately  upon  Primary  Geography. 
This  arrangement  requires  children  to 
move  abruptly  from  a  meager  study  of 
the  simplest  facts  in  geography  to  its 
broadest  abstractions,  which  is  thor- 
oughly bad  and  unnecessary. 

In  this  volume  only  two  chapters  at 
the  beginning  of  the  book  precede  the 
intensive  treatment  of  the  United  States. 
The  first  is  a  physiographic  history  of 
the  continent,  showing  how  its  principal 
mountain  ranges  and  valleys  came  into 
existence ;  how  its  coal  beds  were  formed  ; 
what  were  the  effects  of  the  great  Ice 
Age ;  and  what  have  been  the  more 
recent  changes  in  the  coast  line,  with 
their  results.  Then  comes  a  chapter 
on  the  Plants,  Animals,  and  Peoples  of 
North  America  ;  and  the  two  chapters 
occupy  only  26  pages.  Whatever  further 
facts  in  regard  to  winds,  rainfall,  tem- 
perature, etc.,  are  needed  in  the  study 
of  North  America  have  been  plainly 
stated,  when  wanted,  just  as  other  con- 
crete facts  have  been.  After  our  conti- 
nent is  finished,  and  a  fair  number  of 
concrete  data,  bearing  on  these  matters, 


has  been  presented,  these  are  treated  as 
general  topics  in  some  detail.  By  this 
arrangement,  the  study  of  these  difficult 
subjects  has  been  postponed  at  least  one 
year,  and  so  many  of  the  facts  that  are 
necessary  to  their  appreciation  have  been 
presented  concretely  that  they  are  then 
approached  somewhat  inductively.  The 
authors  regard  this  as  one  of  the  most 
important  among  the  distinguishing  fea- 
tures of  this  volume. 

The  general  principles  in  regard  to 
industries,  distribution  of  inhabitants, 
mutual  relation  of  city  and  country, 
and  dependence  of  various  sections  upon 
one  another,  form  another  subject  which, 
contrary  to  custom,  is  treated  in  the 
middle  and  latter  parts  of  the  volume. 
One  reason  for  this  is  that  these  broad 
truths  approach  abstractions  in  their 
nature,  and  are,  consequently,  too  diffi- 
cult to  be  earlier  appreciated  by  children. 
They  are,  moreover,  to  a  large  extent, 
a  summary  of  what  has  preceded,  and, 
therefore,  naturally  come  last  when  a 
more  inductive  approach  is  possible. 

Prominence  of  Review  and  Comparison. 
—  A  common  defect  in  the  teaching  of 
geography  is  that  pupils  are  allowed  to 
forget  about  one  country  while  studying 
the  next ;  and  the  result  is  that,  by  the 
time  Australia  is  reached,  most  of  what 
has  previously  been  learned  about  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  other  countries, 
has  faded  from  memory.  Yet  the  rela- 
tion   between   North  America  and    the 


VI 


PREFACE 


other  continents  is  so  marked  that  this 
defect  is  quite  unnecessary.  For  ex- 
ample, most  of  the  industries  and  basal 
principles  of  physiography  and  climate 
have  received  the  attention  of  a  child 
when  he  has  completed  a  general  study 
of  the  United  States.  Foreign  lands 
illustrate  the  same  great  ideas  under 
different  conditions.  This  means  that 
the  comprehension  of  foreign  countries 
may  best  be  gained  by  our  children,  if 
they  use  their  previous  knowledge  of 
the  United  States  as  a  basis  of  compari- 
son. If,  then,  this  old  related  knowl- 
edge is  carefully  called  to  mind  when 
the  physiography,  climate,  and  industries 
of  a  foreign  land  are  approached,  our 
pupils  will  not  only  secure  a  fuller 
appreciation  of  that  region,  but  will  also 
keep  their  knowledge  of  the  United 
States  fresh  by  bringing  it  into  use. 

The  above  has  been  a  controlling  idea 
in  preparing  this  volume.  Accordingly 
in  approaching  the  physiography  of 
South  America  (p.  236),  the  physi- 
ography and  climate  of  Europe  (pp.  257, 
264),  etc.,  the  authors  have  reproduced 
the  corresponding  situations  in  our  own 
country  at  some  length.  Besides  this, 
they  have  included  in  the  text  scores 
of  brief  comparisons  with  the  United 
States.  By  this  means  incidental  re- 
views are  continually  provided,  which 
are  especially  attractive  to  both  teachers 
and  pupils. 

To  supplement  this  kind  of  review 
several  sets  of  questions,  which  call  for 
still  different  comparisons  with  the 
United  States,  are  included  in  the  book, 
one  series  being  found  at  the  close  of 
the  treatment  of  each  continent.  These 
are  likewise  rich  in  motive,  inasmuch  as 


they  recall  leading  facts  in  regard  to  the 
United  States  from  varying  points  of 
view.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  also, 
that  each  set  at  the  same  time  reviews 
another  continent  from  a  new  point  of 
view. 

Many  of  the  facts  in  regard  to  the 
United  States  which  these  questions  call 
for  are  not  directly  presented  in  the  text 
which  treats  of  the  various  continents, 
and  answers  for  a  few  of  them  are  not 
indicated  in  the  maps.  Also  pupils  may 
have  forgotten  some  of  the  important 
information  about  the  United  States. 
For  these  reasons  Section  VII,  covering 
17  pages,  is  an  organized  review  of 
North  America  alone.  It  includes  the 
principal  facts  about  our  continent  which 
every  pupil  should  know  on  completing 
the  grades. 

The  title  of  the  last  section,  "  Review 
of  the  United  States  and  Comparisons 
with  Other  Countries,"  indicates  provi- 
sion for  still  further  review.  It  has 
seemed  to  the  authors  an  anticlimax  to 
close  several  years'  study  of  geography 
with  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  lands 
farthest  away  from  us  and  of  least  in- 
terest to  us.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  deemed  highly  important  that,  after 
all  the  countries  of  the  world  have  been 
treated,  the  closing  chapter  should  sum- 
marize the  situation  and  show  the  rank 
of  our  own  land  and  its  relation  to 
others.  This  secures  a  final  reconsid- 
eration of  the  principal  facts  in  our 
geography,  while  at  the  same  time  it 
brings  them  into  proper  relation  and 
perspective. 

On  the  whole,  the  authors  are  of  the 
opinion  that  reviews  should  occupy  a 
large  part  of  the  time  of  instruction; 


PREFACE 


VII 


and,  by  the  plan  followed,  pupils  will 
have  a  fairly  complete  knowledge  of  the 
United  States  and  the  rest  of  the  world 
in  their  possession,  not  only  when  they 
finish  the  grades,  but  in  years  to  follow. 

Physiographic  Basis  and  Causal  Se- 
quence.—  The  authors  believe  that  ra- 
tional geography  must  rest  upon  a 
physiographic  foundation.  Physiographic 
conditions  most  often  furnish  the  reasons 
for  the  location  of  human  industries, 
the  development  of  transportation  routes, 
the  situation  of  cities,  etc.  In  other 
words,  when  the  physiographic  facts 
about  a,  given  region  are  clearly  grasped, 
most  of  the  other  geographic  facts  easily 
arrange  themselves  as  links  in  a  causal 
chain.  Thus  the  many  details  touching 
a  certain  locality  are  taught  in  relation 
with  one  another,  so  that  they  approach 
the  form  of  a  narrative,  rather  than  that 
of  a  mere  list  of  statements. 

Physiography  has,  therefore,  been  in- 
troduced freely ;  but  under  two  limita- 
tions. First,  only  such  physical  facts 
are  included  as  are  shown  really  to 
function  in  man's  relation  to  the  earth. 
Physiography  that  is  clearly  shown  to 
have  a  real  bearing  upon  man  greatly 
enriches  geography;  it  is  the  unused 
physical  geography  that  is  a  stumbling 
block.  Second,  these  physical  facts  are 
presented  in  connection  with  their  use, 
not  entirely  apart  from  it  and  in  a  dif- 
ferent part  of  the  book. 

Abundance  of  Detail.  —  The  interest 
of  a  geography  text,  as  of  any  other 
text,  must  depend  in  large  measure  upon 
the  amount  of  detail  included.  One 
characteristic  of  this  volume  is  that  it 
deals  with  its  subject  in  unusual  detail. 
Particularly  in   the  treatment  of  many 


of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  geography 
is  this  apparent.  As  was  suggested  in 
the  Preface  of  the  First  Book,  the  basal 
units  for  the  study  of  geography,  although 
constantly  in  use,  are  seldom  adequately 
presented  in  the  text-books.  This  ap- 
plies strikingly,  for  example,  to  such 
topics  as  farm,  cattle  ranch,  irrigation, 
lumber  camp,  and  factory.  In  order  to 
remedy  this  defect,  as  far  as  possible, 
each  subject  of  such  a  kind  is  presented 
in  these  books  with  as  much  detail  as 
space  permits,  and  in  connection  with 
that  section  of  country  in  which  it  seems 
most  prominent. 

For  example,  lumbering,  fishing,  and 
the  manufacture  of  cloth,  boots,  and 
shoes  receive  their  most  detailed  treat- 
ment in  connection  with  New  England  ; 
the  mining  of  coal  and  iron  ore  and  the 
manufacture  of  iron  goods  are  discussed 
in  connection  with  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States  ;  and  gold  mining,  irrigation,  and 
grazing  are  naturally  included  under 
the  ^Yestern  States. 

The  industries  and  objects  thus  de- 
scribed, being  fairly  typical  of  industries 
and  objects  found  elsewhere,  are  on  that 
account  worthy  of  being  called  types. 
Through  the  careful  presentation  of  such 
types,  vivid  pictures  and  an  appreciation 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  are  assured. 

The  study  of  the  United  States  has, 
as  suggested  above,  furnisbed  occasion 
for  detailed  treatment  of  most  geo- 
graphic types.  Some  important  fea- 
tures and  occupations,  however,  are  not 
found  in  the  United  States,  but  to  these 
the  authors  have  endeavored  to  give  the 
same  careful  consideration.  For  in- 
stance, so  far  as  space  permits,  the  Bra- 
zilian  forest  is   presented  as   a  type  of 


V1U 


PREFA  CE 


tropical  forests  (page  243).  Other  illus- 
trations may  be  found  in  the  treatment 
of  the  linen  industry  on  page  270,  and 
of  the  silk  industry  on  page  286.  The 
object  is  to  continue  to  acquaint  the 
learner  properly  with  the  basal  units  of 
geography,  as  well  as  to  make  geography 
interesting. 

Organization  of  Subject-matter.  —  In 
advanced  geography,  perhaps  even  more 
than  in  the  primary  book,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  offer  subject-matter  in  the 
form  of  disconnected  facts.  The  greater 
amount  of  detail  in  the  more  advanced 
volume  no  doubt  makes  it  especially 
difficult  to  avoid  such  looseness  of  organ- 
ization.  The  most  flagrant  example  of 
this  evil  is  the  treatment  of  the  United 
States  by  individual  states,  which  we 
have  discarded.  To  be  sure,  there  is  a 
call  for  a  knowledge  of  our  own  country 
by  states,  and  an  endeavor  has  been 
made  to  meet  it  by  several  sets  of  ques- 
tions which  require  a  careful  state  re- 
view. But  when  the  geography  of  the 
United  States  is  presented  primarily  by 
states,  the  child  is  oppressed  and  con- 
fused by  the  great  number  of  individual 
facts  which  have  apparently  the  same 
rank.  Even  an  adult  cannot  easily 
escape  a  feeling  of  confusion  on  reading 
a  few  pages  from  a  geography  that 
divides  the  subject  into  such  small 
units. 

Where  this  particular  defect  is  avoided, 
it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  the 
principal  from  the  subordinate  facts  and 
to  carry  the  outline  of  the  whole  easily 
in  mind.  The  remedy  must  be  found 
first,  in  the  treatment  of  each  country 
or  other  large  subject  under  only  a  few 
headings ;    and  second,  in  bringing  to- 


gether all  details  that  bear  upon  a  par- 
ticular topic,  and  excluding  all  else. 
Thus,  in  the  treatment  of  the  Western 
States  in  this  volume,  farming  by  irriga- 
tion is  only  once  extensively  treated. 
A  whole  page  is  devoted  to  a  discussion 
of  the  subject,  including  the  manner  in 
which  irrigation  is  planned  in  the  vicinity 
of  Denver,  its  cost,  and  its  influence  on 
the  value  of  land.  These  many  details 
are  associated  as  parts  of  one  story ;  and 
as  there  are  only  a  few  such  topics  in 
the  entire  chapter  on  the  Western  States, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  keep  in  mind  the 
leading  points.  The  use  of  the  type 
idea  elsewhere  accomplishes  the  same 
purpose. 

The  frequent  comparisons  provided 
for  at  the  close  of  the  chapters  likewise 
do  much  to  preserve  perspective,  for 
they  lift  the  more  important  thoughts 
into  prominence  while  neglecting  non- 
essentials. Similarly  the  two  review 
chapters,  one  a  Review  and  Comparison 
of  our  states,  the  other  a  Comparison  of 
the  United  States  with  other  countries, 
distinguish  in  a  prominent  way  the  lead- 
ing from  the  minor  facts.  But,  above 
all,  throughout  this  volume  the  subject- 
matter  in  each  chapter  is  presented 
under  so  few  headings  that  the  learner 
is  likely  to  be  impressed  with  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  situation.  The  authors, 
at  least,  cherish  the  hope  that  the 
pupil  will  see  the  outline  clearly  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  necessary  mass  of 
details. 

Probably  the  most  important  improve- 
ment of  this  volume  over  the  former 
Tarr  and  McMurry  "  Advanced  Geogra- 
ph}" "  consists  in  its  better  organization. 
The    marginal  headings  have  been  se- 


PREFACE 


IX 


lected  with  great  care ;  also  a  large 
amount  of  energy  has  been  consumed 
in  bringing  into  one  place  all  the  details 
that  bear  on  a  single  question,  and  in 
rigidly  excluding  all  irrelevant  matter 
from  among  them. 

Extent  of  Changes  in  this  Revision. — 
In  bringing  the  facts  in  this  volume 
down  to  date,  and  in  reorganizing  them 
in  the  manner  above  indicated,  approxi- 
mately one  half  of  the  entire  text  has 
been  rewritten,  while  much  of  the  re- 
mainder has  been  modified  to  some 
extent.  These  changes,  together  with 
entirely  new  maps  and  many  new  illus- 
trations, make  the  book  a  radical  im- 
provement over  the  original  volume, 
while  preserving  any  peculiar  merits 
that  that  book  may  have  possessed. 

The  increased  quantity  of  subject- 
matter  made  it  necessary  either  to  widen 
the  old  style  page  —  of  one  column  — 
or  to  adopt  a  new  form.  Since  the 
length  of  line  in  the  former  case  would 
have  been  quite  unjustifiable,  it  seemed 
best  to  follow  the  latter  plan. 

Maps,  Illustrations,  and  Acknowledg- 
ments. —  The  maps  for  this  volume  have 
been  entirely  remade  and  their  number 
increased.  A  feature  of  especial  note 
is  the  introduction  of  a  series  of  colored 
physical  maps,  so  that  each  continent 
is  represented  by  three  maps  —  a  politi- 
cal map,  a  relief  map,  and  a  physical 
map. 

Many  of  the  drawings  of  the  old  book, 
notably  those  made  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Fur- 
long, the  Avell-known  artist,  are  used 
again  in  this  volume ;  we  have  also 
made  use  of  some  of  the  better  half- 
tones in  the  old  book.  Many  new  illus- 
trations   are    introduced,   however,    but 


in  no  case  merely  for  the  sake  of  having 
something  new ;  change  has  been  made 
only  when  distinct  improvement  has 
been  possible.  The  half-tones  and  other 
illustrations  are  introduced  not  merely 
as  pictures,  but  as  part  of  the  fund  of 
information  offered;  and  it  is  expected 
that  they  will  be  studied  in  connection 
with  the  text  which  they  illustrate, 
amplify,  or  explain. 

We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Philip  Em- 
erson of  the  Cobbett  School,  Lynn, 
Massachusetts,  and  to  Professor  R.  H. 
Whitbeck  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
for  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  the 
original  volume  as  acknowledged  in  its 
preface,  and  Professor  Whitbeck  has 
given  further  aid  in  this  revision,  espe- 
cially in  the  selection  of  illustrations. 
Valuable  assistance  in  preparation  of 
statistics  and  lists  of  books  of  reference 
has  been  rendered  by  Mr.  Irvine  Per- 
rine  and  Miss  Kathryn  Kyser  of  Cornell 
University.  Naturally  we  are  indebted 
to  many  sources  for  the  material  mak- 
ing up  the  text  in  this  volume,  but 
among;  them  Mills'  "  International  Geoa;- 
raphy,"  "  The  Statesman's  Year  Book," 
The  United  States  Census  Report,  and 
Ratzel's  "  History  of  Mankind  "  call  for 
special  mention. 

As  for  illustrations,  aside  from  those 
made  by  Mr.  Furlong,  already  acknowl- 
edged, we  are  especially  indebted  to 
William  Ran  of  Philadelphia,  from  whose 
extensive  collection  of  photographs  we 
have  selected  a  large  proportion  of  the 
photographs  from  which  our  half-tones 
are  made.  To  other  photographers 
whose  pictures  we  have  used — a  list 
far  too  large  to  incorporate  here  —  and 
to    other    sources  acknowledged  in  the 


PREFACE 


preface  of  the  "Complete  Geography" 
we  are  also  indebted.  Special  men- 
tion should  be  made  of  the  assistance 
rendered  by  the  Philadelphia  Com- 
mercial Museum  in   supplying  us  with 


a  series  of  world  product  maps,  and 
in  giving  us  permission  to  reproduce 
some  of  their  photographs.  The  relief 
maps    were  made  by  E.  E.  Howell  of 


Washington. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


SECTION 

I. 
II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


PART    I.     NORTH    AMERICA 

The  Story  of  odr  Continent     . 

Plants,    Animals,     and    Peoples    of 
Xorth  America 
Plants  and  Animals 
Peoples  . 

Thf.  United  States 
General  Facts 
Xew  England 
Middle  Atlantic  States 
Southern  States 
Central  States 
Western  States 

Territories     and     Dependencies    of 
the  United  States 
Alaska    ..... 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba     . 
Panama  Canal  Zone 
The  Hawaiian  Islands   . 
Other  Small  Island  Possessions 
The  Philippine  Islands . 

Countries    Xorth    of    the    United 
States        .... 
Canada  and  Newfoundland   . 
Greenland       .... 

Countries    South     of     the     United 
States 
Mexico   . 
Central  America 
The  West  Indies 
The  Bermudas 

Review  of  Xorth  America 

The  United  States 

Other  Countries  of  Xorth  America 

Relation  of  United  States  to  Other 
Countries    ...... 

Value  of  Steam  and  Electricity  in  De- 
velopment of  Xorth  America     . 


PAGE 
1 


13 
13 

22 

26 
26 
32 
47 
70 
91 
119 

148 
149 
152 
154 
155 
157 
158 

161 
161 
170 

171 
171 
177 
178 
180 

181 
182 
195 

195 

196 


PART    II.     THE   EARTH 

I.     The  Earth 

II.     Latitude.  Longitude,  and  Standard 

Time 

Latitude  and  Longitude 

Standard  Time       .        .        .         .        . 


SECTION  PAGE 

III.  Winds  and  Rain 206 

Winds 206 

Rain 210 

IV.  Ocean       Movements,       and       their 

Effects;    also   Distribution   of 
Temperature  ....  218 

Ocean  Movements,  and  their  Effects   .  218 
Distribution  of  Temperature        .         .  223 
V.     Plants,    Animals,    and    Peoples    of 

the  Earth 227 

Plants  and  Animals     ....  227 
Peoples 231 

PART   III.     SOUTH   AMERICA 

I.  General  Facts 236 

II.  Brazil 243 

III.  Argentina 245 

IV.  Uruguay  and  Paraguay     .         .        .  247 
V.  The  Guianas  and  Venezuela    .         .  248 

VI.     Tropical  Andean  Countries      .        .  248 

ATI.     Chile 254 

VIII.     Islands  near  the  Continent     .        .  255 

PART   IV.     EUROPE 

I.     General  Facts 257 

II.     The  British  Isles         ....  263 

III.  The    Xetherlands,     Belgium,     and 

Luxemburg 277 

The  Xetherlands  (Holland)  .         .  277 

Belgium 280 

Luxemburg  ......  283 

IV.  France 283 

V.     Spain  and  Portugal    ....  290 

VI.  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark       .  295 

VII.  Russia 302 

VIII.  German  Empire 308 

IX.  Switzerland 319 

X.  Italy 323 

XL  Austria-Hungary         ....  330 

XII.  The  Balkan  Peninsula      .         .         .  334 


198     PART    V.     ASIA,    AFRICA,    AUSTRALIA, 
AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 

2lil  I.     Asia 341 

201   j  General  Facts 342 

205  |  The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire      .  347 

xi 


Xll 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  —  LIST  OF  MAPS 


II. 


N  PACE 

Arabia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan  .  .  350 
Russia  in  Asia  .....  352 

The  Indian  Empire  and  Ceylon  .  .  354 
Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  .  360 
Republic  of  China  .....  361 
The  Japanese  Empire  and  Korea    .         .  367 

Africa 373 

General  Facts 373 

Northern  Africa 377 

Southern  Africa       .....  384 

Central  Africa  .      -  .         .         .         .  386 

Islands  near  Africa  ....  389 


SECTION  PAGE 

III.     Australia  and  Island  Groups     .        .  390 

Australia 390 

Island  Groups 396 

PART   VI 

Review  op  United  States  and  Comparison 
with  Other  Countries     . 

Appendix     .         .         .         .      -  . 

References  to  Books  and  Articles 
Tables  of  Area,  Population,  etc.  . 

Index  


s 

.  400 

.  415 
.  415 
.  424 

.  433 


LIST   OF   MAPS 


COLORED   MAPS 


FACING   PAGE 


1.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres  .  1 

2.  Mercator  Chart  of  the  World    ...  1 
9.    North  America,  Political  Map  ...  4 

10.  North  America,  Physical  Map  ...  4 
38.    Countries  claiming  the  Central  Part  of 

North  America  in  1760          ...  24 

40.  United  States.  Political  Map     ...  26 

41.  United  States,  Physical  Map  ...  27 
45.  New  England,  Political  Map  .  .  .'31 
64.  Middle  Atlantic  States,  Political  Map  .  48 
89.    Map  to  show  the  Location  of  New  York 

City,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore         .  66 

94.   Southern  States,  Political  Map          .         .  71 

125.  Central  States,  Political  Map  ...  92 
160.  Western  States,  Political  Map  .  .  .118 
199.  Alaska,  Political  Map  .  .  .  .149 
205.   West  Indies  with  Special  Map  of  Cuba 

and  Porto  Rico,  Political  Map  .  .  152 
214.   United   States'  Dependencies  in   Pacific, 

Political  Map 158 

219.  Dominion  of  Canada,  Political  Map  .  161 
232.   Mexico   and   Central   America,   Political 

Map 171 

265.  Forest  Map  of  the  United  States  .  .187 
303.   Mean   Annual    Rainfall    of    the    United 

States 214 


FIGURE                                                                                                            FACTNG  PAGE 

325.  Distribution  of  Animal  Regions  of  World  231 

326.  Races  of  Man 231 

333.  South  America,  Political  Map  .        .        .  236 

334.  South  America,  Physical  Map  .         .        .  236 

358.  Europe,  Political  Map       ....  257 

359.  Europe,  Physical  Map  ....  257 
366.   British  Isles,  Political  Map        .         .        .  263 

381.   The  British  Empire 275 

390.    Western  Europe,  Political  Map         .        .  283 

416.  Central  Europe,  Political  Map          .        .  308 

417.  Possessions  of  United  States,  German}', 

France,  and  The  Netherlands      .         .  308 

455.  Asia,  Political  Map   .         .'       .        .         .311 

456.  Asia,  Physical  Map  .....  341 
465.   Holy  Land,  Political  Map          .        .        .  348 

496.  Africa,  Political  Map         .         .        .        .373 

497.  Africa,  Physical  Map         ....  373 

518.  Australia  and  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  Po- 

litical Map 390 

519.  Australia    and    Islands    of    the    Pacific, 

Physical  Map 390 

533.  Distribution  of  People  in  the  World  .  400 
563.   Transportation    Routes    and    Telegraph 

Lines 412 


RELIEF   MAPS 


FUTURE 

PAGE 

FN :  I"  It 

E 

11. 

North  America 

5 

161. 

Western  States 

18. 

Great  Ice  Sheet  in  the  United  States 

8 

335. 

South  America 

42. 

United  States 

27 

360. 

Europe. 

46. 

New  England 

31 

457. 

Asia    . 

65. 

Middle  Atlantic  Stales 

48 

495. 

Africa 

95. 

Southern  States          .... 

71 

520. 

Australia    . 

126. 

Central  States    ..... 

92 

PAGE 

118 
237 
258 
341 
372 
391 


LIST   OF  MAPS 


CITY   MAPS 


II'.IKIS  I'AGE 

Gl.   Boston,  Providence,  Portland,  and  Wor- 
cester     .         .         .         .         .         .         .11 

86.    Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Albany         .         .       64 

■Si).   New  York.  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore 

{Colored)  ....      facing       66 

92.   Baltimore,    Washington,    and    Philadel- 
phia       .......       08 

1 16.   New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Birmingham,  and 

Atlanta 84 

150.   Chicago  and  Milwaukee    ....     109 


154.   Detroit,    Toledo,    Cleveland,    Cincinnati, 

and  Pittsburg 112 

157.    St.   Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,   Minne- 
apolis, and  St.  Paul        .         .         .         .114 
187.    San    Francisco,    Portland,    Tacoma,    and 

Seattle 138 

228.  Montreal  and  Quebec  .  .  .  .108 
357.  London  arid  Liverpool  ....  271 
304.  Paris  and  Surrounding  Country  .  .  287 
425.    Berlin  and  Vicinity   .         .         .         .         .315 


MAPS    ILLUSTRATING    CLIMATE 


VIHURE 

285.  The  Zones 

293.  Wind  Belts  of  Earth  .... 

204.  Wind  Belts  in  Summer     .... 

295.  Wind  Belts  in  Winter       .... 

296.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  South  America 

297.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  Northwestern  North 

America  ...... 

298.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  Africa 

299.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  the  World 

300.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  Australia 

301.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  South  America  and 

Africa,  February    ..... 

302.  Winds  and  Rainfall,  South  America  and 

Africa,  June 


'AGE 

FIGD 

200 

303 

208 

209 

304 

210 

306 

211 

309. 

310. 

211 

315 

212 

213 

316 

212 

317 

318 

214 

365 

367 

214 

499 

Mean    Annual    Rainfall,    United    States 

{Colored)         ....        facing  214 

Weather  Map,  United  States     .         .         .  215 
Weather  Map,  United  States     .         .         .210 

Summer  Monsoons,  India           .         .         .  217 

Winter  Monsoons,  India    ....  218 
Isothermal     Chart,     United     States,    for 

January 224 

Isothermal  Chart,  United  States,  for  July  224 

Isothermal  Chart  of  the  World  for  July  .  225 

Isothermal  Chart  of  the  World  for  January  226 

Rainfall  Map  of  Europe     ....  262 

Rainfall  Map  of  British  Isles    .         .         .  264 

Influence  of  Climate  on  Vegetation,  Africa  374 


PRODUCT   MAPS 


Flftl'R 

246. 

248. 
249. 
251. 
253. 
256. 
257. 
25S. 
265. 

207. 
208. 

271. 
274. 


2S0. 
281. 


Distribution  of  Population,  United  States, 
1900 

Distribution  of  Cities,  United  States 
Corn  Production,  United  States 
Wheat  Regions,  United  States  . 
Cotton-producing  States,  United  States 
Tobacco-producing  States,  United  States 
Fruitgrowing  Region,  United  States 
Irrigation  in  United  States 
Forest  Map,  United  States  {Colored) 

facing 
Distribution  of  Fish,  North  America 
Distribution    of   Coal   and   Iron,    United 

States     ....... 

Mineral  Regions,  United  States 
Manufacturing  Districts,  United  States 
Navigable  Interior  Water  Routes,  United 

States      

Railroads  of  United  States 

Trunk   Line    Railroads,    Eastern    United 

States     


181 
182 
182 
183 
184 
185 
185 
186 

187 
188 

189 
190 

191 

192 

103 

194 


Fir.  u  p.i 

283. 
362. 

371. 
535. 

536. 
538. 
540. 
541. 
543. 

544. 
546. 
548. 
550. 


553. 
555. 

557. 
559. 


Growth  of  Territory  of  United  States 
Coal  Fields  of  Europe 
Coal  Distribution  in  British  Isles 
Geographic       Distribution      of       Indiai 

Corn        ...... 

Geographic  Distribution  of  Wheat  . 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Sugar     . 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Rice 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Coffee    . 
Geographic     Distribution     of     Tea     am 

Cocoa      ...... 

Geographic  Distribution  of  Sheep     . 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Cotton   . 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Silk 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Coal 
Geographic  Distribution  of   Rubber  and 

Petroleum       ..... 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Iron  Ores 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Gold  Ores 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Silver  Ores 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Manufactures 


PAGK 

197 
259 

207 

401 
402 
4(12 
403 
403 

404 
404 
405 
400 
400 

407 
407 
408 
409 
409 


XIV 


LIST   OF  MAPS 


POPULATION   MAPS 


43.  Distribution    of    Population     in     United 

States  in  1790 

44.  Density  of  Population  in  North  America 
342.  Density  of  Population  in  South  America 
364.    Density  of  Population  of  Europe 


PAIlfi 

FISURK 

462. 

28 

502. 

28 

524. 

242 

533. 

261 

Density  of  Population  of  Asia  .         .         .  346 

Density  of  Population  of  Africa        .         .  376 

Density  of  Population  of  Australia  .         .  394 
Distribution    of    People    in    the    World 

(Colored)        .  . 400 


OTHER    MAPS 


66.  The  Fall  Line 

80.  The  Erie  Canal  . 

113.  Cotton  Manufacturing  in  the  South 

2S7.  The  Globe,  with  Circles  of  Latitude 

288.  The  Earth,  with  Meridians 

289.  The  Northern  Hemisphere 

290.  Standard  Time,  United  States  . 


page 

FIGURE 

PAGE 

.      49 

312. 

Ocean  Currents  of  the  World    . 

.    220 

.       60 

313. 

Ocean  Currents  of  the  North  Atlantic 

.     221 

.      82 

332. 

Religions  of  the  World 

.     234 

.     202 

363. 

The  Ice  Sheet  of  Europe   . 

.     260 

203 

383. 

Portion   of    The  Netherlands  below 

Sea 

204 

.     277 

205 

505. 

The  Lower  Nile         .... 

.     379 

CP  NORTH  g 


POLE  Oe 


FIG.  1. 

The  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres. 


PART  I.     NORTH   AMERICA 


I.   The  Story  of  our  Continent 

There  are  a  hundred  and  twenty-five 
million  persons  in  North  America  at  the  pres- 
Our  continent  ent  time,  although  a  century 
not  always  as  ago  there  were  scarcely  one 
it  now  is  tenth   0f    that    number.     This 

wonderful  growth  has  been  largely  due  to 
the  valuable  mineral  products  of  the  earth  ; 
to  the  soil  and  climate,  which 
have  allowed  the  forests  and 
the  many  different  kinds  of 
plants  and  animals  to  thrive; 
and  to  the  rivers,  waterfalls, 
lakes,  and  harbors,  which 
have  made  manufacturing 
and  shipping    easy. 

Yet  these  valuable  things 
were  not  always  here,  as  we 
now  find  them.  Each  has 
had  a  long  history.  For,  as 
it  takes  time  to  build  a  house, 
and  to  prepare  the  boards 
from  trees,  the  nails  from 
iron  ore,  and  the  bricks  from 
clay,  so  it  takes  time  for  the 
formation  of  minerals  and 
rocks,  and  for  the  building  of  a  continent. 
In  fact,  millions  of  years  have  been  re- 
quired for  all  that  work. 

The  story  of  the  growth  of  North  Amer- 
Where  the  *ca  ^as  ^een  learned  by  a  care- 
story  of  its  ful  study  of  the  rocks  ;  and, 
growth  has  although  many  questions  may 
been  learned       be   asked   that  no    maQ    ig    yet 

able  to  answer,  we  are  prepared  to  tell  a 
part  of  that  story. 

At  one  time  the  earth  was  probably  a 


Its  birth 


white-hot  sphere,  like  the  sun,  but  in  time 
the  outside  cooled  to  a  crust 
of  solid  rock.  The  interior, 
still  heated,  continued  to  shrink  and  grow 
smaller,  as  most  substances  do  when  cool- 
ing. This  caused  the  solid  crust  to  settle 
and  wrinkle,  much  as  the  skin  of  an  apple 
wrinkles  when  the  fruit  is  drying.  Water 
collected  in  the  lower  portions,  making  the 


Fig. 


A  part  of  the  relief  map  of  North  America  showing  the  West  Indian 
chain  of  mountains  rising  from  the  bed  of  the  sea. 

oceans,  while  the  higher  portions  formed 
dry  land.  Thus  North  America  and  the 
other  continents  were  born. 

In  its  early  history  the  central  part  of  the 
continent  was  still  a  broad  sea,  but  the 
eastern  and  western  parts  its  early 
doubtless  resembled  the  West  history 
Indies  of  to-day,  which  you  will  find  on  the 
map  of  North  America  (Fig.  10).  Those 
islands  are  the  highest  parts  of  a  great 
mountain  chain.    They  seem  to  be  separated 


NORTH  AMERICA 


merely  because  the  ridges  upon  which  they 
rest  do  not  extend  above  the  water  (Fig.  3). 


Fig.  4.  —  Trunks  of  trees,  in  the  solid  rock,  standing 
where  they  grew  when  these  rocks  were  being  de- 
posited as  sediment  in  the  Coal  Period. 

Although  in  early  times  North  America 

consisted   of  mountain   crests  that   formed 

chains  of  islands,  many  changes 

Its  later  life        „  ,,  ,        T       ,,  r 

followed.     In   the    course    of 

ages,  the  mountains  rose  higher,  forming  a 
continuous  range  in  the  East,  and  several 
ranges  in  the  West.  Then  the  plains  be- 
tween the  mountains  were  slowly  raised 
above  the  ocean,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
continent  came  into  view. 

Ages  after  the  beginning,  a  pe- 
riod arrived  when  the  climate  was 
The  Coal  much  warmer  in  the 

Period  northern    part    of 

North  America  than  now,  and  the 
rains  were  far  heavier.  During 
that  period  our  coal  was  formed 
out  of  the  remains  of  plants. 

There  is  a  good  proof  that  the 
coal  used  in  our  stoves   and  fur- 

1.   What  coal         mlCeS    is    made     °f 

is  made  of,  plant  remains, 
with  proof  Roots  Qf  plantg  may 

still  be  seen  in  the  old  soil,  now 
changed  to  rock,  that  lies  beneath 
the  coal  beds  ;  and  stems  of  plants, 
and  even  trunks  of  trees  (Fig.  4) 
changed  to  coal,  are  found  in  the  coal  beds 


even  with  the  naked  eye,  one  can  see  that 
coal  is  made  of  bits  of  plants  pressed  closely 
together.  Sometimes  the  full  form  of  a 
fern  or  leaf,  called  a  fossil,  may  be  seen 
(Fig.  5). 

As  the  crust  of  the  earth  slowly  shrank 
and    wrinkled,    the   land    was    raised    and 
lowered.       Even     now    it    is  2   Howcoal 
slowly  moving  in  some  places,  beds  were 
and  it  was  doing  the  same  dur-  formed 
ing  the  Coal  Period.     At  that  time  parts  of 
the  old  sea  bottom  were  raised  above   the 
water,  forming  extensive  plains  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  North  America.     Those  plains 
were    so    low  and    level  that  vast  swamps 
were  produced  (Fig.   6),  on  which  a  rank 
vegetation  grew,  as  in  a  tropical  jungle. 

The  swamps  were,  no  doubt,  somewhat 
like  those  which  may  now  be  seen  in  many 
parts  of  the  earth.  Possibly  the  vegetation 
grew  far  more  thickly  than  now,  perhaps 
even  more  thickly  than  it  now  grows  in  the 
forests  of  the  Amazon  or  the  everglades  of 
Florida.  The  plants  of  the  Coal  Period 
were  different  from  those  of  the  present 
(Fig.  7);  indeed,  none  of  the  many  kinds 
of  trees  that  we  now  know  grew  in  those 
ancient  forests. 


Fig.  5. 


Besides,   with   a   microscope,   or    at    times 


The  print  of  a  fern  in  a  rock  that  was  formed  during  the 
Coal  Period. 

After   the   plants    had   grown    in   those 
swamps  for  hundreds  of   years,  the  plains 


THE  STORY  OF  OUJt    CONTINENT 


sank  beneath  the  sea,  and  layers  of  mud, 
sand,  and  gravel  collected  over  them. 
These  have  since  been  hardened  into  layers 
of  rock,  and  the  vegetation  beneath  them  has 
been  changed  into  coal. 
After  another  long  period  the 
sea  bottom  was  raised  once 
more,  and  dense  swamp  veg- 
etation again  grew;  but  these 
plants  had  their  roots  in  the 
ocean  mud  that  had  buried 
the  earlier  swamp.  After 
many  more  years  the  plains 
again  sank,  and  the  swamp 
vegetation  was  covered  over, 
as  before.  This  rising  and 
sinking  of  the  land  continued 
for  ages,  one  set  of  layers  of 
mud,  sand,  gravel,  and  veg- 
etation being  covered  up  by 
another,  until  many  such  sets 


water,  making  a  woody  matting  which  did 
not  fully   decay,  because   the  3.  The  different 
water  prevented  air  from  reach-  kinds  of  coal 
ing  it.      If  it  could  then  have  been  dug  up 


were    formed,    producing    many 
coal. 

The  vegetation  gathered  in  some  of  the 
swamps  to  a  depth  of  many  feet ;  but, 
when  this  was  covered  by  the  layers  of 
mud,  sand,  and  gravel,  it  was  pressed  more 
tightly  together.  As  the  number  of  these 
layers  increased,  the  pressure  became  very 
great,  and  thus  the  vegetable  matter  was 
pressed  so  closely  together  that  it  made 
beds  of  coal.     These  are  usually  only  two 


Fig.  0.  —  A  view  showing  how  the  forests  of  the  Coal  Period  prohahly  looked. 

beds    of 


Fig.  7.  —  Trees  of  the  present  day  in  a  swamp  in  Arkansas.    Notice  how  ver 
different  these  trees  are  from  those  in  the  swamp  of  the  Coal  Period  (Fig.  ijj 

or  three  feet  thick,  but  some  are  as  much 
as  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  thickness. 

When  the  plants  died,  they  fell  into  the 


and  dried,  it  would  have  made  good  fuel. 
Indeed,  in  Ireland,  Norway,  and  other  cool, 
moist  lands,  it  is  now  the  custom  to  dig 
such  woody  matter  out  of  the  swamps  and 
dry  it  for  burning  (Fig.  8).  Such  fuel, 
called  peat,  is  much  used  for  cooking  and 
heating.  Some  of  the  poorer  coals,  known 
as  lignite,  are  little  more  than  peat  beds 
partly  changed  to  mineral  coal. 

Other  beds,  having  far  more  pressure 
upon  them,  have  been  changed  to  harder 
coal.  One  kind  of  coal, 
called  anthracite,  found  in 
the  mountains  of  Pennsyl- 
vania,  has  been  so  greatly 
changed  that  it  is  as  hard 
as  some  rocks,  and  is 
known  as  hard  coal.  But 
most  of  the  coal,  like  that 
of  western  Pennsylvania  and 
the  Central  States,  —  al- 
though a  real  mineral,  and 
harder  than  lignite,  —  is  not 
so  hard  as  anthracite.  This 
is  called  soft,  or  bituminous,  coal. 

All  this  time,  and  at  other  periods  during 
the  formation  of  the  continent,  iron,  copper, 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  deposit  of  gold,  silver,    building   stones, 
other  minerals    an(j  ot]_ler  mineral    substances 


that  we  use  every  day,  were  also  slowly 
being  made.  Many  of  them,  such  as  gold, 
silver,  and  copper  ores,  were  deposited  in 
cracks  in  the  mountain  rock.  They  were 
brought  and  left  there  by  hot  water,  form- 
ing what  are  called  mineral  veins.  Iron  ore 
also  has  been  deposited  in  beds  and  veins, 
though  not  always  by  hot  water. 


Fig.  8. 


water,  and  thus  lowered  so  that  they  are 
now  neither  very  high  nor  very  rugged. 
Still,  they  have  some  peaks  which  reach 
more  than  a  mile  above  sea  level. 

It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  it  is  not  a 
mile  from  the  base   to  the  summit  of  such  moun- 
tains ;  for  mountains  usually  rest  upon  a  platform,  or 
table-land.     The  table-land,  or  plateau,  upon  which 
the  Appalachians  rest,  for  instance,  is  over  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  above  sea  level.     When  we  say  that  the 
mountains  are  a  mile  high,  therefore,  we  mean  that 
their  summit  is  a  mile  above  the 
level  of  the  ocean,  which  may  be 
many  miles  from  the  mountain  base. 

The  western  mountains,  or 
Cordillera,  are  younger   and 
therefore  less  (2)  ^  Cor_ 
worn  down  than  auiera  and 

the      Appalachi-   surrounding 

F,  i  ■     plateaus 
or    this 

reason  they  are  much  more 
rugged,  with  many  deep 
canyons  and  lofty  peaks, 
some  of  which  rise  three  miles 
and  more  above  sea  level. 
This  includes  the  broad  plat- 
eau at  their  base,  which  it- 
self is  more  than  a  mile  in 
height,  or  as  high  as  the 
mountain  peaks  of  the  East. 
Some  of  these  mountains  are 

-A  scene  in  Ireland,  showing  the  digging  of  peat  from  the  bogs.    It    still    growing,    and    now   and 
es  out  of    the    bog  wet,   and  is  then  wheeled  away  and   spread  out    then  an  earthquake  is  caused 


in  the  sun  to  dry. 

During  the  millions  of  years  that  the  con- 
Other  great  tinent  was  slowly  growing, 
changes  mountain  systems  and  plateaus 

1.  Formation  of  were  forming  in  both  the  East 

mountains  and  ,     ,,         ,TT  ri-., 

plateaus  ano-   the    West.      Ihese   were 

(1)  Appala-        caused  by    the  shrinking    and 
chian  Moun-       wrinkling  of  the  earth's  crust. 

tains  and  m,  ,       -,  ,    . 

surrounding         They  were   to  have  a  great  ln" 

piateaus  fluence  upon  our  climate,  and 

therefore  upon  our  crops,  our  animals,  and 
ourselves. 

The  eastern  mountains,  called  the  Appa- 
lachians (Fig.  10),  were  raised  above  the 
sea  in  early  ages.  Since  then  they  have 
been  slowly  worn   away   by   weather  and 


as  the  mountain  rocks   snap 
and  move  under  the  great  strain. 

While  the  Appalachians  and  Cordillera  have  been 

caused  by  the  shrinking  and  wrinkling  of  the  earth's 

crust,  hundreds  of  mountain  peaks  , 

■     ,,      ,r    !  i  i  c  j i  ■  (8)    Volcanoes 

in  the  West  have  been  formed  in  a 

different  way.  They  are  called  volcanoes,  and  are 
built  of  molten  rock,  or  lain,  that  has  been  forced 
to  the  surface  from  within  the  earth.  Though  no 
longer  active,  these  peaks  are  known  to  be  volcanoes 
because  of  their  cone  shape  ;  the  hollows,  or  craters, 
in  their  tops;  and  the  lava  and  volcanic  ash,  or 
blown-up  lava,  of  which  they  are  made. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles  of  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States  are  covered  by 
lava.  Much  of  the  soil  produced  by  the  decay  of  the 
lava  is  very  fertile,  and  that  is  one  of  the  chief  rea- 
sons why  the  central  and  eastern  part  of  the  state  of 


itudc    Went  H'O1  fp.ni    (.Jn-einviuh 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


THE  STORY  OF  OUR   CONTINENT 


Fig.  11.  —  Relief  map  of  North  America. 


Washington,  which   is   largely  covered    with   such 
a  soil,  has  become  noted  for  wheat. 

From  the  mountain  systems  of  the  East 

2.   Formation  of   and     West<     the      land     sloPeS 

the  trough  be-     gently  toward  the  Mississippi 
tweentheAppa-  River  (fig.  14).    These  slopes 

lacnians  and  the    .  i  •     ,      r  i 

Cordillera  form  a  kind  ot  trough,  through 


the  lowest  part  of  which  this  river  flows. 
It  was  by  the  uplift  of  the  mountains  on  its 
two  sides  that  this  broad  trough  was  formed. 
Measure  its  width  on  the  map  of  the  United 
States  (Fig.  41). 

Like  the  mountains,  this  extensive  low- 
land,  called    the  plains  of  the   31ississippi 


6 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Valley  (Fig.  15),  has  had  a  long  history. 
In  the  early  ages  so  much  of  it  was  under 
(l)  its  earlier  water  that  a  sea  extended  from 
history  what  is  now  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 

all  the  way  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.     In  the 


__>*^<{f 

rtuL    * 

BR ' 

SHE       ''»•'"  .\ 

b£*;:j 

Bfe.    w*:"  Th 

^^ 

•y  "**&l  jyjBfet 

3P 

Ir^ .  :§S>  -. 

Kutf^'-vS 

i!I^Ka4fiSk          ¥' 

_^fej|-' 

r  ■'  .   EX 

dpn  ^BkBP 

■*jfy? 

y^^«u 

k^ 

*^%^': 

lr^%it 

Fig.  12.- 


■  A  view  in  the  Western  Cordillera  showing  the  rugged  mountains 
of  that  region. 


rock  layers  that  lie  beneath  the  soil  of  the 
lowland  are  found  many  remains,  or  fossils 
(Fig.  16),  of  shells,  corals,  and  fish  that 
lived  in  this  ancient  sea.  Upon  dying  and 
dropping  to  the  bottom,  these  animals  were 
buried  in  the  beds  of  sand, 
clay,  and  gravel  that  have 
since  been  hardened  into  rock. 
After  a  time  most  of  this 
ancient  sea  bottom  was  raised 

(2)  How  it  t0  form  dl7  land> 

reached  its  although   a    part 

present  form        of   it  _  f  rom  the 

Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  southern 
part  of  Illinois  —  remained 
under  water  for  a  long  time 
afterward.  Into  this  sea  the 
Mississippi  discharged  its 
floods,  and  dropped  its  load 
of  sediment,  swept  from  the 
plains  and  distant  mountains. 


As  time  went  on,  the  river  sediment  en- 
tirely filled  up  this  sea,  and  formed  deltas 
and  flood  plains  which  —  raised  by  a  slight 
uplift  —  are  among  the  most  fertile  lands 
of  our  country.  And  now  the  river  seems 
bent  on  filling  up  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  itself.  Already  it  has 
built  its  delta  far  out  into  the 
Gulf,  as  you  can  see. 

One  might  not  at  first  think 
that  it  made  much  difference 

how    the    moun- 

i      ,  The  great  im- 

tains    and     low-  „„,+  *     „* 
portance  of 

lands     happened  this  arrange- 
to  be  placed  dur-  rnent  of  moun- 

ine  the  formation  tains  and 
j,  . .         ,      lowlands 

ot  our  continent; 

but  it  is,  in  fact,  a  matter  of 

the  greatest  importance. 

The  Mississippi  Valley  has 

become    the    home   of    many 

millions   of  people ;    and   the 

climate   in   whicli    they   live, 

together  with  the  crops  that 

they  raise,  depend  in  large  part 

on  the  direction  and   height 

of  the  mountain  systems. 

The  Cordilleran  Highland,  for  instance, 

has  a  great  influence  on  the  rainfall  in  this 

valley.     In  all  but  the  southern  part  of  the 

Mississippi  Valley,  the  winds  blow  much 

more  often  from  the  west  than  from  any  other 


Fig.  13.- 


Oopyrighl,  1906,  by  A.  II.  Barnes. 

Mount  Rainier,  in  Washington,  one  of  the  volcanic  cones  of 
the  West. 


THE  STORT  OF  OUR  CONTINENT 


direction.  Coming  from  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
well  laden  with  moisture,  these  winds  are 
forced  to  drop  more  and  more  of  it  as  they 


carry  their  warmth  and  moisture  so  far 
north.  Neither  could  the  cold  north  winds 
reach  so  far  south.     Perhaps  you  can  tell 


Fig.  14.  —  A  section  across  the  central  part  of  the  United  States  to  show  the  relief  and  the  principal  slopes. 


pass  over  one  lofty  mountain  range  after 
another.  When  they  finally  descend  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  therefore,  they 
have  little  dampness  left.  This  leaves  the 
plains  and  plateaus  of  the 
Northwest  dry,  or  arid. 

The  Appalachians,  heing 
much  lower,  allow  winds  to 
carry  more  moisture  over 
them.  Since  there  are  no 
mountains  on  the  south, 
winds  from  that  direction 
can  bring  in  vapor  freely. 
Winds  do,  now  and  then, 
blow  from  the  Atlantic  and  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  for  that  reason  the  eastern, 
central,  and  southern  portions  of  the  great 
valley  are  well  watered. 


some  of  the  changes  that  would  follow  if 
there  were  such  mountains. 

Long   after   the  coal  beds   were  formed, 
and  the  great  highlands  and  valleys  were 


Fig.  15.  —  A  wheat  farm  on  the  level  plu 


tral  United  States 


Ice  Age 

1.   The  vast 
sheet  of  ice, 


Fio.  16.- 


■Shells  or  fossils  in  the  rock  that  was  deposited  in  the  ancient 
sea  that  once  covered  central  United  States. 


How  different  the  climate  would  be  if  a 
lofty  system  of  mountains  extended  east 
and  west  across  the  Mississippi  Valley  ! 
Then   the   warm   south    winds    could   not 


made,  there   came   another  very  important 

event    in    the    preparation    of   T 

this   continent   for  our   home. 

It  became  far  colder  than  it 
now  is,  just  as  dur- 
ing the  Coal  Period  orgIacier 
the  climate  was  much  warmer. 
Indeed,  it  became  so  cold  that  a 
sheet  of  ice,  or  glacier,  was  formed, 
so  great  that  it  covered  a  large 
part  of  northern  North  America. 
No  one  is  able  to  say  why  it  came, 
or  why  it  went  away ;  but  all 
who  have  studied  the  subject  are 
certain  that  it  was  here,  and 
that  it  remained  even  thousands 
of  years  before  melting  away. 

An  ice  sheet  similar  to  that 
ancient  one  may  still  be  seen  in 
Greenland    (Fig-.    „    .    .   ., 

v       °      2.   A  similar 
17).       Except  along    glacier  now  in 
the    very    coast,    the    Greenland 

island  of  Greenland  is  now 
buried  beneath  a  glacier  which  is  as  large 
as  fifteen  states  the  size  of  New  York 
State. 


immense 


8 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  Greenland  glacier  has  been  made 
of  snow  that  has  fallen  in  immense  quan- 
tities on  the  high  interior.  You  know 
that  you  can  change  a  snowball  into  ice 
by  pressing  it  in  your  hands.  In  a  similar 
way,  the  pressure  of  the  great 
mass  of  snow  in  Greenland  has 
changed  the  lower  layers  into 
ice.  As  the  snow  collects  and 
becomes  ice,  it  spreads  out,  or 
flows,  from  the  interior  toward 
the  coast,  much  as  a  piece  of 
wax  may  spread  if  a  weight  is 
placed  upon  it.  Moving  to- 
ward the  sea,  this  glacier  drags 
away  the  soil,  tears  off  frag- 
ments of  the  rock,  and  scours 
the  rock  "layers,  as  if  it  were  a 
mighty  sandpaper.  The  move- 
ment is  very  slow,  yet  the  ice  is 
always  pushing  onward  to  the 
sea,  where  enormous  icebergs 
are  constantly  breaking  off  and  floating 
away  (Fig.  17). 

The  glacier  which  formerly 

3.   Extent  of  ,  °  o  J 

the  Great  spread  over  a  part  of  our  con- 

Giacier  tinent  was   likewise  made  of 


snow  that  had  changed  to  ice.  It  covered 
most  of  the  northeastern  part  of  North 
America,  reaching  as  far  south  as  New 
York  City  and  the  Ohio  River;  but  as 
you    can    see    from    the    map    (Fig.    18), 


Fig.  17.  —  A  view  of  a  part  of  the  great  ice  sheet  that  covers  Greenland. 
Here  it  reaches  the  sea  and  discharges  huge  icebergs  into  it. 


it  did  not  reach  as  far  south  in  the  North- 
west. 

Being  over  a  mile  deep  in  its  thickest 
part,  and  therefore  very  heavy,  4  Changes1:hat 
the  glacier  swept  away  the  soil  the  glacier  made 


The  Great   Ice   Sheet 


Model  by  E.  E.  IloweU. 
Fig.  18.  —  A  map  to  show  the  extent  of  the  Great  Ice  Sheet  in  the  United  States  during  the  Great  Ice  Age. 


THE  STORY  OF  OCR    CONTINENT 


9 


that  covered  the  land.  Not  only  did  it  do 
this,  but,  by  the  help  of  rock  fragments 
held  fast  in  its  bottom,  it  scraped  off  pieces 
of  the  solid  rock  and  carried  them  forward. 
As  it  slowly  moved  over  the  surface,  it  also 
ground  bowlders  and  pebbles  together,  and 
rubbed  them  against  the 
solid  rock,  scratching 
and  grooving  it  (Fig. 
19).  Scratches  thus 
made  may  still  be  seen 
pointing  northward, 
toward  the  place  from 
which  the  glacier  moved. 

The  rock  and  soil  that 
the  glacier  carried  along 
were  finally  left  in  vari- 
ous places.  Great  heaps 
of  clay  and  gravel,  called  moraines  (Fig. 
20),  were  deposited  along  the  outer  margin, 
where  the  ice  melted  because  of  the  warmer 
climate  there.  The  moraine  hills,  or  hum- 
mocks, are  sometimes  one  or  two  hundred 
feet  high. 

After  standing  for  a  while,  and  building  a 
moraine  in  one  place,  the  glacier  front 
sometimes  ad- 
vanced to  the 
south,  or  per- 
haps melted 
away  toward 
the  north;  and 
each  time  that 
it  halted  it 
built  up  new 
moraines 
along  its  front. 
During  the 
thousands  of 
years  that  the 
Great     Ice 

Sheet  lasted,  it  carried  millions  of  tons  of 
clay  and  rock  from  one  place  to  another, 
and  built  many  low  moraine  hills. 

The  work  of  rasping,  digging,  carrying, 
and  dumping  which  was  done  by  the  glacier 
has  caused  it  to  be  likened  to  a  combined 
file,  plow,  and  dump  cart  of  enormous  size. 


and    in     New 


Fig.  V.K  —  Grooves  on  the  rock,  made  by  tbe  Great 
lee  Sheet  as  it  dragged  bowlders  along  with  it. 


It  was  this  glacier  which  caused  the 
great  number  of  lakes  and  ponds  in  the 
northeastern     part     of    North   c    _„    .     ... 

-.,.  5.   Effects  of  the 

America.     Minnesota  alone  is  glacier's  work    ' 
said    to    have    ten    thousand,    (1)  Upon  our 
England    also   lakes 

there  are  many  thou- 
sands (Figs.  21  and 
88).  Most  of  the  states 
outside  of  the  region 
covered  by  the  ice  sheet 
have  very  few  lakes. 

The  manner  in  which  these 
lakes  were  formed  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  load  of  clay  and 
bowlders,  or  drift,  as  it  is 
called,  was  not  dumped 
evenly  over  the  land.  There 
were  hollows  and  ridges  left,  and  after  the  ice 
melted,  water  filled  the  hollows,  forming  ponds 
and  lakes.  In  other  cases  the  drift  partly  filled 
valleys  and  thus  built  dams,  behind  which  ponds 
and  lakes  collected.  Still  a  third  way  in  which  lake 
basins  were  formed,  was  by  the  glacier  digging,  or 
plowing,  directly  into  the  rock. 

Even  our  Great  Lakes  did  not  exist  before  the 
coming  of  the  glacier.     Their  basins  occupy  broad 

river  valleys 
which  have  been 
blocked  by  dams 
of  drift,  and 
deepened  by  the 
plowing  of  the 
Great  Ice  Sheet. 


20.  — Hil 


ravel  left  by  the  Great  lee  Sheet  where  its  front 
stood  for  a  while. 


The  glacier 
had  an  im- 
portant influ- 
ence upon  our 
manufactur- 
ing, also.  The 
deposit  of  drift 
in  valleys 
often  so  filled  them  that,  after  (2)  upon  our 
the  ice  was  gone,  the  streams  manufacturing 
were  forced  to  seek  new  courses.  These 
courses  sometimes  lay  down  steep  slopes,  or 
across  buried  ledges,  over  which  the  water 
now  tumbles  in  many  rapids  and  falls  (Fig. 
22).     Even  the  great  cataract  of  Niagara 


10 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  21.  —  Lake  Winnipesaukee, 


in  New  Hampshire,  one  of  the  many  lakes  of  New  Euj 
made  by  the  Great  Ice  Sheet. 


laud  caused  by  the  deposits 


(Fig.  68)  was  caused  in  this  way,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  many  of  the  falls  and  rapids 
of  hilly  New  England  and  New  York.    The 


Flo.  22.- 


■  Enfield  Falls,  near  Ithaca,  New  York.     One  of  the  many 
waterfalls  caused  by  the  Great  Ice  Sheet. 


many  lakes  act  as  storehouses  to. keep  the 
noisy  falls  and  rapids  well  supplied  with 
water.  In  this  way  New  England  and  New 
York  came  to  have  the  abun- 
dant water  power  which  has 
helped  to  make  them  impor- 
tant manufacturing  centers. 
In  sections  of  our  country 
not  reached  by  the  glacier, 
rapids  and  falls  are  much 
less  common.  Did  the  glacier 
cover  the  land  on  which  you 
live?     (See  Fig.  18.) 

A  third  important  influence 
of  the  glacier  was  upon  the 
soil,  and   there-   (3)  upon  our 

fore      upon      our  farming 

farming.  In  most  parts  of 
the  country  the  soil  has  been 
made  by  the  decay  of  rock  ; 
but  in  the  region  which  the 
glacier  covered,  the  decayed 
rock  was  swept  away,  and 
drift  brought  by  the  glacier 
was  left  in  its  place.  This 
soil  was  made  by  the  grind- 
ing of  rocks  together,  much 
as  flour  is  made  by  grinding 
wheat ;  in  fact,  glacier  soil  is 
sometimes  called  rock  flour. 
In  some  places  the   laj'er  of 


THE  STORY  OF  OCR    CONTINENT 


11 


drift  that  the  glacier  left  is  several  hundred 
feet  deep. 

The  bits  of  ground-up  rock  left  by  the  glacier  have 
had  an  important  effect  upon  the  soil.     Since  they 
were  gathered  from  many  places,  and  from  many 
different  kinds  of  rock,  they  some- 
times cause  a  fertile  soil  in  places 
where  the  decay  of  the  rocks  would 
naturally  have  formed  a  sterile  soil. 
The  constant  rusting,  or  decaying, 
of  these  rock  fragments  is  also  of 
use   in    keeping  the   soil   supplied 
with  plant  food. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  some  places 
the  glacier  failed  to  grind  the  rock 
into  tiny  bits.  Instead  of  that,  it 
left  many  pebbles,  and  even  large 
bowlders,  to  cover  the  ground 'and 
hinder  the  farmer  (Fig.  23).  In 
other  places,  the  great  quantities  of 
water  supplied  by  the  melting  ice 
washed  away  much  of  the  rock  flour. 
This  left  extensive  sand  and  gravel 
plains  that  are  by  no  means  fertile. 


become  evident.  For  instance,  the  land 
along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  is  sinking  at 
the  rate  of  about  two  feet  a  century,  while 
that  around  Hudson  Bay  is  rising. 

Some  of  the  recent  changes  in  the  level 


Fig.  23. —  A  view  in  New  England  where  tbe  jrliieier  left  great  numbers 
nf  bowlders  in  the  soil,  from  which  these  stone  walls  have  been  made. 


In  studying  about  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  the  formation  of  coal,  we  saw  that  the 
Formation  of  sea  bottom,  and  even  the  dry 
the  coast  line  land,  are  not  fixed  and  alwa3"S 
the  same.  On  the  contrary,  they  often 
slowly  rise  or  sink. 


of  the  land  have  had  an  important  effect. 
This   is  shown  on  our   north-   2    Effects  of 
eastern  coast,  where  the  land   sinking  of  our 
has  recently  sunk  several  hun-  northern  c°ast 
dred  feet.     By  this  sinking  the  ocean  water 
has  been  allowed  to  enter  the  valleys,  leaving 


Fig.  24.  —  A  view  iu  the  harbor  of  Sitka,  Alaska.    Here  the  land  has  been  lowered,  and  only  the  tops  of  the  hills  rise 

above  the  water,  forming  many  islands. 


Such  changes  in  the  level  of  the  land  are 
1    Recent  even  now  in  progress  in  many 

movements  of      places,  though  the   process  is 
the  land  so  sjow  that  usually  years,  and 

even  centuries,  must  pass  before  the  changes 


the  higher  land  to  form  peninsulas,  capes, 
and  islands,  while  the  valleys  have  become 
harbors,  bays,  and  straits  (Fig.  45). 

The   peninsulas    of    Labrador  and   Nova 
Scotia,  and  the  hundreds  of  islands  along 


12 


NOBTB  AMERICA 


the  northeastern  coast,  including  Newfound- 
land, have  been  formed  by  this  sinking  of 
the  land.  The  irregular  Pacific  coast,  from 
Puget  Sound  northward  (Fig.  24),  was 
caused  in  the  same  way. 

Many  good  harbors  were  made  by  this 
sinking  of  the  land,  the  best  being  where 
rivers  enter  the  sea.  When  the  land  was 
higher,  the  streams  carved  out  broad  val- 
leys; but  as  the  land  sank,  the  sea  entered, 
forming  extensive  bays  and  fine  harbors. 
In  this  way  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
was  formed ;  also  New  York,  Delaware, 
Chesapeake,    and    San    Francisco    bays,    as 


Fig.  25. 


-  A  view  on  the  level  coastal  plain  —  once  a  sea  bottom  —  which 
borders  the  coast  south  of  New  York. 


well  as  many  excellent  harbors  on  the  east 
and  west  coasts.  What  rivers  carved  out 
the  bays  mentioned?  (See  Figs.  41  and 
219). 

One  reason  for  so  few  good  harbors  along 
the  coast  of  the  Southern  States  is  that  the 
3  Effects  of  land  in  that  section  has  been 
rising  of  our  rising.  Just  off  the  coast  is  a 
southern  coast  broad  oceanbottom  plain,  called 
the  continental  shelf,  where  the  water  is 
shallow  (Figs.  11  and  95).  If  the  con- 
tinental shelf  were  raised,  it  would  form  -a 
plain. 

That  part  of  the  Southern  States  which 
borders  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  was  once  a  portion  of  this  continental 
shelf,  but  it  has  been  raised  until  it  is  now 
a   low  plain    (Fig.  25).      The  continental 


shelf  is  so  level  that  when  a  part  of  it  was 
lifted  above  the  water  there  were  few  places 
for  deep  inlets,  bays,  and  harbors.  After 
the  plain  was  raised,  however,  the  coast  was 
slightly  lowered  ;  but  the  bays  thus  formed 
are  still  shallow,  and  most  of  the  harbors 
poor.  The  Florida  peninsula  is  also  a  sea- 
bottom  that  has  been  slightly  lifted  above 
the  ocean. 

After  changing  during  millions  of  years, 
owing  to  the  rising  and  sinking  of  the  land, 
North  America  is  now  third  in   present  sjze 
size  among  the  six  continents  shape,  and 
of    the     earth.        Which    are  position  of 

larger?  Which  <™  continent 
are  smaller?  (See  Appendix, 
p.  421.)  The  continent  has 
the  form  of  a  triangle,  with 
the  broadest  portion  in  the 
north.  Draw  the  triangle. 
Compare  its  shape  with  that 
of  South  America  (Fig.  1). 
Of  Africa  (Fig.  1). 

The  northern  part  is  so 
wide  that  Alaska  extends  to 
within  fifty  miles  of  Asia,  a 
distance  so  short  that  the 
early  ancestors  of  our  Indians 
and  Eskimos  probably  first 
reached  North  America  by 
that  route.  Labrador,  the  part  of  the  con- 
tinent that  extends  farthest  east,  is  over 
two  thousand  miles  from  Europe.  On 
account  of  the  great  distance  across  the 
Atlantic,  Europeans  for  a  long  time  knew 
nothing  of  North  America.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  Norsemen  from  Scandi- 
navia visited  our  shores  nearly  five  hundred 
years  before  Columbus  discovered  the  con- 
tinent. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  North  America 
live  far  to  the  south  of  Alaska  and  Labra- 
dor, and  here  the  oceans  are  importance  of 
much  broader.  Thus  the  in-  this  position 
habited  portion  of  the  continent  is  a  long 
distance  from  Europe  on  the  east,  and  a 
still  Qfreater  distance  from  Asia  on  the  west. 
This  wide  separation  from  other  continents 


PLANTS,   ANIMALS,   AND   PEOPLES   OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


13 


has  had  great  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  people  of  North  America.  It 
helps  to  explain,  for  instance,  why  the 
Spanish  colonies  were  able  to  win  their 
independence  from  Spain,  and  the  United 
States  their  independence  from  England  ; 
for  the  distance  across  the  sea  was  too  great 
to  send  large  armies,  and  the  supplies  neces- 
sary for  their  support. 

Our  distance  from  other  continents  helps 
also  to  explain  the  growth  of  our  industries. 
At  first  the  colonies  imported  even  bricks, 
doors,  and  timber  from  Europe.  But  it 
proved  so  troublesome  and  expensive  to 
carry  such  goods  so  far,  that  our  settlers 
soon  learned  to  produce  for  themselves 
most  of  the  articles  they  needed. 

Now  that  men  have  learned  the  use  of 
steam,  the  distance  from  other  countries  is 
not  so  serious  a  drawback.  Sailing  vessels 
were  very  slow,  and  always  at  the  mere}' 
of  winds  and  storms.  Steamships,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  easily  controlled,  and  may 
go  as  far  in  one  day  as  the  old-fashioned 
sailing  vessels  traveled  in  a  week.  With 
the  use  of  steam,  therefore,  immigrants 
from  Europe  have  found  their  way  here  by 
millions;  and  trade  with  the  countries  of 
Europe,  South  America,  Asia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  world  has  rapidly  developed. 
Steam  has  made  the  ocean  an  excellent 
highway  for  reaching  distant  points.  Thus 
our  separation  from  other  continents  has 
helped  in  many  ways  to  make  us  indepen- 
dent, without  bringing  serious  disadvan- 
tages. 

1.  How  has  the  story  of  the  growth  of  our  conti- 
nent been  learned  ?  2.  Describe  the  birth  and  early 
„     .  history  of  the  continent.     3.    From 

Questions  wIiat   is   coal   made?      Give  proof. 

4.  How  have  the  coal  beds  been 
formed?  5.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  coal  and 
give  reasons  for  the  difference.  6.  What  about 
the  making  of  other  minerals  ?  7.  How  were  the 
mountains  and  plateaus  formed?  8.  What  can 
you  tell  about  the  formation  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  and  surrounding  plateaus?  9.  About 
the  formation  of  the  Cordillera  and  surrounding 
plateaus  ?  10.  How  were  the  volcanoes  formed  ? 
State   other  facts   about  them.     11.    How  was  the 


trough  formed  between  the  Appalachians  and  the 
Cordillera?  12.  Show  how  this  arrangement  of 
mountains    and   lowlands   is   of   great   importance. 

13.  Describe  the  glacier  now  found  in   Greenland. 

14.  What  was  the  extent  of  the  Great  Ice  Sheet  on 
our  continent?  10.  What  changes  did  it  make? 
16.  What  were  the  effects  of  the  glacier's  work  upon 
our  lakes?  17.  Upon  our  manufacturing?  IS.  Upon 
our  farming  ?  19.  What  have  been  some  of  the 
effects  of  the  sinking  of  our  northern  coast? 
20.  Of  the  rising  of  our  southern  coast?  21.  What 
is  the  present  size,  shape,  and  position  of  our  conti- 
nent?   22.    Explain  the  importance  of  this  position. 

1.    Make  a  collection  of  different  kinds  of  coal. 

2.  Examine  some  pieces  of  soft  coal  closely,  to  see 

if  vou  can   discover  plant  remains.    „ 

•3    V.i  <-  •  *      i     t-         •        Suggestions 

3.  Obtain  some  peat.     4.    Lxamnie 

layers  of  rock  in  your  neighborhood,  to  see  if  they 
contain  fossils.  5.  Make  a  drawing  similar  to  Figure 
14.  6.  Make  a  model  of  a  volcano  out  of  sand  or 
clay.  7.  What  becomes  of  the  Greenland  icebergs  ? 
8.  Make  a  sketch  map  showing  the  extent  of  the 
Great  American  Ice  Sheet.  9.  What  signs  of  the 
glacier,  if  any,  can  you  find  in  your  neighborhood  ? 
10.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  northeastern  coast, 
and  another  of  the  southern  coast,  to  see  how  they 
differ.  11.  How  many  days  long  is  the  voyage,  on 
a  fast  steamer,  from  New  York  to  Liverpool?  How 
many  miles  is  the  distance? 


II.    Plants,   Animals,   and   Peoples 
of  North  America 

i.    Plants  and  Animals 

One   of   the    most    important    things   to 
know  about  a  region  is  its  climate,  that  is, 
its   temperature    and   rainfall.    influence  0f 
Where    these     are    favorable,   climate  on 
plants    usually    flourish  ;    and  plants  and 
since    plants    furnish   food    to  ammals 
animals,  animal  life  thrives  wherever  vege- 
tation is  abundant.     Because  North  Amer- 
ica extends  far  north  and   south,  and  has 
lofty    mountain    ranges    and    inclosed    pla- 
teaus, it   has   many  different   kinds  of    cli- 
mate.    Therefore  it  has  a  great  variety  of 
plant  and  animal  life. 

The   northern  part   of    our  continent  is 
bitterly  cold  ;  and  over  a  vast  area  the  soil 
is  always  frozen,  except  at  the   plants  of  the 
very  surface,  where   it  thaws  Far  North 
out  for  a  few  weeks  in  summer.      On  ac- 


14 


NORTH  AMERICA 


count  of  the  frost,  trees,  such  as  we  know, 
cannot  grow  there,  for  their  roots  are  un- 
able to  push  through  the  frozen  ground  and 
find  the  necessary  plant  food.  There  are 
some  willows,  birches,  and  a  few  other 
woody  plants  ;  but  instead  of  growing  to  a 
good  height,  as  our  willows  and  birches  do, 
these  creep  along  the  surface  like  vines, 
and  rise  but  a  few  inches  above  the  ground. 
Only  by  hugging  the  earth  can  they  find 
protection  beneath  the  snow,  and  thus  es- 
cape the  fierce  blasts  of  winter. 


A  few  grasses  and 
small  flowering  plants 
grow  rapidly,  produce 
flowers,  even  close  by 
the  edge  of  snow  banks 
(Fig.  26),  and  then  die, 
all  within  the  few  short 
weeks  of  summer.  Some 
of  these  plants  develop 
berries,  which,  after 
ripening,  are  preserved 
by  the  snows,  so  that 
when  the  birds  arrive 
in  the  spring,  they  find 
food  ready  for  them. 


The  growth  of  in- 
sects in  summer  is 
Animals  of  the  rapid, 
Far  North         like  the 

1.  Insects  growth 
of  plants.  As  the 
snow  melts,  and  the 

soil  thaws  at  the  surface,  the  ground  be- 
comes wet  and  swampy,  and  millions  of  in- 
sects appear.  Among  them  the  most  com- 
mon is,  perhaps,  the  mosquito.  There  are 
few  parts  of  the  world  where  this  creature 
is  a  worse  pest  than  on  the  barrens,  or  tun- 
dras, as  these  treeless,  frozen  lands  of  north- 
ern North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  are 
called. 

Few  large  land  animals  thrive  in  so  cold 
a  climate,  where  there  is  such  a  scarcity  of 

2.  Larger  ani-  plant  food ;  and  the  cold- 
mais  on  land  blooded  animals,  or  reptiles, 
cannot  live  there.  The  reindeer,  or  cari- 
bou, the  musk-ox,  and  polar  bear  are  the 


largest  four-footed  land  animals  (Fig.  27)  ; 
and  the  crow,  sparrow,  and  ptarmigan  are 
the  most  common  land  birds. 

The  plumage  of  the  ptarmigan  changes  to  white 
in  winter,  and  other  animals,  such  as  the  fox,  polar 
bear,  baby  seal,  and  hare,  are   also 
white.      This   helps   them,   in    that    3.  Color  pro- 
land  of  snow  and  ice,  to  hide  from   tection,  and 


food  of  these 
animals 


their  enemies,  or  to  steal  upon  their 
prey  unawares.  The  small  white  fox 
feeds  upon  birds  and  other  animal  food,  and  the  polar 
bear  lives  mainly  by  hunting  the  seal.  His  white  fur 
makes  him  almost  invisible,  and  he  steals  noiselessly 
upon  his  prey,  asleep 
upon  the  ice ;  or,  he 
patiently  watches  until 
his  victim  swims  within 
reach,  and  then  seizes 
him  with  his  powerful 
claws  (Fig.  314). 

The  other  land  ani- 
mals live  upon  plants, 
such  as  berries,  grass, 
and  moss.  The  caribou 
eats  the  plant  called 
"  reindeer  moss,"  which 
grows  upon  the  rocks. 
If  it  were  not  for  this, 
he  would  be  unable  to 
live  through  the  long 
winter.  To  find  this 
moss  and  other  plants, 
he  often  has  to  scrape 
away  the  snow  which 
covers  the  ground. 


Fig.  26.  —  An  Arctic  poppy  in  blossom,  although  growing 
on  the  edge  of  a  snow  bank. 


Many  more  ani- 
mals have  their 
homes  in  the  sea  than  upon 
the  land,  because  there,  except  4'  Sea  animal3 
at  the  very  surface,  the  temperature  never 
goes  below  the  freezing  point.  Therefore 
there  are  plenty  of  sea  animals  of  all  sizes, 
from  those  so  small  that  they  cannot  be 
seen  without  a  microscojje,  to  the  whale, 
the  largest  of  all  animals. 

Sea  birds  exist  by  tens  of  thousands, 
building  their  nests  upon  the  rocky  cliffs 
(Fig.  27).  Indeed,  they  are  so  numerous 
that,  when  suddenly  frightened  by  the  firing 
of  a  gun,  they  rise  in  a  dense  cloud  that 
hides  the  sun  ;  and  with  their  cries  they 
produce  a  din  that  is  almost  deafening. 


PTARMIGAN 


&  ■ 

CARIBOU 


MUSK  OX 


THE.  M.N.Co^  Buffalo. 


Fig.  27.  —  Some  of  the  birds  and  four-footed  animals  of  the  Far  North. 


16 


NORTH  AMEBIC  A 


Fig.  28.  —  Walrus  on  the  ice  that  is  ever  present  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Seals  (Fig.  225)  and  walruses  (Fig.  28) 
live  in  the  water,  the  former  being  so  valu- 
able for  their  oil  and  skins,  that  men  go  on 
long  voyages  to  obtain  them.  The  oil  comes 
from  a  layer  of  fat,  or  "  blubber,"  just  be- 
neath the  skin,  that  serves  to  keep  out  the 
cold.  The  seal  is  the  most  common  of  the 
larger  Arctic  sea  animals,  and  is  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  Eskimo,  as  well  as  of  the 
polar  bear. 

During  the  winter  the  surface  of  the  sea  freezes 

over.     Then  many  of  the  animals  of  the  Far  North 

migrate  southward.     Even  the  huge 

4.!.lgraj10n        walrus  (Fig.  28)  moves  clumsily  to- 
southward  11"  ™      i.    , 
in  winter              ward  a  warmer  climate.     ihe  birds 

go  farthest,  especially  the  geese, 
ducks,  and  gulls,  which  fly  to  Labrador,  New  Eng- 
land, North  Carolina,  and  even  farther  south. 

A  large  area  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Mexico  has  a  very 
slight  rainfall,  although  the 
temperature  is  agreeable.  This 
arid  area  includes  most  of  the 
territory  in  which  the  rainfall 
is  twenty  inches  or  less  dur- 
ing one  year  (Fig.  303).  In 
some  places,  as  near  the  Pa- 
cific coast  and  upon  the  high 
plateaus  and  mountain  tops,  there  is  rain 
enough  for  forests  ;  but  in  most  parts  of  the 


Plants  and 
animals  of  the 
temperate 
zone 

1.   In  the  arid 
West 

(1)  Plants  of 
this  region 


Far  West  the  climate  is  so  dry  that  there 
are  no  trees  whatsoever.  Indeed,  some  por- 
tions are  true  deserts. 

One  common  plant  in  the  arid  lands  is 
the  bunch  grass,  so  called  because  it  grows 
in  little  tufts,  or  bunches,  having  a  dozen 
or  more  blades.  The  sagebrush  (Fig.  29), 
a  plant  with  a  pale  green  leaf,  named  be- 
cause of  its_  sagelike  odor,  is  found  through- 
out most  of  this  arid  region.  Other  com- 
mon plants  are  the  mesquite  ;  the  century 
plant,  with  its  sharp-pointed  leaves ;  and 
the  cactus,  with  its  numerous  thorns. 

On  account  of  the  dry  climate,  these  plants  have 
a  severe  struggle  to  live,  and  they  protect  themselves 
in  peculiar  ways.     For  example,  the 
cactus,   unlike  most  plants,  has   no    ^  How  these 
true  leaves.     Thus  it  exposes  little    ''  ..  "  " 

surface  to  the   air   for  evaporation. 
In   its  great,  fleshy  stem,   it    stores  water   for  use 
through  the  long,  dry  seasons,  while  its  needle-like 
spines  protect  it  from  animals  in  search  of  food. 

The  mesquite  also  protects  itself  by  spines,  and, 
in  addition,  it  has  such  large  roots  that  the  part  of  the 
plant  underground  is  often  greater  than  that  above. 
The  roots  of  this  plant  furnish  much  wood  for  fuel. 
Some  of  these  plants,  like  the  sagebrush,  have  such 


Copyright,  1899,  by  I 


Fio.  29. —  A.  view  in  the  desert  of  Southern  California- 
The  low  plants  are  sagebrush;  the  higher  ones,  with 
spiny  branches,  are  Yucca. 


PLANTS,  ANIMALS,   AND  PEOPLES  OF  N011TH  AMERICA 


17 


a  disagreeable  taste  that  animals  will  not  eat  them. 
Thus  they  are  further  protected. 

At  one  time  the  most  common  animal  in 
much  of  this  arid  section  was  the  bison,  or 
(3)  Animals  of  buffalo  (Fig.  30),  whose  home 
this  region  was  ou  the  prairies   and   arid 

plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Thou- 
sands upon  thousands  of  bison  were  slaugh: 
tered  for  their  hides  and  tongues  alone,  and 
their  bones  left  to  whiten  upon  the  plains. 
There  are  now  no  wild  bison  in  the  United 


National  Park,  many  of  these  animals  are  seen  there. 
Deer  and  elk  are  common  ;  also  black,  cinnamon, 
and  grizzly  bears,  which  are  so  tame  that  at  night 
they  come  close  to  the  hotels  to  feed  upon  the 
garbage. 

Between  the  frigid  and  torrid  zones,  and 
both  east  and  west  of  the  arid  2   In  other 
region,  is  a  temperate  belt  of  parts  of  tem- 
moderate  rainfall.    The  climate  ?erate  North 
is  warm  in  the  south,  cool  in    „,  _, 

.,       -       ,      ,  ,  '  ,    .       (1)  Plants  of 

the  central  part,  and   cold   in   (/,;s  region 


Fig.  ;50.  —  A  herd  of  bison,  which  ouce  roamed  over  central  United  States. 


States,  except  a  few  in  the  Yellowstone  Na- 
tional Park  of  Wyoming,  where  they  are 
protected  by  the  government  (Fig.  196). 

The  graceful  antelope,  the  cowardly  prairie  wolf, 
01  coyote,  and  the  rabbit,  upon  which  the  coyote  feeds, 
are  still  to  be  seen  (Fig.  31).  Among  the  rabbits 
is  the  long-legged  jack  rabbit,  which  leaps  across  the 
plains  with  astonishing  speed. 

The  fierce  puma,  or  mountain  lion,  and  the  ugly 
cinnamon  and  grizzly  bears  (Fig.  31)  still  live 
among  the  mountains,  though  they  are  now  rare  and 
difficult  to  find.  Deer  and' elk  inhabit  the  forest- 
covered  mountains  of  southern  Canada  and  the  north- 
western part  of  the  United  States ;  and  among  the 
higher  peaks  a  few  mountain  goats  and  sheep  are 
still  to  be  found  (Fig.  31). 

Since  no  hunting  is  allowed  in  the  Yellowstone 


the  north.  Here  both  the  plants  and  ani- 
mals differ  from  those  of  the  arid  regions. 

In  the  warm  southern  part,  the  plant  and 
animal  life  is  abundant,  and  of  many  kinds. 
Both  plants  and  animals  become  less  nu- 
merous and  less  varied  toward  the  north, 
until,  near  the  Arctic  zone,  they  are  scarce 
and  few  in  kind.  The  pines  and  oaks  of 
the  United  States  give  place  to  the  spruce, 
balsam  fir,  and  maple  in  Canada ;  farther 
north  these  gradually  become  stunted  and 
disappear  ;  and  finally  the  treeless  barrens 
are  reached. 

Some  persons  believe  that  at  one  time 
most  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States 


m 


*5^ 


PRAIRIE  DOG 


The  M,N. Co.,  Buffalo. 


GRIZZLY  BEAR 


Fig.  31.  —  Some  of  the  animals  of  the  Far  West. 


PLANTS,  ANIMALS,  AND  PEOPLES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


19 


was  wooded,  including  the  fertile  prairies  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  They  think  that 
the  trees  were  burned  from  the  prairies  by 
fires  set  by  the  Indians.  Others  believe 
that  the  prairies  were  always  treeless,  being 
too  level  and  swampy  for  trees  to  grow. 

When  America  was  first  visited  by  Euro- 
peans, our  woods  abounded  in  deer  (Fig. 
(2)  Animals  of  32),  moose,  caribou,  wolves, 
this  ret/hn  an(i  foxes  (Fig.  33).     Beavers 

built  dams  across  the  streams  ;  the  mink 
and  otter  fished  in 
the  waters;  and 
bears  roamed  at  will. 
Among  the  birds,  the 
eagle  was  common 
(Fig.  33),  and  wild 
pigeons  and  turkeys 
were  so  abundant 
that  they  were  one 
of  the  principal  foods 
of  the  early  settlers. 

Now  most  of  these 
animals  have  been 
destroyed,  although 
some  still  live  in  the 
forest  and  mountain 
region.       Some     of 

them,  like  the  deer,  are  now  carefully  pro- 
tected by  state  laws,  which  prohibit  shooting 
them  except  at  certain  seasons,  and  then 
only  in  small  numbers.  In  the  forests  of 
Canada  and  in  Alaska,  many  wild  animals 
are  still  left. 

It  might  seem  that  the  native  plants  and 
animals  of  temperate  North  America  would 
3.  Native  plants  soon  disappear.  For  the  white 
and  animals         man  has  come  into  possession 

that  will  remain    of  fche  landj  aml  h;ls  cut    down 

much  of  the  forest,  and  plowed  the  prairies, 
so  that  where  trees  once  stood,  and  game 
was  plenty,  there  are  now  fertile  farms  and 
thriving  cities.  Not  all  will  be  destroyed, 
however,  for  some  of  the  forests  will  remain, 
and  many  wild  plants  will  grow  in  the 
uncultivated  spots.  The  birds  and  some  of 
the  smaller  animals  will  be  able  to  survive ; 
and  in  the  forests  larger  animals,  protected 


Wl 

""*                 i 

WfnL 

. 

<    ? 

^,    Mte*        '    *J^B 

1 1    4H 

i 

Fig. 


to  some  extent  by  law,  will  continue  to 
roam  about  freely.  In  addition,  a  few  of 
the  animals  and  plants,  which  man  has 
found  useful,  have  been  domesticated,  and 
these  will  continue  to  thrive. 

Our  domesticated  plants  and  animals  well 
illustrate  how  man  has  learned  to  make  use 
of  nature.  At  one  time,  every  variety  of 
plant  that  we  now  cultivate  was  wild  ;  and 
our  domesticated  animals  have  all  come  from 
wild  stock.  Most  of  these  have  been  found 
in  Europe  and  Asia, 
but  America  has 
added  some  to  the 
list.  The  Indian 
corn,  or  maize,  the 
tobacco,  tomato, 
pumpkin,  and  potato 
were  unknown  to 
the  Old  World  until 
America  was  dis- 
covered. The  same 
is  true  of  the  turkey, 
and  perhaps,  in  a 
hundred  years,  the 
bison  may  be  in- 
cluded among  the 
domesticated  ani- 
mals, for  a  few  small  herds  are  now  being 
carefully  reared  on  the  cattle  ranches  of 
the  West. 

In  the  torrid  zone,  the  climate  is  warm  or 
hot,  and   in  most   parts  the    rainfall  is  so 

heavy  that  the  conditions  are   „,  , 

J  .  Plants  and 

favorable  tor  dense  vegetation,    animals  in  the 

Indeed,  the   tangle  of  growth   torrid  zone 
in  the  forests  is  so  great  that    1.  The  plants 
it  is  often  impossible  to  pass    *  this  region 
through  it  without  hewing  one's  way.     Be- 
sides trees  and  underbrush,  there  are  quanti- 
ties of  ferns,  vines,   and  flowers,  many  of 
which  hang  from  the  trees  with  their  roots 
in  the  air  instead  of  in  the  ground.     They 
are  able  to  live  in  this  way  on  account  of 
the  moisture  in  the  air.      Among  the  trees 
are  the  valuable  rosewood,  mahogany,  ebony, 
and  rubber  tree,  and  among  the  flowers  are 
the  beautiful  orchids.     On  account  of  the 


•  A  wild  deer  on  the  edge  of  the  forest. 


MOOSE 


HEDGEHOG 


Fiu.  'So.  —  Some  ol  the  animals  of  uortlieasteru  Uuited  States  aud  southeastern  Cauada. 


ANACONDA 


I.C0-,BUFFAL0- 


ALLIGATOR 


Fig.  31.  — Some  of  the  animals  that  live  iu  the  tropical  part  of  North  America 


22 


NORTH  AMERICA 


continual  warmth  and  dampness,  many 
plants,  such  as  the  banana,  bear  fruit 
throughout  the  year. 

In  the  midst  of  such  luxuriant  vegetation, 
animal  life  is  wonderfully  varied  and  abun- 
2.  The  animals  dant.  There  are  the  tapir, 
in  this  region  monkey,  and  jaguar  (Fig.  34) ; 
brilliantly  colored  birds,  such  as  parrots 
and  humming  birds;  and  there  are  mil- 
lions of  insects.  Scorpions  and  centipeds 
abound,  and  ants  exist  in  countless  numbers, 
some  in  the  ground,  others  in  decayed 
vegetation.  Serpents,  some  of  which  are 
poisonous,  are  common  in  the  forests ;  and 
in  the  rivers  are  fish  and  alligators,  the 
latter  being  found  as  far  north  as  Florida 
and  Louisiana. 

2.   Peoples 

America  was  inhabited  for  thousands  of 
years  before  it  was  discovered  by  white 
men.  To  the  natives  in  the 
southern  part  Columbus  gave 
the  name  Indians,  in  the  belief  that  he  had 
reached  India.  Those  in  the  Far  North,  who 
live  on  meat,  are   called   Eskimos,  a  word 


The  Eskimos 


Fig.  35.  —  An  Eskimo  mother  and  her  children.  The  very 
young  children  are  carried  on  the  hack  in  a  sealskin 
hood. 


Fig.  30.  —  An  Indian  woman  and  child. 

meaning  flesh-eaters  (Fig.  35).  What  do 
you  recall  about  their  manner  of  life  from 
your  study  of  the  First  Book  ? 

Indians  were  at  first  scattered  over  most 
of  the  country  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle. 
That  this  was  so  is  suggested  The  Indians 
by  the  many  places  that  bear    i.  Their  dis- 
Indian  names,  such  as  Narra-   tribution 
gansett,    Erie,    Niagara,    Huron,    Ottawa, 
Illinois,  Dakota,  Pueblo,  and  Sioux  City. 

Some  of  the  tribes  were  true  savages; 
others,  not  so  savage,  may  be  classed  as 
barbarians.  The  barbarians  2.  Thejr  civ- 
raised  "Indian  corn,"  pump-  Nation 
kins,  and  tobacco;  they  baked  pottery  ; 
used  tools  and  weapons  made  of  stone;  and 
lived  in  villages. 

The  Indians  that  were  most  nearly  civi- 
lized lived  in  the  southwestern  part  of  what 
is  now  the  United  States,  in  Mexico,  and  in 
Central  America.  Much  of  that  region  is 
arid,  but  the  Indians  raised  crops  by  irri- 
gation, and  built  houses  of  stone  and  sun- 
dried  brick  (Fig.  37).     These  houses,  called 


PLANTS,  ANIMALS,   AND  PEOPLES   OF  XORTII  AMERICA 


23 


An  Indian  Pueblo  in  Xew  Mexico,  called  the  Taos  Pueblo.     It  is  made  of  adobe,  or  sun-dried  brick, 
and  to  enter  the  rooms  the  Indians  must  first  elirnb  a  ladder. 


pueblos,  were  used  partly  as  homes  for  pro- 
tection from  the  neighboring  savages,  and 
partly  as  storehouses  for  grain. 

The  most  noted  among  these  Indians 
were  the  Aztecs,  who  lived  in  and  near  the 
region  where  the  City  of  Mexico  now 
stands.  They  had  a  much  better  govern- 
ment than  the  barbarous  and  savage  tribes; 
they  mined  gold  and  silver,  and  made 
various  articles  out  of  these  metals;  they 
wove  blankets,  and  ornamented  their  pot- 
tery and  their  buildings  in  an  artistic 
manner.  Living  the  quiet  life  of  the 
farmer,  the  Aztecs  preferred  peace  to  war, 
and  a  settled  home  to  the  nomadic  life  of 
the  hunter. 

Although  some  tribes  thus  approached 
civilization,  the  Indians,  as  a  race,  never 
3.  Why  they  became  a  powerful  people, 
never  became       There  are  several  reasons  for 

more  powerful       fUS- 

In  the  first  place,  there  were  never  very 
many  Indians.  There  are  probably  nearly 
as  many  now  living  in  the  United  States  as 


ever  lived  here.     Yet  all  of  them  together 
number    only  a   little    over   a  (1)  Because  of 
quarter  of  a  million,  or  about  their  small 
the    number    of    persons   now  nWllber 
living  in  Washington,  the   capital   of  our 
country. 

Again,  instead  of  forming  a  union,  and 
living  at  peace  with  one  another,  they  were 
divided   into    many  independ-  (2)  ndr  divi_ 
ent  tribes.     Each   tribe  had  a  sion  into  many 
certain  section    over    which  it  independent 

tviocs 

could    roam  and   hunt,   but  if 
it    went    beyond    this,    war    might    follow. 
War  did  follow  very  often,  and  thus  they 
were  constantly  weakened  by  fighting. 

The  level  nature  of  a  large  part  of  the 
country   greatly   increased   this  danger    of 
war,    and    prevented  any    one  (3)  The  level 
tribe  from  advancing  in  civi-  nature  of  the 
lization  much  beyond  its  neigh-  counlry 
bors.     Had  the  surface  of  North  America 
been  very  mountainous,  there  might   have 
been  some  places    where  a  tribe  would  be 
protected  by  surrounding  mountain  walls. 


2i 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Then  those  Indians  might  have  dared  to 
devote  themselves  to  other  work  than  war; 
and  they  might  even  have  collected  wealth 
and  developed  important  industries. 

But  the  vast  plains  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  and  the  extensive  plains  and  low 
mountains  of  the  East,  afforded  little  pro- 
tection. If  any  one  tribe  had  built  good 
homes  in  this  section,  and  collected  treasures 
within  them,  the  neighboring  Indians  would 
surely  have  attacked  them.  The  Aztecs 
were  constantly  in  danger  from  this  cause. 
However,  the  fact  that  they  were  partly 
protected  by  mountains  and  deserts,  was 
one  of  the  reasons  why  they  became  more 
civilized  than  the  Indians  of  the  Northeast. 

The  fact  that  the  Indians  had  no  domestic 
animals  for  use  in  agriculture,  was  another 

(4)  Absence  of  reason  why  they  did  not  make 
domestic  more  progress.  The  horse, 
animals  cow,  ass,  sheep,  goat,  and  hog 
are  of  great  service  in  supplying  food  and 
materials  for  clothing,  or  for  helping  in 
farm  work.  Without  them  farm  work  be- 
comes the  worst  drudgery,  because  it  is 
then  necessary  to  do  all  the  work  by  hand. 
Since  the  Indians  had  none  of  these  animals 
to  help   them,  they  could  do  little  farming. 

Still  another  reason  was  lack  of  food.     Al- 
though there  was  much  game,  the   supply 
was  never  sufficient  to  support 

(5)  Lack  of  food    a  denge   population   for  a   long 

period.  Even  the  scattered  Indian  popula- 
tion was  obliged  to  wander  about  in  search 
of  it.  This  prevented  them  from  living 
quietly  in  one  place,  and  finding  time  for 
improvement. 

All  these  facts  helped  to  prevent  the 
Indians  from  becoming  civilized.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fact  that  they  were  not 
better  civilized  was  a  great  advantage  to 
the  white  men  ;  for  that  made  it  easier  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  New  World. 

The  astonishment  of   Europe   was  great 

when   it  was  proved  that  there  were    vast 

territories  on  this  side  of  the 

e    pamar  s   ^l|an(-jc  jleij  only  by  savages. 

America  was  pictured  as  containing  all  sorts 


of  treasures,  and  European  nations  outdid 
one  another  in  fitting  out  expeditions  to 
take  possession  of  them. 

The  Spaniards  naturally  led,  for  at  that 
time  they  were  one  of  the  most  powerful 
nations  of  Europe;  and  besides,   1    Sectionof 
they  had  sent  Columbus  on  his  the  continent 
voyage  of  discovery.      Colum-   taken  by  them 
bus  sailed  from  Palos,  in  Spain,  on  his  first 
voyage,  and  his  ships  were  carried  by  the 
winds  southwestward  to  the  West   Indies, 
a   point    much    farther    south    than    Spain 
itself.     On  a  globe  find  the  point   on  our 
coast  that  is  about  -as  far  north  as  Madrid. 

The  section  reached  by  the  Spaniards  had 
a  climate  somewhat  like  that  of  their  own 
country,  and  they  easily  made  themselves 
at  home  there.  Soon  they  came  into  pos- 
session of  most  of  South  America,  Central 
America,  Mexico,  and  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  38).  The 
Spaniards  had  one  advantage  over  the  Eng- 
lish and  French,  who  settled  farther  north  ; 
the  portion  of  the  continent  that  they  dis- 
covered is  so  narrow  that  they  easily  crossed 
it.  Thus  they  were  able  to  explore  both 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  coast.  It  was 
largely  because  of  this  fact  that  the  Spanish 
settled  the  western  coast  as  far  north  as 
San  Francisco. 

While    robbing   the    Aztecs    of    immense 
quantities  of  gold  and  silver,   2    Theirtreat. 
the  Spaniards  introduced  many  ment  of  the 
Spanish    laws    and    customs  ;   natives 
in  addition  they  cruelly  mistreated  the  na- 
tives,  killing   many  and    enslaving   others, 
forcing  them  to  work  in  the  mines  and  fields. 

Although   Spanish-speaking    people    still 
occupy    Mexico    and    Central 
America,    Spain    herself    has  Spaniards  have 

now   lost    all    hold    upon    this    not  held  their 

continent.      Her  last  American     em  ory 
colonies,    Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,    were   re- 
cently given  up. 

One  of  the  reasons  why  the  Spaniards 
have  not  been  more  successful  is  the  climate 
of  the  section  which  they  settled.  In  hot 
countries  so  little  energy  is  required  to  pro- 


&^Kl 


PLANTS,   ANIMALS,   AND  PEOPLES   OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


25 


vide  food  and  shelter  that  the  people  do  not 
need  to  exert  themselves  ;  and  hence  they 
do  not  do  so.  With  but  slight  effort  the 
Central  American  can  find  bananas,  or  other 
nourishing  food,  at  almost  any  season  of  the. 
year  ;  why  then  should  he  work  ?  The 
people,  therefore,  become  too  lazy  to  im- 
prove their  condition.  A  large  part  of  the 
region  settled  by  the  Spaniards  is  too  warm 
to  produce  people  of  energy. 

Another  reason  why  the  Spaniards  did  not 
have  better  success  is  found  in  their  relation 
to  the  Indians.  Although  robbing  and 
enslaving    them,    they    intermarried    with 


Fig.  30.  — Mexican  two-wheeled  cart  with  wooden  wheels 
ward  people  might  use. 

them  freely,  so  that  a  large  portion  of  the 
people  are  now  half-breeds.  These  half- 
breeds  are  an  ignorant  class,  far  inferior  to 
the  Spaniards  themselves,  and  so  backward 
(Fig.  39)  that  they  still  follow  many  of  the 
customs  of  the  Aztecs. 

The  French  began  their  settlements  in  a 
very  different  quarter,  being 
early  attracted  to  our  coast  by 
the  excellent  fishing  on  the  Newfoundland 
Banks.  Soon  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians 
proved  j)rofitable,  and  the 
French  took  possession  of 
ments,  with        Nova    Scotia    and    the    region 

reasons  al(mg  thfl    gt_   Lluvrence  River 

and  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  value  of  the  fur  trade,  together 
with  a  desire  to  convert  the  Indians  to 
Christianity,  led  the  French  as  far  west  as 


The  French 


1.   Location  of 
their  settle- 


Wisconsin  and  to  the  headwaters  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Making  their  way 
southward  to  the  mouth  of  that  river,  they 
took  possession  of  the  whole  Mississippi 
Valley  (Fig.  38),  calling  it  Louisiana  in 
honor  of  their  king,  Louis  XIV.  In  order 
to  hold  this  vast  territory,  they  established 
a  chain  of  trading  posts  and  forts  from  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  forts 
was  built  where  Pittsburgh  now  stands. 
Many  places  in  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mis- 
sissippi valleys  still  have  French  names  ; 
for  example,  Lake  Champlain,  Marquette  in 
Michigan,  La  Salle  in  Illinois, 
St.  Louis,  and  New  Orleans. 
Can  you  name  others  ? 

The  climate  of  the  French 
territory  was,  on  the  whole, 
more  favorable 
than  that  of  the 
Spanish  country; 
for,  though  rather 
severe  in  the  St.  Lawrence 
Valle}',  it  was  neither  hot 
enough  to  make  people  lazy, 
nor  so  cold  as  to  discourage 
them.  One  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  was  that  the  few 
scattered  settlers  were  unable  to  protect  all 
of  the  vast  territory  to  which  the  French 
laid  claim.  Also,  the  French  intermarried 
with  the  Indians  and  adopted  some  of  their 
customs,  although  not  to  so  great  an  extent 
as  the  Spaniards. 

The  Spanish  and  French  left  only  a 
narrow  strip  along  the  Atlantic  coast  for 
other  nations.  Among  those 
who  made  settlements  there 
were  the  Dutch  in  New  York, 
and  the  Swedes  in  Delaware  ; 
but  the  English  soon  obtained  the  lead. 
The  English  captured  New  York  City 
(then  called  New  Amsterdam)  from  the 
Dutch,  and  made  settlements  along  most  of 
the  coast  from  Florida  to  Nova  Scotia. 

In  several  respects  the  portion  that  fell 
to  the  English  seemed  much  less  desirable 


such  as  a  back- 


2.  Some  reasons 
why  they  have 
lost  this  ter- 
ritory 


The  English 

1.   Location  of 
their  earlier 
settlements 


26 


NORTH  AMERICA 


than  that  held  by  the  Spanish  and  French. 
Yet  the  English-speaking  race  has  managed, 
not  only  to  hold  this,  but  even 
now  occupied  to  add  to  it  most  of  the  posses- 
by  English-  sions  of  the  other  two.  At 
speaking  people   the    present    time^   the   control 

of  the  entire  continent,  except  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  a  few  small  islands, 
is  in  the  hands  of  either  the  United  States 
or  Great  Britain. 

There  are,  of  course,  good  reasons  for  this 
remarkable  result.  No  doubt,  differences  in 
3.  Reasons  the  characters  of  these  three 
for  this  races  is  one  cause.     Yet  there 

are  others  also,  as  is  shown  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

The  temperate  climate  of  the  central 
portion  of  North  America  is  one  of  the  best 
in  the  world  for  the  production  of  people 
of  energy.  The  warm  summers  allowed 
abundant  harvests  ;  while  the  long,  cold 
winters  forced  the  settlers  to  work  hard  in 
order  to  store  up  supplies  for  the  cold 
season  ;  but,  although  they  had  to  work  a 
great  deal,  they  still  had  time  and  energy 
left  for  improvement. 

Again,  the  English  were  less  cruel  than 
the  Spaniards  in  their  treatment  of  the 
Indians  ;  but,  unlike  both  French  and 
Spanish,  most  of  the  English  would  not 
intermarry  with  savages.  Thus  it  happened 
that,  in  the  wars  with  the  French,  the  Eng- 
lish could  act  with  more  intelligence,  speed, 
and  force ;  for  they  were  not  hindered  by 
partly  civilized  half-breeds.  There  was 
one  disadvantage,  however  :  the  Indians 
became  enemies  of  the  English,  and  in  the 
wars  between  the  English  and  French  most 
of  them  fought  on  the  French  side. 

Finally,  the  fact  that  the  English  were 
hemmed  in  by  forest-covered  mountains  oil 
the  west,  and  by  the  French  and  Spanish 
on  the  north  and  south,  also  proved  an  ad- 
vantage. On  that  account,  they  were  kept 
close  together  ;  and  when  wars  arose,  they 
were  better  able  to  combine  their  forces. 

These  are  some  of  the  chief  reasons  why 
the  English-speaking  race  has  won  its  way 


on  the  continent  against  both  the  Spanish 
and  the  French. 

1.  What  is  the  influence  of  climate  on  plants  and 
animals  ?  2.  Describe  the  plants  of  the  Far  North. 
3.  What  animals  are  found  in  the 
Far  North?  What  can  you  tell  Review 
about  them?  4.  What  about  the  "J"615110113 
plant  life  in  our  western  arid  lands?  5.  Describe 
the  animal  life  in  that  region.  6.  Describe  the 
plant  life  in  the  temperate  portion  of  North  America 
outside  of  the  arid  lands.  7.  Tell  about  the  animal 
life  in  the  same  region.  8.  What  native  plants  and 
animals  are  likely  to  continue  here  long  in  the 
future?  9.  What  is  the  condition  of  plant  life  in 
the  torrid  zone?  10.  Of  animal  life?  11.  What 
was  the  condition  of  the  Indians  who  formerly  lived 
here?  12.  Give  several  reasons  why  they  did  not 
become  more  powerful.  13.  What  portion  of  the 
continent  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Spaniards  ? 
14.  How  did  they  treat  the  natives  ?  15.  Give  some 
reasons  why  they  have  not  held  their  territory. 
16.  What  portion  of  the  continent  was  taken  by  the 
French,  and  why?  17.  State  some  reasons  why 
they  have  lost  this  territory.  18.  Where  were  the 
earlier  English  settlements?  19.  How  much  of  the 
continent  is  now  in  control  of  English-speaking 
people  ?  20.  Give  some  reasons  for  this  remarkable 
fact. 

1.  Examine  some  century  and  cactus  plants. 
2.  Find  some  furniture  made  of  mahogany  or  other 
tropical  wood.  3.  Visit  a  green- 
house to  see  orchids.  4.  Collect  Suggestions 
pictures  of  native  plants  and  animals  of  North 
America.  5.  Collect  samples  of  different  American 
woods. 

III.    The  United  States 

i.    General  Facts 

On    Figure   9  we    see   that    the    United 
States     occupies    the    central   Location  and 
part   of    North   America,    ex-  area 
tending  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

Aside  from  Alaska,  which  belongs  to  us, 
the  only  countries  on  our  north  are  Canada, 
Newfoundland,  and  Greenland.  On  our 
south  are  Mexico  and  the  several  small 
countries  of  Central  America.  Trace  our 
boundaries  on  the  north  and  south.  What 
portions  are  artificial  ?  What  portions 
natural  ?  Is  the  distance  across  the  United 
States  greater  from  east  to  west,  or  from 
north  to  south  ?     How  much  greater  ? 


UNITED  STATES 

WESTERN  PART 

Scale  or  Miles' 
0       f>0     100  200  300 

116"         I-ongitn.lo 


West  UP    from 


Grocmrlch  105" 


FIG.  40. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


27 


Fig.  42.  — Relief  map  of  the  United  States. 


The  area  of  the  United  States  is  about 
3,000,000  square  miles,  which  is  more  than 
four  times  the  area  of  Mexico.  Yet  ours  is 
not  the  largest  country  on  the  continent,  for 
the  area  of  Canada  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  United  States  and  Alaska  together. 

Figure  43  shows  the  part  of  the  United 
States  that  was  settled  before  1790,  when 
Population  and  George  Washington  was  Presi- 
its  distribution  dent  for  the  first  time.  What 
in  1790  states  do  you  find  that  had  no 

inhabitants  other  than  Indians  ?  Which 
had  only  scattered  settlements,  such  as  forts 
and  small  villages  ?  Each  of  the  cities 
shown  on  this  map  had  a  population  of  over 
5000.  What  are  their  names  ?  How  about 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  ?  All  together  there 
were  only  a  little  over  3,000,000  white  men 
here  at  that  time. 

Our  present  population  is  about 
Our  present  92,000,000.  The  present 
population  population  of  Canada  is  over 
7,000,000,  of  Mexico  about  15,000,000,  and 


of  Central  America  about  5,000,000.  Not 
only  have  we  more  inhabitants  than  the 
other  countries  of  North  America  combined, 
but  we  have  more  than  all  the  countries  of 
North  and  South  America  together.  Ours 
has  plainly  been  the  favorite  country  for 
settlers  in  the  New  World. 

This  remarkably  rapid  increase  in  popula- 
tion   has,    to    a   large    extent,   Reasons  for 
been    due    to    the    number   of  this  rapid 
foreigners     who     have     come  increase 
here  to  live. 

The    early  introduction    of    slavery   has 
resulted    in    greatly    increasing    our    num- 
bers.    There    are    now    over 
9,000,000    colored    people    in     '     egroes 
the  United  States,  which  is  about  one  tenth 
of  our  entire  population. 

Europe  and   Asia  have   poured   forth  a 
steady   stream   of   immigrants  2   Immigrants 
during  the   last  one  hundred  from  Europe 
years.       Probably,    in    all,    as  andAsia 
many  as  25,000,000  foreigners  have  come 


28 


NORTH  AMERICA 


to  our  shores  to 
live  since  1790, 
and  they  are  still 
coming  at  the  rate 
of  about  a  million 
a  year.  Nearly 
every  foreign 
nation  is  repre- 
sented, and  upon 
the  streets  of  our 
larger  cities  the 
languages  of  most 
of  the  civilized 
peoples  of  the 
globe  may  be 
heard. 

The  greater 
portion  of  our  im- 
migrants  have 
come  from  north- 
ern Europe, 
especially  from 
the  British  Isles, 
Germany,  and  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  ; 


Fig.  43.  —  Distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States  in  lTUO. 


Fig  44.  —  Density  of  population  in  North  America  at  the 
present  time. 


and  many  of  them 
have  settled  in 
the  cities.  More 
recently  a  flood  of 
immigration  has 
come  from  south- 
ern Europe.  At 
one  time  the 
Chinese  began  to 
come  in  great 
numbers,  and  laws 
preventing  their 
coming  had  to  be 
passed.  We  have 
laws,  also,  exclud- 
ing paupers,  crim- 
inals, diseased 
people,  and  labor- 
ers  brought  here 
by  contract.  To 
others  the  country 
is  free. 
Figure  44  shows 
the  present  distribution  of  our  population. 
Where  is  the  population  most  Distribution 
dense  ?  Note  that  more  than  of  our  popula- 
half  of  the  whole  country  has,  tlon 
on  the  average,  not  more  than  twenty-five 
persons  for  each  square  mile.  Point  out 
this  portion. 

According  to  this  map,  which  portion  of 
North  America  has  fewest  settlers  ?  What 
part  of  Canada  is  most  densely  populated  ? 
Of  Mexico?  Of  Central  America?  Ob- 
serve that  the  coast  of  the  United  States  is 
most  densely  settled,  while  the  coast  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America  has  few  people, 
compared  to  the  interior.  Can  you  recall 
any  explanation  of  this  ? 

It  is  natural  that  the  eastern  section  of 
the  United  States  should  have  been  settled 
first,  because  most  of  the  im-   Reasons  for 
migrants     have     come     from 
Europe.      Many   of   them,    of 
course,     have     gone      farther 
west,     but     many     have     re- 
mained in   the  great  cities    on  the  coast. 
Each  large  city  there  has  its  Italian  quarter, 


such  distribu- 
tion 

1 .   Immigrants 
came  first  to 
the  East 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


29 


its  Russian  quarter,  its  Jewish  quarter,  and 
so  forth. 

The  transportation  of  goods  is  one  of  the 
great  industries,  and  this  business  alone  has 
attracted  large  numbers  of 
L"tat thePle  PeoPle  t0  certain  points.  The 
best  shipping  best  shipping  points,  moreover, 
and  manufactur-  are  0ften  the  best  manufac- 
turing centers,  for  people 
manufacture  goods  at  those  places  where 
raw  materials  can  easily  reach  them,  and 
where  finished  articles  can  be  shipped  away 
•cheaply  in  all  directions.  The  excellent 
shipping  points,  therefore,  attract  people 
because  of  the  manufacturing  as  well  as 
the  commerce ;  for  these  industries  give 
them  work  to  do. 

It  is  for  these  reasons  that  the  fine  har- 
bors on  our  two  coasts,  and  the  best  ship- 
ping centers  on  our  interior  wTater  ways, 
have  attracted  the  greatest  number  of 
people.  On  Figure  44  note  the  sections 
that  have  the  densest  population.  Our 
eastern  coast,  from  Boston  southwest  to 
Washington,  has  more  great  centers  of  popu- 
lation than  any  other  equal  area  in  North 
America.  Name  several  of  them.  What 
great  cities  do  you  find  along  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  River  and  its 
larger  tributaries  ?  There  is  a  dense  popula- 
tion, also,  about  San  Francisco  Bay,  as  there 
is  around  New  York  Bay,  and  for  a  similar 
reason.  Find  other  centers  of  dense  popula- 
tion on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  the  interior. 

The  greatest  industry  of  all  is  farming, 
about  one  third  of  all  the  men 

3.  Others  are  „{  the  T;nitecl  States  being  en- 
attracted  to  the  j    •        i 

best  farming  gaged  in  that  one  occupation, 
sections  That  fact  largely  explains  the 

(1)  Extent  of      presence  of  so  many  people  in 

the  Mississippi      .,       -,,.  .  .,,.    ,, 

raliey  the  Mississippi  \  alley. 

This  broad  trough  between 
the  mountain  systems  of  the  West  and  East 
is  one  of  the  most  extensive  fertile  farming 
regions  in  the  world.  What  is  the  length 
and  breadth  of  this  level  region  (Fig.  42)? 
There  is  only  one  mountainous  section  in 
this  vast  area,  and  that,  called  the  Ozark 


Mountains  in   Missouri,  extends  also  into 
Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas. 

Not  only  is  this  fertile  region  very  exten- 
sive, but  the  climate  is  favorable  to  many 
kinds  of  farm  products.  On  (2)  Its  favor- 
Figure  40  find  the  latitude  of  able  climate 
New  Orleans.  Note  that  it  is  not  very  far 
from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  which  marks  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  torrid  zone.  How 
near  does  Florida  come  to  that  zone  ? 

What  is  the  latitude  of  our  northern 
boundary  ?  Observe  how  very  far  it  is 
from  that  line  to  the  Arctic  Circle  (Fig.  9), 
which  marks  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
frigid  zone.  It  is  plain  not  only  that  the 
United  States  lies  in  the  temperate  zone,  but 
that  it  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  southern 
half  of  that  zone.  That  allows  an  abundance 
of  heat  in  summer,  even  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Thus  the 
entire  Mississippi  Valley  has  a  temperature 
that  is  very  favorable  to  agriculture. 

The  rainfall  is  likewise  favorable  in  most 
parts.  Only  far  to  the  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  on  the  Great  Western  Plains 
(Fig.  42),  is  the  quantity  of  rain  too  small 
for  agriculture.  From  the  Great  Western 
Plains  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the 
rainfall  is  sufficient  for  good  crops. 

While  the  Mississippi  Valley  is  the  most 
extensive  farming  section  in  the  United 
States,  there  is  also  much  farming  farther 
east  and  in  the  West.  The  favorable  cli- 
mate and  good  soil  in  the  East,  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  and  in  parts  of  the  West 
have  helped  greatly  in  attracting  settlers. 

Mining  as  well  as  manufacturing,  com- 
merce, and  farming  have    at-    . 

'  s     ,  .4.   Others,  itill, 

tracted      great     numbers      of  are  drawn  to 
people  to  the  eastern  half  of  the  mining  and 
the    United   States.     Most  of  grazing  3ec 

,,,...  (1)  Mining  in 

our  hard  coal  is  mined  among  the  East 
the  Appalachians  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Most  of  our  soft  coal  and  iron  ore, 
and  much  of  our  copper,  also,  are  found  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  These  kinds  of 
mining,  therefore,  increase  the  population 
in  the  East  by  many  hundreds  of  thousands. 


30 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  mountainous  section  in  the  AVest,  in 
which  mining  is  important,  is  far  more  ex- 

(2)  Mining  in  tensive  than  the  Appalachians. 
the  West  This  is  the  region  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, mentioned  on  page  4.  Beginning 
at  the  Pacific  coast  (Fig.  42),  3-011  see  the 
mountains  called  the  Coast  Ranges,  parts  of 
which  rise  abruptly  from  the  water's  edge. 
Eastward  from  these  are  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Cascade  Ranges,  in  which  there  are 
many  lofty  peaks.  Farther  east  are  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  which  extend  entirely 
across  the  United  States,  into  Canada  and 
Alaska  on  the  north,  and  far  into  Mexico  on 
the  south.  Extensive  plateaus,  with  short 
mountain  ranges,  lie  between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade 
Ranges.  Find  the  names  of  the  two  prin- 
cipal plateaus  on  Figure  42. 

There  are  many  mines  in  this  section,  but 
they  are  scattered  over  the  vast  territory. 
The  precious  metals,  and  much  copper  and 
other  metals  are  found  there  ;  but  far  less 
coal  and  iron  ore  are  mined  in  the  West 
than  in  the  Appalachians.  The  mining 
industry,  therefore,  has  brought  a  much 
smaller  and  more  scattered  population  to 
the  Cordillera. 

In  much  of  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States    grazing    is    the    leading    industry. 

(3)  Grazing  That  calls  for  a  very  small 
in  the  West  population,  for  reasons  that 
you  can  give.  Over  wide  areas  grazing  is 
the  only  industry,  because  much  of  the  land 
is  arid  or  desert.  Find  the  Great  Basin 
(Fig.  42),  which  is  mainly  desert.  The 
reason  for  so  dry  a  climate  is  that  the  prin- 
cipal winds  for  this  region  blow  from  the 
Pacific ;  and,  since  they  lose  most  of  their 
moisture  on  the  high  mountains,  the  low- 
lands and  plateaus  between  the  mountain 
ranges  suffer  from  drought. 

Figure  44  shows  most  of  the  western  half 
of  our  country  to  be  very  thinly  settled, 
but  there  are  several  places  that  have  a 
dense  population.  Point  them  out.  The 
special  reasons  why  so  many  people  have 
settled  at  these  points  you  will  learn  later. 


Our  country  is  so  large  that  it  is  necessary 
to  divide  it  into  sections  in  order  to  study  it 
in  proper  detail.    Accordingly,   Reason  for 
the  states  have  been  grouped  studying  the 
into    five    sections,    of     which    United  States 
the  first  is  the  New  England  in  secti°ns 
Group.      The  others,  in  their  order,  are  the 
Middle     Atlantic     States,     the     Southern 
States,  the  Central  States,  and  the  Western 
States. 

As    you    study  each  of  these  sections,  a 
very  important  point  to  notice  is  the  scale 
upon  which  each  map  is  drawn.   Importance  of 
For  example,  in  Figure  45,  an  watching  the 
inch    and    a    half    represents  scale  of  maPs 
about  one  hundred  miles.    According  to  that 
scale,  how  long  is  the  state  of  Connecticut  ? 
Find  what  the  scale  is  on  the  map,  Figure 
64.     Using  that  scale,  find  the  distance  from 
New  York  to  Buffalo.      Using  both  maps, 
find  the  distance  from  Philadelphia  to  Bos- 
ton, by  way  of  New  York.     When  studying 
a  map,  whether  in  this  book,  on  the  wall,  or 
in  an  atlas,  it  is  always  important  to  first 
observe  its  scale. 

1.  State  the  location  and  area  of  the  United 
States.  2.  What  was  our  population  and  its  distri- 
bution  in    1790?     3.   What   is   our    _     . 

Keview 
present  population,  and  how  does  it    _ 

.  Questions 

compare  with  that  of  other  countries 

in  the  New  World  ?  4.  How  many  colored  people 
are  there  in  the  United  States'?  5.  What  immi- 
grants are  allowed  to  come  here  ?  How  many  have 
come,  in  all  ?  6.  What  is  the  present  distribution 
of  the  population  of  North  America  ?  7.  Show  why 
the  place  where  the  immigrants  land  is  one  reason 
for  so  great  a  population  on  our  eastern  coast. 
8.  Explain  the  influence  of  our  best  shipping  and 
manufacturing  points  on  the  distribution  of  our 
people.  9.  What  farming  sections  have  attracted 
great  numbers  of  people  ?  Give  reasons.  10.  How 
has  mining  affected  the  population  in  the  East  ? 
11.  Why  is  the  western  half  of  the  United  States  so 
thinly  settled?  12.  Show,  by  an  example,  that  it  is 
important  when  studying  maps  to  observe  the  scale. 
1.  Can  you  tell  why  Florida  is  so  thinly  settled  ? 
2.  Show  the  dangers  that  we  run,  in   receiving   so 

many  immigrants.     3.  What  reasons    _  . . 

'  .j-     j-    1  ■  ,j-       /-,,  •  Suggestions 

can  you  give  tor  forbidding  (.  Innese 

immigration?  4.  What  objection  do  you  see  to  al- 
lowing an  Italian  quarter,  a  Chinese  quarter,  etc.,  in 
our  large  cities  ? 


FIG.  45. 


NEW 
E  N  G  L.  A  IS  D 

Modeled  by  Edwin  E.Howell 


Flo.  46.  — Relief  map  of  Xew  Englaud. 


32 


NORTH  AMERICA 


2.   New  England 

1.   Name  the  states  of  this  group.     2.  What  is  the 

capital   of   each?     3.    Where   are    the    mountains? 

4.  Into  what  bay  does  the  Penobscot 
Map  Study  River  flow  ?    5    What  ]arge  isUmd 

lies  just  east  of  it?  6.  Find  three  large  lakes.  In 
which  state  is  each  ?  7.  Name  and  locate  several  of 
the  largest  cities.  8.  What  cape  is  about  twenty- 
five  miles  north  of  Boston?  9.  What  cape  is  south- 
east of  Boston  ?  10.  Find  Massachusetts  Bay. 
11.  Find  Cape  Cod  Bay.  12.  What  two  large  islands 
lie  southeast  of  Massachusetts?  13.  What  two  bays 
are  near  them  ?  14.  What  large  island  lies  south  of 
Connecticut?     15.  In   what   state   is  it  (Fig.  64)? 

16.  What   waters    separate   it   from    Connecticut? 

17.  Name  the  three  largest  rivers  of  Maine ;  the 
largest  one  in  New  Hampshire ;  the  two  largest  in 
Connecticut.     Trace  the  course  of  each. 

Since  the  Appalachian  Mountains  extend 
across  New  England,  most  of  its  surface 
is  either  hilly  or  mountainous. 
Near  the  coast  the  hills  are 
low,  but  the  land  gradually 
rises  toward  the  interior  until 
it  becomes  a  low  plateau.  This 
plateau  is  crossed  by  river  valleys  that  cut 
into  it  in  every  direction.  The  valleys  are 
usually  several  hundred  feet  deep,  with 
steep  sides,  so  that  the  surface  there  is  very 
irregular. 

In  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  New 
England,  the  surface  becomes  quite  nioun- 


Reasons  for 
its  irregular 
surface 

1 .   The  moun- 
tains 


tainous  (Fig.  47).  There  are  some  peaks, 
like  Mount  Monadnock  in  southern  New 
Hampshire,  that  rise  singly  above  the  pla- 
teau upland  ;  but  others  are  found  in 
groups,  or  clusters,  as  the  White  Mountains 
of  northern  New  Hampshire,  for  example. 
Still  other  mountains  are  grouped  in  irregu- 
lar ranges,  of  which  the  Green  Mountains 
of  Vermont,  and  the  Taconic  Mountains 
and  Berkshire  Hills  of  western  Massachu- 
setts, are  examples. 

Many  of  the  mountain  peaks  rise  three 
or  four  thousand  feet  above  sea  level ;  but 
Mount  Washington,  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains, has  an  elevation  of  over  a  mile,  and 
Mount  Katahdin,  in  Maine,  is  nearly  as  high. 
In  Figure  45  find  the  various  mountain 
peaks  and  ranges  named. 

On  page  7  you  learned  that  the  Great 
Glacier  made  many  changes  in  our  country. 
This  glacier  extended  over  the  2.  The  Great 
whole  of  New  England,  and  for  Glacier 
a  long  time  its  front  rested  on  the  islands 
just  south  of  this  group  of  states.  Indeed, 
Cape  Cod,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Nantucket, 
and  Long  Island  are  made  in  part  of 
moraine  hills  and  sandy  plains  that  were 
built  in  front  of  the  vast  ice  sheet. 

As  the  ice  melted  away  toward  the  north, 
it  left  moraines  and  other  deposits  farther 
north.     Some    of    these    dammed    up    the 


Fig.  47.  —A  view  of  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


33 


streams  and  formed  the  many  lakes  that 
dot  the  surface  of  New  England.  Others 
turned  the  streams  from  their  courses,  and 
caused  their  waters  to  tumble  in  many 
rapids  and  falls.  Besides  this,  the  glacier 
plowed  away  the  soil  from  many  lull  slopes, 
leaving  bare  rock  ledges.  It  also  carried 
much  rock  into  the  valleys  and  on  to  the 
lower  hilly  land.  It  was  in  this  way  that 
much  of  the  farm  land  became  strewn  with 
bowlders,  as  shown  in  Figure  23. 

The  sinking  of  the  coast  has  given  New 
England  a  very  irregular  outline.  What 
3.  The  sinking  have  you  already  learned  about 
of  the  coast  this  (p.  11)  ?  Name  some  of 
the  larger  capes,  bays,  and  islands  that  were 
thus  formed. 

The  mountain  rocks  of  New  England 
are  mostly  hard,  including  many  granites. 
Where  the  sinking  of  the  land  has  lowered 
these  into  the  sea,  the  beating  of  the  waves 
has  removed  the  soil  and  exposed  the  bare 
rock.  This  is  why  so  much  of  the  irregular 
coast  is  rock  bound,  and  has  such  grand 
scenery. 

Maine  does  not  reach  quite  so  far  north 

as  do  several  of  our  Western  States.     Name 

them  (Fig.  40).     Yet  this  sec- 
The  climate        ,.        ,>     a£  ,  ,, 

tion  lies  tar  enough  north  to 

have  a  rather  severe  climate ;  and  a  cold 
ocean  current  near  the  coast  makes  the  cli- 
mate somewhat  cooler  than  it  would  other- 
wise be.  This  is  called  the  Labrador  cur- 
rent, because  it  flows  past  the  Labrador 
coast.  It  is  a  slowly  moving  stream  of 
ocean  water,  many  miles  wide,  that  begins 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  flows  southward 
along  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
England  as  far  as  Cape  Cod  (p.  222). 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  current  of 
warm  water  that  makes  the  southern  portion 
of  New  England  warmer  than  it  would 
otherwise  be.  This  current,  called  the 
Gulf  Stream,  comes  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  flows  northeast,  out  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  (Fig.  312).  East  of  New  England 
it  is  much  farther  from  land  than  the  Lab- 
rador current. 


The  prevailing  winds  in  New  England 
blow  from  the  west.  Every  few  days, 
however,  the  direction  of  the  wind  changes 
to  the  east  or  south,  and  the  air  then  comes 
from  the  ocean,  often  bringing  rain.  The 
winds  that  blow  from  the  east  and  north- 
east are  cool  in  summer  and  very  chilly  in 
winter,  since  they  are  cooled  in  passing 
over  the  Labrador  current.  They  often 
cause  heavy  snows  in  winter,  and  rain  and 
fog  iu  summer.  Those  winds  that  blow 
from  the  south,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
warmed  in  passing  over  the  Gulf  Stream. 
Largely  for  that  reason,  the  southern  part 
of  New  England  is  much  warmer,  and  has 
little  snow  in  winter. 

In  the  days  of  the  early  settlers,  most  of 
New  England  was  covered  with  forests,  and 
one  of  the  first  products  sent  Lumbering 
back  to  England  was  lumber,   i.  Extent  of 
Now    the    woods    have    been  tne  forests 
cleared   away  from  much  of  the  land,  but 
where  it  is  too  steep  or  rocky  for  farming, 
large  tracts  of  forest  still  remain. 

For  instance,  there  are  large  tracts  of 
land  in  northern  Maine,  New  Hampshire 
(Fig.  48),  and  Vermont,  as  well  as  in 
parts  of  the  three  southern  states,  that  are 
still  covered  with  timber.  Standing  on  the 
summit  of  Mount  Katahdin,  one  sees  only 
a  vast  wilderness  of  trees  in  all  directions. 
The  nearest  cultivated  land  is  twenty-five 
miles  to  the  east,  while  the  unbroken  forest 
stretches  much  farther  away  to  the  north 
and  west. 

Winter  is  the  busy  season  for  cutting 
timber  in  this  wilderness,  for  the  swamps, 
which  are  numerous,  and  in  2.  Cutting  of 
summer  impassable,  are  then  the  timber 
frozen.  At  that  season,  also,  the  snows 
have  covered  the  bowlders  and  fallen  trees, 
and  made  the  surface  level  enough  for 
sleds,  loaded  with  logs,  to  be  drawn  through 
the  woods. 

Usually  fifty  or  more  men  are  necessary 
to  a  logging  camp.  With  axes  in  hand, 
they  go  through  the  woods  chopping  down 
all  the  trees  that  are  large  and  sound  enough 


34 


NORTH  AMERICA 


3.  Floating 
the  logs  to  the 
mills 


for   good    lumber.       The    limbs    are    then 

chopped  off,  and  the  logs  are  dragged  by 

horses  to    the    banks  of   the 

nearest  stream  (Fig.  49). 
When   the  snow  melts  in 

the  spring,  the  cutting  is 
over  and  another 
busy  season  be- 
gins.     The    ice 

on  the  rivers  breaks  up,  the 

streams   are  swollen   by  the 

melting  snows,  and  the  logs 

are  whirled  off  downstream 

in  the    swift    current.     Fre- 
quently,  however,   even   this 

flood  of  water  is  not  sufficient 

to  carry  them.     In  such  cases, 

in    order    to    provide    more 

water,  dams  are  placed  across 

the  streams,  or  at  the  outlet 

of  lakes.     When  more  water 

is    needed,     the     dams     are 

opened,  and  a  flood  is  poured 

into  the  stream.     In  this  way 

immense  numbers  of   logs    are   floated,   or 

"  driven "   downstream,   forming   what   the 

lumbermen  call  a  "log  drive." 


others  are  held  back  by  it.     If  the  "  jam  "  is 
not   speedily    removed,    the    entire    stream 


Fig.  49. 


-  Lumbermen  at  work  in  winter,  drawing  the  logs  on  sleds  to  the 
edge  of  the  stream. 


The  work  of  driving  the  logs  is  a  very  ex- 
citing one.  The  logs  often  run  on  to  rocks 
and  shoals  ;  and,  as  soon  as  one  gets  caught, 


Fig.  48.  —  A  forest-covered  mountain  slope  in  the  New  Hampshire  moun- 
tains, where  a  large  part  of  the  surface  is  still  occupied  by  forest. 


may  become  blocked.     Such  a  condition  is 
called  a  log  jam  (Fig.  50),  and  it  is  the 
business  of  the  log  drivers  to  prevent  jams 
by  freeing  the  logs  that  be- 
come thus  lodged. 

Some  of  the  logs  are  stopped 
near  waterfalls,  far  upstream, 
where  they  are  sawed  into 
boards,  laths,  shingles,  etc. ; 
but  most  of  them  are  carried 
to  sawmills  as  far  down  the 
river  as  the  current  will  take 
them. 


During  the  season  for  cutting, 

the   men    go    forth    early  in    the 

morning  and  work 

until    late    in    the 

evening,  eating  and 

sleeping   in  log 

cabins  (Fig.  51).     Their  beds  are 

broad  shelves  of  rough  boards, 
covered  with  boughs  from  the  spruce  and  balsam 
trees ;  and  the  camp  is  often  so  small  that  they 
must  lie  side  by  side,  with  scarcely  room  to  turn. 
There  is  much  exposure,  too.     The  men  may  suffer 


4.   Hardships  of 
the  lumber- 
man's life 


TIIE   UNITED   STATES 


35 


Fig.  50.  —  A  log  jam  in  a  stream  in  which  the  logs  are  being  floated  from  the 
forest.    The  lumbermen  are  at  work  trying  to  start  the  logs  moving  again. 


seriously  from  the  cold,  for  it  is  often  necessary  to 
work  when  the  temperature  is  far  below  zero. 

The  work  of  preventing  log  jams  brings  even  more 
exposure,  for  the  workmen  must  frequently  wade  into 
the  icy  water  and  ride  upon  the  logs.  One  may 
often  see  a  man  carried  along  on  a  single  log,  cling- 
ing to  it  by  means  of  the  sharp  spikes  in  his  boots, 
and  balancing  himself  with  a  long  pole.  Now  and 
then  he  must  jump  from  log 
to  log,  as  a  squirrel  springs 
from  tree  to  tree.  In  this 
way  the  men  are  often  wet 
from  head  to  foot,  and  may 
even  be  thrown  into  the 
water  and  drowned.  So 
many  hardships  are  con- 
nected with  lumbering,  that 
a  lumberman  is  said  to 
become  an  old  man  after  a 
few  years  of  service. 

The  forests  of  New 
England  supply  much 
5.  Value  of  1  u  m  b  e  r, 
the  forest  though  far 

less  than  formerly. 
Woods  have  another  im- 
portant use  :  they  pre- 
vent    the     rain     water 


from  running  rapidly  off 
the  land.  Where  the  forest 
has  been  carelessly  destroyed 
by  the  lumbermen,  or  by  fire, 
the  streams  rise  rapidly  after 
every  rain  and  then  quickly 
decrease  in  size.  Often  there 
is  not  enough  water  to  run 
the  factories  that  use  the 
water  power.  Thus  it  be- 
comes very  important  to  pre- 
serve the  forest,  and  the 
government  is  planning  to  set 
aside  large  areas,  at  the  head 
waters  of  the  streams,  as 
forest  reservations. 

New     England     produces 
very    little    metal,    and     no 

coal.   There  are, 

i  Quarrying 

however,     some   Y       '    6 

valuable    mineral     products, 

such    as    clays    for    making 

bricks,  and  stone  used  mainly 

for  building.     Among  the  building  stones 

three  kinds  are  of  especial  value ;  namely, 

granite,  marble,  and  slate,  each  of  which  is 

quarried  in  large  quantities. 

Man}T  of  the  hills,  and  even  mountains, 
such  as  Mounts   Washington  and  Katahdin, 


je    v* 

n 

Jr      ^-Sjfefc 

H^'i  *Jm 

_ 

»5s 

, 

^^r^  *  J&S** 

.    .^B^^SS 

Vv 

fits" 

JHB5? 

m^^^^"^ 

Fig.  51.  —  Lumbermen  and  their  log  cabin  in  the  woods  of  Maine. 


36 


NORTH  AMERICA 


(2)  Uses 


are  made  mainly  of  granite.  But  this  is 
not  often  quarried,  because  it  is  too  difficult 
,     „  to    draw  the    heavy  stone    to 

1.  Granite  .       •  ,     , 

(1)  Where  places    where    it    is    needed. 

found  and  The   quarries   have   generally 

quarried  been     opened     or     developed 

either  close  to  cities,  or  else  near  the  sea, 
where  the  stone  may  be  cheaply  shipped. 

One  of  the  oldest  stone  quarries  in  the 
country  is  at  Quincy,  near  Boston  (Fig.  45). 
Buildings  made  of  Quincy  granite  over  two 
hundred  years  ago  may  still  be  seen  in  Bos- 
ton. Other  quarries  are  found  in  and  near 
Gloucester  and  Milford, 
Mass.;  Westerly,  R.I. ; 
BARRE,Vt. ;  Concord,  N.H.; 
and  at  several  points  along  the 
Maine  coast. 

Much  of  the  granite  is  used 
for  paving  stones  in  the  city 
streets,  where 
heavy  wagons 
pass.  For  that  purpose  large 
blocks  are  split  into  smaller 
ones  of  the  proper  size. 

Many  of  the  large  blocks 
are  carried  by  boat  to  Boston, 
New  York,  or  even  as  far  as 
New  Orleans,  where  they  are 
used  for  curbstones,  for  build- 
ing, and  for  other  purposes. 
Some  of  the  government  build- 
ings at  Washington  are  made  of  New  Eng- 
land granite.  Another  important  use  of 
granite  is  for  monuments,  columns,  and 
other  ornamental  work.  The  stone  is  well 
suited  for  this  purpose  because  of  its  beauti- 
ful color,  which  varies  in  different  quarries. 
Some  granites  are  gray,  others  almost  white, 
bluish,  or  distinctly  red ;  and  most  kinds 
will  take  a  high  polish. 

The  most  noted  marble  quarries  in  the 
United  States  are  near  Rutland,  Vt.  (Fig. 

2.  Marble  52),  where  much  of  the  stone 
(l)  Where  is  white,  though  some  of  it  is 
quarried  streaked  with  blue.  In  other 
places  in  Vermont  the  colors  of  the  marble 
are  quite  different,  and  often  very  beautiful. 


(2)  Uses 


This  stone  is  too  soft  for  paving  stones, 
but  it  is  much  used  for  buildings,  statues, 
and  monuments.  Indeed,  the 
Rutland  marble  is  one  of  the 
most  common  headstones  in  the  cemeteries 
of  the  Eastern  States.  Like  granite,  it 
may  be  given  a  high  polish. 

Some  of  the  most  highly  prized  marble,  mostly 
obtained  from  foreign  countries,  is  so  banded  and 
mottled  that,  when  polished,  it  makes  a  beautiful 
ornamental  stone  for  interiors  of  churches  and  other 
buildings.  White  marble  has  been  used  for  many 
centuries  as  building  material.     In   fact,  Ions  before 


Fig.  52.  —  One  of  the  marble  quarries  near  Rutland,  Vt.  The  stone  is 
quarried  out  in  the  deep  pit  on  the  right,  and  the  blocks  are  hoisted  to 
the  surface  by  the  derricks. 


the  time  of  Christ,  the  Greeks  built  the  marble  Par- 
thenon upon  the  Acropolis  of  Athens  (Fig.  454). 
They  also  chiseled  out  marble  statues,  such  as  that 
of  the  Venus  of  Milo,  which  have  become  famous  on 
account  of  their  beauty. 

Slate  rock  is  quarried  in  several  parts  of  New 
England,  as  in  eastern  Maine  and  western  Massa- 
chusetts and  Vermont.  The  value 
of  slate  is  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  it  splits,  or  cleaves,  so  easily  that  it  is  readily 
broken  into  thin  slabs  with  a  smooth  surface.  In 
this  way  it  is  made  into  roofing  slate  and  school 
slates;  from  it  are  also  made  blackboards,  slabs  for 
wash  basins,  and  stone  for  use  in  the  interior  of 
buildings. 


3.   Slate 


Still  another  raw  product  of  New  Eng- 
land is  fish.  When  the  country  was  first 
settled,    great    numbers    of    various    kinds, 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


37 


especially  mackerel,  halibut,  and  cod,  were 
found  close  to  the  shore.  Such  names 
Fishing  as    Cape   Cod,  Halibut    Point, 

1.  Former abun-  Lobster  Cove,  and  Bass  Rocks, 
dance  of  fish  given  to  places  on  the  New 
England  coast,  indicate  this.  Find  the 
first  of  these. 

Fish  supplied  the  early  settlers  with  one 
of  their  chief  foods,  and  the  fishing  industry 
soon  became  important.  You  will  remem- 
ber (p.  25)  that  it  was  the  fishing  which 
early  attracted  the  French  to  the  American 
coast,  and  they  still  retain  the 
right  to  fish  along  the  New- 
foundland shore. 

Fish    are    now    much    less 
abundant  near   the   coast,  but 

2.  Centers  of        »»"»       they       al'e 

the  fishing  still  found  farther 

industry  from     t]le     sllore, 

hundreds  of  vessels,  and  thou- 
sands of  men,  are  engaged 
solely  in  catching  them. 
Gloucester,  which  is  a  center 
for  that  industry,  is  the  most 
noted  fishing  port  in  the  United 
States ;  but  Boston,  Port- 
land, and  Provincetowx 
also  have  an  important  fish 
trade.     Locate  each. 

Most  of  the  mackerel  are 
caught  in  spring  and  summer. 
They  swim  to- 
gether, on  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  in  such  numbers,  or 
schools,  as  fishermen  say,  that  they  may  be 
easily  seen  from  a  distance.  The  fishermen 
who  cruise  about  in  search  of  the  mackerel 
sail  in  swift,  two-masted  vessels,  called 
schooners  (Fig.  53).  When  they  see  a 
"  school,"  they  spring  into  their  great  seine 
boats,  row  over  to  the  fish,  drop  a  large  net, 
or  seine,  into  the  water,  and  draw  it  around 
the  "school."  Then  the  seine  is  drawn  in, 
forming  a  pocket  and  trapping  the  fish. 
In  this  pocket  enough  fish  are  sometimes 
caught  to  fill  hundreds  of  barrels.  Some 
of   the   fish  are  taken  to  port  to   be  sold 


fresh,  but  most  are  salted.  This  method 
of  fishing  is  similar  to  that  which  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  used  in  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Halibut  and  cod  cannot  be  caught  with  a 
seine,  for  instead  of  swimming  at  the  sur- 
face, these  fish  live  on  the  sea   .    „  ...   .     . 

4.   Halibut  and 

bottom.     They  are   caught  in  codfish 
winter    as    well    as    summer,   (1)  Where 
mainly  on  the  Fishing  Banks  cauy,lt 
that  lie  off  the  coasts  of  New  Ensrland  and 
Newfoundland.      Some   of   the    Gloucester 
fishing    vessels,    however,    go    as    far    as 


3.  Mackerel 


Fig.  53.  —  A  Gloucester  fiskiug  schooner,  just  leaving  port  on  a  fishing  trip. 


Greenland   and    Iceland    for    halibut   and 
codfish. 

Halibut  are  very  large,  some  weighing 
more  than  a  man,  and  they  are  often 
caught  upon  single  lines.  Cod-  (2>  Method  of 
fish  may  be  caught  in  the  same  catching 
manner,  though  a  trawl  (Fig.  54)  is  more 
commonly  used  for  cod  than  for  halibut. 
The  trawl  consists  of  a  number  of  hooks 
hanging  from  a  single  long  line,  all  lowered 
into  the  water  together  and  left  there  for 
hours.  The  fish  swallow  the  bait  on  the 
hooks,  and  in  this  way  many  are  caught  at 
one  time. 


38 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  54.  —  Fishermen  drawing  up  a  trawl  on  the  Fishing  Banks  of  Newfoundland.  The  long  line,  with  shorter  ones 
hanging  from  it,  with  hooks  on  their  ends,  is  lowered  to  the  bottom.  After  a  while  it  is  drawn  up  and  the  fish  that 
are  on  the  hooks  are  taken  iuto  the  boat. 


This  kind  of  fishing  is  dangerous,  because  the  men 

must  venture  out  in  small,  flat-bottomed  boats,  called 

dories,  to  take  the  fish  off  the  trawls. 

(3)  Danger  of       yrhile  th      are  fe        filing,  a  storm 

may  arise,  or  a  heavy  log  come  up, 
and  prevent  their  return  to  the  vessel.  They  are 
then  left  in  open  boats  far  out  upon  the  ocean. 
Every  year  dozens  of  Gloucester  fishermen  are  lost 
in  this  manner. 

As  in  the  case  of  mackerel,  codfish  are  sold  either 
fresh  or  salt ;  but  most  of  the  halibut  are  sold  fresh, 

though  some  are  smoked.     In  order 

(4)  Method  of      tQ  galt  Qr  c         the  codfish  th      are 

marketing  ,..  ,  — ,  ,  ,     ■,    . 

spli t  open  and   cleaned,    soaked   in 

barrels  of  brine,  and  then  dried  upon  the  wharf. 
Very  often  the  bones  are  removed,  the  skin  stripped 
off,  and  the  flesh  torn  into  shreds  and  packed  into 
boxes  as  boneless  cod.  Either  the  salted  or  boneless 
cod  may  be  seen  in  almost  any  grocery,  and  much 
of  it  comes  from  Gloucester. 

Traps,  or  weirs,  are  also  set  for  fish.  They  are 
placed  along  the  shore,  and  many  kinds  of  fish,  such 
as  shad,  salmon,  and  bass,  swim  into 
them  and  are  then  unable  to  find 
their  way  out.  Another  kind  of  fish 
that  is  caught  on  the  New  England  coast  is  the  her- 
ring, which  is  smoked  and  canned  in  large  quanti- 
ties at  Eastport,  Me. 

Lobster  fishing  is  also  carried  on,  especially  on  the 
coast  of  Maine.  A  lobster  trap,  made  of  wood  and 
weighted  with  stone,  is  lowered  to  the  bottom, 
where  the  lobster  lives,  crawling  around  among  the 
rocks  and  seaweed.     A  fish-head  for  bait  is  inside 


5.   Other  ocean 
foods 


the  trap,  and  the  lobster  crawls  in  to  get  it;  but  he 
is  so  stupid  that  he  is  rarely  able  to  find  his  way  out. 
Clams,  found  along  many  parts  of  the  New  Eng- 
land coast,  live  buried  in  the  mud  flats  which  are 
exposed  to  view  at  low  tide.  At  such  times  boys 
and  men  dig  these  shellfish  out,  much  as  a  farmer 
digs  potatoes.  Another  kind  of  shellfish  on  the 
New  England  coast  is  the  scallop ;  and  still  another 
is  the  oyster,  which  thrives  in  the  shallow  water  of 
the  bays  on  the  southern  coast  of  New' England. 

So  much  of  New  England  is  hilly  or 
mountainous,  and  the  soil  is  so  strewn  with 
bowlders,  that  farming  is  not  Agriculture 
so  extensive  an  industry  as  in  lm  Importance 
many  other  parts  of  the  coun-  of  this  industry 
try.  In  some  sections,  where  the  soil  is 
very  poor  and  no  market  is  near,  farming 
has  proved  such  a  failure  that  many  farms 
Lave  been  abandoned  (Fig.  55).  On  these, 
the  orchards  are  grown  up  with  weeds,  and 
the  houses  and  barns  are  tumbling'  down. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  more  hilly 
parts  of  New  England. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  sec- 
tions where  there  is  really  excellent  farm 
land.  This  is  true  in  the  larger  vallej-s, 
particularly  the  Connecticut  Vallej',  which 
has  much  level  and  fertile  land. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


39 


Each  farm  usually  has  a  small  orchard 
and  also  produces  hay  and  grain,  which  are 
2.  Products  either  fed  to  cattle  and  horses, 
from  the  farms  c,r  sold.  All  the  farmers  keep 
some  poultry,  selling  the  chickens  and  eggs  ; 


Where  the  farms  are  so  far  away  from  the 
cities  that  it  is  impossible  to  drive  to  mar- 
ket, dairying  is  common  (Fig.  56).  So 
much  milk  is  needed  in  the  large  cities  that 
special  arrangements  are  made  for  market- 


Fig.  55.  —  An  abandoned  farm  in  the  hilly  part  of  New  England  where  the  soil  is  thin  and  sterile. 


and  some  make  a  business  of  raising  poultry, 
such  as  hens,  turke}"s,  and  ducks. 

A  very  common  occupation  is  truck  farm- 
ing. On  truck  farms  various  kinds  of  veg- 
etables, like  tomatoes,  sweet  corn,  potatoes, 
cucumbers,  cabbages,  and  celery,  are  care- 
fully cultivated  ;   and  these,  together  with 


ing  it.  Special  cars,  and  even  whole  trains, 
carrying  nothing  but  cans  of  milk,  are  run 
to  them  from  far  out  in  the  country .  A  great 
deal  of  milk  is  made  into  butter  and  cheese, 
sometimes  on  the  farm,  but  much  more  com- 
monly at  creameries,  where  the  work  is  done 
by  machinery. 


Fig.  56.  —  A  herd  of  dairy  cows  grazing  in  the  pasture.    Their  milk  is  sent  to  the  cities. 


milk  and  eggs,  are  sent  to  the  nearest  town 
to  be  sold.  The  farmer  often  takes  them  to 
town  himself  and  sells  them  from  house  to 
house,  thus  securing  higher  prices  than  if 
he  sold  them  to  a  storekeeper.     Why  ? 


In  the  Connecticut  Valley,  the  farms 
are  often  of  good  size,  having  fields 
of  grain  and  fine  large  gardens  and 
orchards.  There  are  also  extensive  fields 
of  tobacco. 


40 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Strangers  traveling  through  New  England,  upon 
seeing  the  hilly  surface  and  rocky  soil,   are  often 

puzzled  to  understand  how  the  farm- 
3.  The  market  erg  can  earn  enough  to  build  such 
or  sue    pro  -        iarge  houses  and  barns,   to  furnish 

their  homes  so  well,  and  to  have  so 
many  books  and  pictures.  The  reason  is  that  the 
cities,  near  at  hand,  give  an  excellent  market  for 
farm  products.  There  are  so  many  people  in  these 
states,  especially  in  the  three  southern  ones,  that 
only  a  part  of  the  food  needed  can  be  raised  in  this 
section.  This  insures  a  ready  and  profitable  mar- 
ket for  whatever  food  the  land  can  produce. 


Manufacturing 

1 .  Extent  of 
this  industry, 
with  reasons 


When  the  Puritans  settled  New  England, 
the  articles  that  they  needed  had  to  be 
brought  across  the  ocean  at 
great  expense.  At  first  they 
imported  not  only  furniture 
and  tools,  but  even  wood  for 
the  interior  of  houses,  and  bricks  for  the 
walls,  fireplaces,  and  chimneys.  Even  now, 
in  some  of  the  older  New  England  houses, 
one  sees  doors  and  rafters  that  came  from 
over  the  sea  long  ago. 

Very  soon,  however,  the  settlers  began  to 
make  such  articles  as  shoes,  cloth,  and  lum- 
ber. Thus  manufacturing  began  early,  and 
the  industry  was  greatly  aided  by  the  water 
power  (Eig.  57).  It  was  also  aided  by  the 
many  lakes.  These  served  as  reservoirs 
from  which  the  falls  and  rapids  were  sup- 
plied with  water,  even  during  times  of 
drought.  Many  mills  and  factories  sprang 
up  near  the  coast,  and  later  in  the  interior. 

Thus  New  England  soon  became  the  prin- 
cipal manufacturing  section  of  the  whole 
country.  To-day  its  many  large  cities  owe 
their  growth  chiefly  to  this  industry.  Hun- 
dreds of  articles  are  made,  of  which  those 
composed  of  wood,  cotton,  wool,  leather,  and 
metal  are  the  most  important. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  these  kinds 
should  be  manufactured,  since  most  of  these 
raw  materials  are  not  produced  in  great 
quantities  in  New  England.  The  reason  is 
that  the  abundant  waterfalls  furnished  such 
excellent  power  that  it  paid  to  bring  the 
raw  materials  there  to  be  manufactured. 
Later  the  people  learned  to  manufacture  so 


well,  that  factories  were  built  even  where 
there  was  no  water  power,  as  in  Boston, 
where  steam  power  is  used.  Since  coal  is 
now  cheap,  the  location  of  a  mill  near  an 
important  railway,  or  near  some  other  good 
shipping  point,  is  a  more  important  matter 
than  its  location  near  water  power. 


Fig. 


57.  —  Factories  iu  a  New  England  village,  which  have 
been  built  because  of  the  water  power  there. 


2.   Manufac- 
tures from  the 
forest 

(1)  Lumber, 
and  articles 
made  from  it 


The  mouths  of  the  rivers,  being  good 
shipping  points,  are  natural  sites  for  man- 
ufacturing towns  and  cities. 
Many  such  towns  in  Maine  are 
eno-aa;ed  in  lumber  manufac- 
turing.  The  logs  from  the 
forest  are  floated  to  them,  and 
there  much  work,  requiring 
many  men,  is  necessary  to  change  these  to 
lumber,  and  then  to  various  useful  articles. 

For  example,  the  city  of  Baxgor  has 
grown  up  where  the  ocean  tide  checks  the 
river  current,  so  that  the  logs  can  be  floated 
no  farther ;  and  vessels  from  the  ocean  can 
reach  this  point  in  order  to  carry  off  the 
lumber.  The  log  drives  of  the  Kennebec  and 
Androscoggin  rivers  are  stopped  at  the 
sawmills  in  several  cities  along  their  banks, 
such  as  Watekville,  and  Augusta,  the 


THE   UNITED    STATES 


41 


capital  of  Maine  ;  but  some  are  carried 
down  as  far  as  Bath,  which  is  noted  for  its 
ship  building.  On  the  wharves  of  Port- 
land are  quantities  of  boards  ready  to  be 
shipped  away  to  be  made  into  boxes,  barrels, 
doors,  and  hundreds  of  other  articles. 

Another  important  use  of  the  forests  is 
in    making  paper,    for  much  of    the  paper 
commonly  seen,  such  as  news- 
(2)  Paper  paper   and    wrapping     paper, 

is  now  .made  of  wood.  Short  logs  (two-foot 
lengths),  after  having   the   bark  removed. 


Fig.  58.  —  Men  and  women  leaving  the  factory  at  the  close  of  the  day. 
Notice  how  many  people  there  are  employed  in  this  one  factory. 


are  placed  in  a  steel  frame  and  forced 
against  an  enormous  grindstone.  The 
wood  pulp  thus  ground  off  is  carried  away 
by  water,  run  through  a  sieve,  deposited  on 
a  wide  belt,  and  pressed  into  thin  sheets  be- 
tween rollers.  When  dry,  it  is  paper.  Wood 
pulp  is  also  made  by  help  of  chemicals.  We 
do  not  often  think,  when  reading  the  news 
or  wrapping  a  package,  that  the  paper  in 
our  hands  may  once  have  been  part  of  a  live 
tree,  perhaps  in  the  woods  of  Maine. 

Paper  mills  are  found  at  Rfmford  Falls, 
East  Livermore,  East  Millinocket,  and 
Bangor  in  Maine.  However,  Holyoke,  the 
greatest  paper-making  city  in  New  England, 
is  situated  not  in  the  forest  region,  but  in  the 
midst  of  busy  cities  in  Massachusetts.  There 


the  pulp  is  generally  made  of  rags,  which 
produce  a  finer  grade  of  paper.  The  neigh- 
boring cities  furnish  a  large  supply  of  the 
necessary  rags. 

The  forest  trees  supply  other  valuable  products 

besides   lumber  and   wood  pulp.     One  of   these  is 

tannic  ncid,  used  in  tanning  leather; 

it   is   made   from   the   bark  of   the    f3)  Tannic 

hemlock  and  other  trees.     Another    acui '•'  maP!e 

,       .  ,  sugar  and  sirup 

product  is  maple  sirup   and  sugar. 

Among  the  trees  in  the  forests  of  New  England  is 
the  sugar  maple,  which  is  very  common  in  Vermont, 
as  well  as  in  Xew  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
other  states.  Its  sap,  unlike  that 
of  most  trees,  is  sweet  ;  and  if  a 
hole  is  bored  through  the  bark  in 
early  spring,  when  the  sap  is  mov- 
ing through  the  tree  most  rapidly, 
it  will  ooze  forth  as  a  watery  liquid. 
This  is  then  boiled  to  drive  off 
some  of  the  water,  thus  making 
maple  sirup  and  maple  sugar. 

There  are  about  400  cotton 
mills  in  New  England,  mak- 
ing: such  articles 

,  ,        3.   Textile 

as  sheets,  towels,  manufacturing 
Stockings,  un-  (i)  Extent  and 
derwear,  thread,   variety  of  cotton 

.    •  i         n  manufacturing 

string,  handker-  J  * 

chiefs,  and  gingham  and  calico 
dress  goods.  As  many  as 
1200  persons  may  be  em- 
ployed in  a  single  mill,  per- 
haps three  quarters  of  the  number  being 
women.  One  of  these  mills  may  consume 
from  60,000  to  70,000  pounds  of  cotton  per 
day. 

The  cotton  arrives  in  bales,  each  weighing  about 
500  pounds,  and  is  made  into  cloth  in  the  following 
manner :  First,  the  dirt,  small  sticks, 
etc.,  are  removed.     Then  the  cotton    @)  Method  of 


cotton  manu- 
facture 


fibers,  of  various  lengths,  are  combed 

out  straight  and  well  mixed  with  one 

another.     After    that    they  are    pressed    into  thin, 

gauzelike  sheets.      These  are  gradually  drawn  out 

and    twisted    into  threads,  and   then  wound    upon 

spindles  and  taken  to  the  looms  for  weaving.     All 

this  work  is  done  by  machinery. 

Cotton  cloths  are  nothing  more  than  such  threads 
woven  together,  those  that  extend  lengthwise  of  the 
piece  being  called  the  warp,  and  those  across  it,  the 
icovf.     An   ordinary  piece  of  calico  has  a   warp   of 


42 


NORTH  AMERICA 


perhaps  1200  threads,  while  a  wide  piece  of  cloth,  such 
as  a  sheet  for  a  bed,  may  contain  as  many  as  2500. 
Stripes  and  other  patterns  are  made  by  coloring  the 
threads  differently,  and  then,  before  the  weaving 
begins,  carefully  arranging  them  according  to  some 
design. 

After  being  sheared  from  the  sheep,  the 
wool  is  washed  and  freed  from  burs,  sticks, 

,o,  ,r  „  ^  ,      etc.     It  is  then  untangled  and 

(3)  Method  of  .     e 

wool  manu-  combed  out  straight,  alter 
facture  which  it  is  twisted  into  yarn, 

much  as  cotton  is  twisted  into  thread. 
The  yarn  is  woven  into  cloth  for  men's 
suits  and  overcoats,  and  also  for  coats, 
skirts,  underwear,  blankets,  stockings,  car- 
pets, and  dozens  of  other  articles.  Most, 
if  not  all,  of  the  garments  that  you  are 
wearing  are  made  either  of  wool  or  cotton, 
or  of  the  two  mixed  together. 

Most  of  the  cotton  is  brought  from  Texas 
and  other  Southern  States,  but  some  of  it 

(4)  Where  the  comes  from  Egypt  and  other 
cotton  and  wool  foreign    countries.     None     is 

are  obtained  •       i   •      at         r?       l       j 

raised  in  JSlew  England. 

The  wool  is  cut,  or  sheared,  from  sheep, 
and  much  of  that  which  is  manufactured 
into  cloth  in  New  England  is 
obtained  from  Ohio  and  other 
states  farther  west.  Large 
quantities  are  also  imported 
from  Australia,  and  a  small 
amount  comes  from  the  New 
England  pastures. 

The  following  cities  are  en- 
gaged extensively  in  the  manu- 
,.    „, .  ,  facture  of  either 

(5)  Chief  cities 

engaged  in  tea-  cotton   or   woolen 

tile  manufac-  cloth,      01'      both  : 

lure  •      t»  r    •          ti 

in  Maine,  Bidde- 

FORD,        LEWISTON,    AUBURN, 

and  Augusta  ;  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, Manchester,  Nashua, 
and  Dover  ;  in  Massachusetts, 
Lowell  and  Lawrence  on 
the  Merrimac  River ;  Pitts- 
field  in  western  Massachusetts,  and  Eall 
River,  New  Bedford,  and  Taunton  in 
the  southern  part ;  in  Rhode  Island,  Paw- 


tucket,  Woonsocket,  and  Providence 
(Eig.  61),  which  is  the  second  city  in  size 
in  New  England.  One  of  the  largest 
cotton  factories  in  the  world  is  at  Man- 
chester, N.H.  Locate  each  of  these  cities 
on  the  map. 

Boot  and  shoe  making  is  carried  on  in  a 
number  of  cities,  though  the  most  important 
are   Lynn,   Haverhill,   and 
Brockton   in   Massachusetts,  manufacturing 
Locate   them.     Besides   boots   (i)  cities  en- 
and  shoes,  leather  is  made  into  gaged  in  it,  and 
many   other    articles,  such    as  ar  lc  es  ma  e 
bookbindings,  harnesses,  pocketbooks,    and 
bicycle  saddles.     Can  you  name  others  ? 

Leather  is  made  from  the  hides  of  ani- 
mals, such  as  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  horses, 
and  hogs.  After  the  hair  is  (2)  How  leather 
removed,  the  hides  are  taken  is  prepared 
to  tanneries,  where  they  are  soaked  in  tan- 
nic acid  to  make  them  durable. 

Some  of  the  tanneries  are  situated  near  forests, 
as  in  Michigan,  where  there  are  many  hemlock 
trees  whose  bark  produces  the  tannic  acid.  Others 
are  in  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina,  where  a 
kind  of  oak  grows  from  which  tannic  acid  is  made. 


Fig.  51).  —  Workmen  in  a  shoe  factory  in  Lynu. 

Some  of  the  tanneries  of  New  England  also  are  near 
the  forest,  but  many,  like  those  in  and  about  Salem, 
are  far  away  from  the  forests.     To  these,  both  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


43 


hides  and  the  bark  must  be  brought  a  long  distance. 
In  some  tanneries  chemicals  are  used  in  place  of  the 
tannic  acid  from  hemlock  or  oak  bark.  In  a  single 
tannery  near  Boston,  where  sheepskins  are  tanned, 
from  30,000  to  40,000  skins  are  prepared  each  week. 

After  being  tanned,  the  leather  is  brought 
to  the  shoe  factories  and  cut  up,  one 
,.,  „     .    .      machine  cutting  out  soles  of  a 

(3)  Hotc  boots  .  ° 

and  shoes  are  certain  size,  a  second  tops,  a 
made  third  tongues,  etc.  ;  these  parts 

are  then  sewed  or  nailed  together,  and  the 
shoes  are  soon  finished.  As  in  the  case  of 
cotton  and  woolen  manufacturing,  nearly  all 
the  work  is  done  by  machinery,  each  person 
caring  for  one  or  more  machines,  and  per- 
forming the  same  simple  task  day  after  day. 

On  account  of  the  water  power,  the  New 
England  people  early  began  to  manufacture 
5.  Metal  manu-  metals  into  various  articles. 
facturing  Although  steam    now  largely 

takes  the  place  of  water  power,  these  in- 
dustries are  still  very  extensive,  especially 
in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con- 
necticut. 

Since  very  little  coal  and  iron  are  pro- 
duced in  New  England,  these  two  materials 
(1)  Kind  of  must  be  shipped  from  other 
articles  made,  states.  Therefore  large,  heavy 
with  reason  objects,  that  require  much 
metal  and  coal,  are  not  generally  made.  The 
lighter  articles,  like  jewelry,  clocks,  needles, 
cutlery,  tools,  and  firearms,  that  require  a 


high  degree  of  skill,  are  the  chief  articles 
manufactured  from  metal  in  New  England. 

Worcester  (Fig.  61),  west  of  Boston,  is 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  wire- and  iron 
goods,  besides  envelopes,  boots,   (2)  cities  en- 
and    shoes.     Great    quantities  gaged  in  this 
of  jewelry  are  made  at  Provi-   mdustry 
dence.    New  Haven  is  noted  for  hardware 
and  firearms.      Corsets,  cartridges,  and  sew- 
ing machines  are  manufactured  at  Bridge- 
port.   Firearms,  cars,  and  bicycles  are  made 
at  Springfield  and  at  Hartford,  which  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  steamboat   naviga- 
tion on  the  Connecticut  River.    Fitchburg 
is  also  engaged  in  metal  manufacturing. 

Near  Boston,  at  Waltham,  the  American 
Watch  Company  has  an  immense  factory 
(Fig.  60),  where  3100  watches  are  made 
every  day.  About  4300  persons,  more  than 
half  of  whom  are  women,  are  employed  there, 
receiving  about  $ 200,000  a  month  in  wages. 
Great  numbers  of  clocks  and  watches  are 
made  in  Waterbury,  and  jewelry  and 
cutlery  at  Meriden,  Conn.  In  hundreds 
of  smaller  cities,  towns,  and  villages  in  New 
England  there  are  factories  and  mills  of 
various  sorts.  Some  of  the  cities  where 
cotton  and  woolen  goods  are  manufactured, 
such  as  Fall  River,  Lowell,  and  New 
Bedford,  are  also  noted  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  other  metals. 

All  this  manufacturing  calls  for  an  ini- 


The  Waltham  Watch  Factory  at  night.    This  is  but  one  of  the  many  large  factories  of  New  England. 


44 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Commerce 


mense  amount  of  lumber, 
cotton,  wool,  leather, 
metals,  coal, 
and  food  ; 
and  most  of  these  prod- 
ucts must  be  brought 
from  outside  of  New 
England.  The  commerce 
of  New  England  is,  there- 
fore, extensive. 

The  rivers  are  not  of 
great  value  for  shipping 
these  goods,  because  of 
their  many  rapids  and 
falls.  Most  of  them  are 
also  too  short  and  shal- 
low for  boats.  Thus, 
while  of  great  service  in 
manufacturing,  the  rivers 
have  helped  very  little  in 
transportation. 

On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  many  good 
harbors  along  the  coast. 
And  although  boats  can- 
not ascend  the  rivers, 
railroads  lead  from  the 
seaports  to  all  parts  of 
the  interior.  The  rail- 
roads, together  with  the 
numerous  steamship  lines 
that  ply  between  New 
England  and  other  parts 
of  the  world  (Fig.  61), 
furnish  excellent  means 
for  transportation  of 
goods. 

The  most  important  of 

the   New   England   cities     Fig.  61.  — Boston  and   vicinity.     Also  small  maps  of   Providence,   Portland,  and 
Prinrinal  IS    BOSTON  Worcester.    Notice  the  steamship  and  railway  lines  converging  at  Boston.    Also 

cities  the     fifth 


the  number  of  cities  near  Boston. 


l.  Boston  city   in    size    in    the    United 

States.  It  is  a  great  manufacturing  center, 
being  engaged  in  most  of  the  industries 
already  named,  and  especially  in  making 
clothing.  Its  great  size  is  largely  due 
to  its  excellent  harbor  (Fig.  61),  and  its 
central    location. 


The  port  of  Boston  is  third  in  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States.  Great  quanti- 
ties of  raw  materials  are  received  here,  to 
be  sent  to  the  factories  of  New  England ; 
and  the  finished  goods  are  shipped  all  over 
the  world.  Much  grain  and  meat  reach 
Boston   from   the   West  to  be  distributed 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


45 


among  the  smaller  cities,  or  shipped  abroad. 
In  return,  ships  from  foreign  countries 
bring  such  articles  as  coffee,  tea,  chocolate, 
rubber,  wool,  bides,  and  bananas,  which 
are  needed  in  New  England. 

Boston  and  its  vicinity  have  been  important  from 
the  earliest  days  o£  our  history.  There,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Revolutionary  War,  occurred  the 
Boston  Tea  Party,  Paul  Revere's  Ride,  and  the 
Battle    of    Bunker    Hill.     The   vicinity  of   Boston 


Fig.  H2.  —  The  Washington  elm  at  Cambridge.     It  was  urn 
Washington  first  took  command  o£  the  American  army 

is  also  noted  for  its  eminent  men.  Harvard  College, 
the  oldest  in  the  United  States,  was  founded  in  1(336 
at  Camuhidge,  three  miles  from  Boston.  Yale 
College,  at  Xew  Haven,  was  started  sixty-five 
years  later,  in  1701.  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Holmes, 
and  Agassiz  were  professors  at  Harvard ;  and  Haw- 
thorne, Emerson,  Thoreau,  and  Whittier  lived  not 
far  from  Boston. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Boston  are  many 
manufacturing  cities  and  towns  which  also 
2.  Cities  near  serve  as  places  of  residence  for 
Boston  the  business  men   of   Boston. 

Among  these  the  largest  are  Cambridge 
and  Someeville  (Fig.  61),  which  have  im- 


portant industries  of  meat  packing,  machine 
manufacturing,  and  printing.  Others  are 
Chelsea  and  Malden,  each  engaged  in 
manufacturing  rubber  goods  and  other 
articles. 

Not  far  distant  is  Salem,  which  in 
colonial  days  was  even  more  important  than 
Boston.  Since  its  harbor  is  too  shallow  for 
the  deep  ships  of  the  present  time,  this  city 
has  lost  much  of  its  commerce,  which  is 
now  carried  on  in  Boston. 
Notice,  in  Figure  43,  that 
Salem  was  one  of  our  large 
cities  in  the  year  1790. 

Portland  (Fig.  61),  the 
largest  city  in  Maine,  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  3  other  large 
and  is  the  eastern  cities 
terminus  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway,  which  runs  through 
Canada.  In  winter,  when  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  is  frozen 
over,  it  is  a  shipping  point 
for  Canadian  goods.  New 
Haven,  the  largest  city  in 
Connecticut,  and  Providence 
(Fig.  61),  the  largest  in 
Rhode  Island,  are  both  on 
the  seacoast. 

The  seacoast  of  New  Hamp- 
shire   is    very   small,   and    the 
largest     city,     Manchester, 
lies  inland  near  some  falls  in 
the  Merrimac  River  ;    but  on 
the  coast  is  the  important  city 
of  Portsmouth.     Vermont  has  no  seacoast. 
Its  largest  city,  Burlington,  is  a  lake  port 
on  Lake  Champlain. 

There    is    so    much    manufacturing    and 
commerce  in  New  England,  that  great  num- 
bers   of    people    dwell    in    the  gummer 
cities  ;  and  during  most  of  the  resorts 
year,  they  are  closely  confined  1.  Why  a  need 
in  noisy  factories,  or  in  offices  of  vacatlona 
and  stores.    To  these,  the  wooded  mountains, 
the  silvery  lakes    (Fig.   21),   the  winding 
rivers,  with  their  falls  and  rapids,  the  green 
valleys,  and  the  rocky  seacoast,  offer  great 


ler  this  tree  that 
in  July,  1775. 


46 


NORTH  AMERICA 


attractions;  and  every  summer  tens  of  thou- 
sands leave  town  for  a  week  or  more,  to 
enjoy  their  vacations  at  these  places. 

Many  go  to  the  green  slopes  of  the  Berk- 
shire Hills  and  Green  Mountains,  or  climb 
2.  Where  the  about  among  the  rugged  peaks 
people  spend       of  the  White  Mountains  (Fig. 

their  vacations      g3)j    tQ    enjQy    thfl     wonderful 

scenery.  Others  plunge  into  the  woods 
of  Maine  or  northern  New  Hampshire,  to 
hunt  and  fish,  or  to  canoe  upon  the  streams 
and  lakes ;  and  still  others 
settle  down  at  farmhouses,  to 
enjoy  the  quiet  of  the  country 
(Fig.  56). 

Man)r  others  go  to  the  sea- 
shore, to  escape  the  heat  and 
to  bathe  in  the  salt  water,  or 
to  sail  and  row.  So  many  go 
there  that  a  large  part  of  the 
New  England  coast  is  dotted 
with  summer  cottages  and 
hotels.  Indeed,  people  come 
here  from  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Thousands 
visit  Bar  Harbor,  on  Mount 
Desert  Island  in  Maine,  which 
is  therefore  a  very  busy  place 
in  summer.  Along  the  coast, 
for  many  miles  north  and  south 
of  Boston,  there  are  other  noted 
summer  resorts.  Nantucket 
Island  and  Martha's  Vineyard 
are  similar  resorts  farther  south  ;  while  just 
west  of  them,  on  Narragansett  Bay,  is 
Newport,  noted  for  its  many  magnificent 
summer  homes. 


10.  The  marble?  11.  The  slate?  12.  What  about 
the  former  abundance  of  fish  ?  Name  and  locate 
the  centers  for  the  present  fishing  industry. 
13.  What  kinds  of  fish  are  now  caught?  14.  De- 
scribe the  method  of  catching  and  marketing  mack- 
erel.    15.   Where   are   halibut  and  codfish  caught? 

16.  Describe     the     method     of      catching      them. 

17.  What  are  the  dangers  connected  with  such  fish- 
ing ?  18.  What  is  the  method  of  marketing  these 
fish?  19.  What  other  ocean  foods  are  found  in  this 
region  ?  20.  To  what  extent  is  agriculture  impor- 
tant here  ?  21.  What  are  the  principal  farm  prod- 
ucts?   22.   Why  is   there   a  good  market  for  such 


Fig.  63.  —  The 
thousands 
every  sum 


Review 
Questions 


1.  State  to  what  extent  the  mountains  make  the 
surface  of  New  England  irregular.  Name  and  lo- 
cate the  principal  mountains.  2.  Ex- 
plain how  the  Great  Glacier  made 
important  changes  in  New  England. 
3.  How  has  the  sinking  of  the  coast  made  the  coast 
line  very  irregular?  4.  Describe  the  climate. 
5.  What  about  the  extent  of  the  forests  in  New 
England?     6.    Tell   about   the    cutting   of    timber. 

7.  Describe  the  floating  of   the  logs   to   the   mills. 

8.  What   hardships   are    there  in  the  lumberman's 
life?      9.    What   can   you    tell   about   the   granite? 


railway  up  the  slopes  of  Mount  Washington,  on  which 
of  summer  visitors  are  taken  to  the  top  of  the  mountain 
mer. 

products?  23.  Why  is  manufacturing  very  exten- 
sive in  New  England?  24.  Where  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  lumber  carried  on  ?  25.  Tell  how  paper  is 
made.  26.  What  other  forest  products  are  obtained? 
27.  What  kinds  of  textile  manufacturing  are  there 
in  New  England?  28.  What  is  the  extent  of  the 
cotton  manufacturing?  29.  Describe  the  method 
of      manufacturing      cotton      and    woolen    goods. 

30.  Where    are   the    cotton    and    wool    obtained? 

31.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities  engaged 
in  textile  manufacturing.  32.  What  can  you  tell 
about  leather  manufacturing  ?  33.  What  are  the 
principal  kinds  of  metal  manufacturing?  Why? 
34.  What  cities  are  extensively  engaged  in  this  in- 
dustry? 35.  What  advantages  has  New  England 
for  commerce?  36.  For  what  is  Boston  important? 
37.  Name  other  cities  near  Boston  and  tell  about 
each.     38.   Locate  the  other  large  cities.     For  what 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


47 


is  each  important?  39.  Why  is  there  a  special  need 
of  vacations  in  New  England  ?  40.  Where  and  how 
do  the  people  spend  them  ? 

Maine  (Me.).  1.  Draw  the  coast  line  of  Maine. 
2.  Why  is  it  so  irregular?  3.  Find  the  principal 
rivers.  4.  What  cities  are  situated 
Review  Ques-  on  each  ?  5.  Should  you  expect 
tions  by  States  much  fishing  along  the  coast?  Why? 
6.  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  so 
many  people  resort  to  the  Maine  coast  and  woods  in 
summer?  7.  Describe  lumbering  in  Maine.  8.  What 
cities  are  engaged  in  producing  lumber  ?  Why  those  ? 
9.  What  stones  are  quarried  in  the  state?  10.  Which 
is  the  largest  city?  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with 
Boston  and  Providence?  (See  Appendix,  pp.  427  and 
428.)  11.  What  other  cities  in  Maine  are  mentioned 
in  the  text?  Find  them  on  the  map.  12.  Draw  an  out- 
line map  of  Maine,  locating  the  principal  rivers  and 
lakes,  the  capital,  and  other  leading  cities.  Do  the 
same  for  each  of  the  other  states  as  you  study  about  it. 

New  Hampshire  (N.H.).  13.  What  large  lakes 
are  found  in  this  state?  What  river?  14.  Name 
the  cities  on  it.  15.  For  what  are  they  important? 
16.  Why  are  there  not  more  cities  in  northern  New 
Hampshire?  17.  What  industry  should  you  expect 
there?  18.  Find  Mount  Washington  ;  it  is  the  high- 
est peak  in  New  England.  19.  Where  should  you  ex- 
pect to  find  most  farming?  20.  How  does  the  largest 
city  in  the  state  compare  in  size  with  Portland? 

Vermont  (Vt.).  21.  What  large  lake  forms  a 
part  of  the  western  boundary?  Into  what  waters 
does  it  empty?  22.  What  river  flows  along  tha east- 
ern boundary?  Through  what  states  does  it  flow? 
23.  What  is  the  name  of  the  mountains?  24.  Lum- 
bering is  carried  on,  as  in  Maine ;  into  what  waters 
must  the  lumber  be  floated  ?  25.  What  other  Ver- 
mont industries  are  mentioned  in  the  text?  2(3.  There 
is  also  farming  in  the  fertile  valleys,  and  manu- 
facturing, as  at  Brattleboro.  Find  Brattleboro. 
27.  Compare  the  size  of  the  largest  city  with  that 
of  Manchester,  N.H. 

Massachusetts  (Mass.).  28.  Compare  Massachu- 
setts with  Vermont  and  Maine  in  area ;  in  popula- 
tion. (See  Appendix,  p.  425.  J  29.  Name  the  large 
cities  near  Boston  (Fig.  61).  30.  Find  the  principal 
cities  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  tell  where  each  is 
located.  31.  For  what  is  each  important?  32.  What 
advantages   do   you   see     in  the  location   of   each? 

33.  Find   Plymouth,   where   the    Pilgrims     landed. 

34.  Where  is  the  mountainous  portion  of  the  state? 
Name  the  mountains.  35.  What  effect  should  you 
expect  the  mountains  to  have  upon  agriculture? 
36.  State  as  clearly  as  you  can  the  reasons  why 
Boston  has  grown  to  be  a  large  city.  37.  Of  what 
importance  is  Boston  to  the  cities  near  by?  38.  Of 
what  importance  are  they  to  Boston? 

Rhode  Island  (R.I.).  39.  Compare  this  state 
•with  Massachusetts  and  Maine  in  area.     It  is  the 


smallest  state  in  the  Union.  40.  What  is  the  name 
of  the  bay  in  this  state?  What  cities  are  located  on 
it?  41.  What  large  city  is  in  Rhode  Island?  How 
is  it  important?  42.  Compare  its  size  with  that  of 
Boston  and  Portland.  43.  Should  you  expect  much 
lumbering  in  Rhode  Island?  .Why?  44.  What  kind 
of  farming?    Why? 

Connecticut  (Conn,  or  Ct.).  45.  Where  are  the 
mountains  in  this  state?  46.  Locate  each  of  the 
cities  mentioned  in  the  text.  47.  Tell  how  each  is 
important.  48.  The  farms  of  Connecticut  are  better 
than  those  of  Maine.  Why?  49.  There  is  little  lum- 
bering in  the  state.  Why?  50.  Compare  the  size  of 
New  Haven  with  that  of  Boston  and  Portland. 

51.  Name  the  principal  industries  of  New 
England.     In   which    states    are   they   carried   on  ? 

52.  AVhich  industry  do  you  consider    _  ,  _     . 

i.o     •»!■  l  i-  i      c  General  Review 

most    important  I     Make    a   list    ot    _       ,. 

the  ten  largest  cities  (see  Appendix) 

in  New   England,   the    states  they  are    in,  and  the 

chief  kinds  of  manufacturing  they  are  engaged  in. 

53.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  New  England  States, 
including  the  chief  rivers,  cities,  mountains,  and  the 
state  boundaries. 

1.  Read  Whittier's  "  Snow-Bound."   2.  Read  about 

lumbering  in  Chase  and  Clow's  i:  Stories  of  Industry," 

Vol.  I.     3.  Visit  a  stone-yard,  or  a    „ 

.  ,  i  i       Suggestions 

place  where  monuments   are  made, 

and  collect  some  specimens  from  the  chips  in  the 

yard.     Put  these  in  the  school  collection.     4.  Find 

blocks   of    granite    and    of    marble    in    buildings. 

5.  Make  drawings  of  mackerel,  cod,  and  halibut. 
You  will  find  pictures  of   them   in  the  dictionary. 

6.  Make  a  collection  of  cotton,  wool,  leather,  and 
metals  for  the  school ;  also  make  a  collection  of 
articles  manufactured  from  each.  7.  Find  the  pres- 
ent price  of  cotton  per  pound.  At  that  price  how 
much  would  the  seventy  thousand  pounds,  that  one 
mill  uses  in  a  day,  be  worth?  8.  What  is  the  aver- 
age wage,  per  hour,  of  the  employees  in  the  Waltham 
Watch  Factory?  If  the  working  day  is  eight  hours 
long,  how  many  watches  are  made  per  minute?  Per 
year? 

3.    Middle  Atlantic  States 

1.  Which  states  have  mountains?  2.  Which 
has  none?  3.  What  influence  do  you  think  the 
mountains  have  upon  the  industries  ?  __  o+uriv 
4.  What  waters  help  to  form  the 
boundary  of  this  group  of  states?  5.  Where  do 
natural  boundaries  separate  the  states?  6.  Compare 
this  group  of  states  with  New  England  in  length  and 
width  (Fig.  45).  Notice  the  scales  of  the  two 
maps.  7.  Which  is  the  largest  state  ?  Is  it  larger 
or  smaller  than  Maine?  (See  Appendix,  p.  425.) 
8.  Name  the  three  bays.  Why  has  a  city  a  better 
location  at  the  head  of   one  of  these  bays  than  at 


48 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the  entrance?  9.  Name  and  locate  the  capital  of 
each  state.  10.  Find  the  capital  of  the  United  States. 
Would  a  location  nearer  the  center  of  the  country 
be  better?  11.  Name  the  five  largest  rivers.  Into 
what  waters  do  they  flow  ?    Through  what  states? 


New  England,  the  map  shows  clearly  that 
much  of  the  region  is  mountainous. 

Just  east  of  the  mountains  is  a  low,  hilly 
plateau  of  hard  rock,  called  the  Piedmont 


OF    TH  e: 

M  I  D  D  U  E 
ATLANTIC    STAT  r.  S 

.   Modeled    by 
EDWIN    E    HOWELL 


O         Zh         50       IS         \OQ 
II'1' 


Fig.  65.  —Relief  map  of  Middle  Atlantic  States. 


The  Appalachian  Mountains  extend  from 
northeast  to  southwest  across  these  states. 
Surface  Note  the    number    of    parallel 

features  ranges.       How    great    is    the 

1.  Extent  of  distance  across  this  mountain 
the  mountains  system?  What  two  mountain- 
ous sections  do  you  find  in  eastern  New 
York  ?  While  the  surface  of  a  large  jjortion 
of  these  states  is  more  regular  than  that  of 


Plateau  (Fig.  42).  This  is  really  a  worn- 
down  mountain  region  like  New  England ; 
in  fact,  it  represents  the  very  2.  The  Pied- 
roots  of  those  mountains  which  mont  Plateau 
rose  above  the  sea  long  before  the  Coal 
Period  (p.  2).  The  plateau  slopes  sea- 
ward, causing  the  streams  to  flow  in  short 
courses  in  the  same  direction. 

Nearer  the  seacoast  the  country  is  a  low 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC 
STATES 

,     ,  Scale-  of  Miles  , 1 

Cities  u-ith  over  1.000,000 NEW  YORK  /        " ^U 

cuica  iri*ft  coo.ooo  to  l.ooo.ooo Baltimore     gA 

cities  with  100,000  to  coo.ooo Buffalo  \    \ 

Cities  witli  25,000  to  100,000. NorfolkL> 

Smaller  places -Danville  -< 

Capitate  with  Iras  than  23,000 DOVER  "^ 

j.  National  Capitals  @ 


TI1E   UNITED  STATES 


49 


plain  of  softer  rocks,  chiefly  sands  and  clays. 
They  were    deposited   on    the    sea    bottom 

3.  The  Coastal    and  then  raised 

Plains  t0      form      dry 

land.  These  plains,  added 
to  the  country  more  re- 
cently, are  known  as  the 
Coastal  Plains  (Fig.  41). 
From  New  York  to  Ala- 
bama the  streams  that  flow 

4.  The  Fail  from  the  Pied- 
Line  and  its  niont  Plateau 
importance  tQ  the   Coastal 

Plains  have  rapids  and  falls 
where  they  cross  the  divid- 
ing line  between  these  two. 
This  boundary  is,  therefore, 
called  the  Fall  Line  (Fig. 
66).  There  are  rapids  and 
falls  along  this  line,  because 
the  streams  have  been  able 
to  dig  more  rapidly  into  the 
soft  layers  of  the  Coastal  Plains  than  into 
the  harder  rocks  of  the  Piedmont  Plateau, 
before    white    men    came,    the    Indians 


ir'fM:4 

f-JTil-1^1^^;rilA   SC**-E  OF  MILES'? 


Fig.  (36.  —  The  Fall  Line.  Coastal  Plains 
dotted,  Piedmont  and  other  sections 
left  white.  Cities  printed  in  heavy 
type  are  located  along  the  Fall  Line. 


Delaware  Water  Gap. 


placed  their  villages  on  the  streams  along 
this   line.     The  early  settlers  also  located 


their  villages  here,  partly    because   of   the 

water  power,  and  partly  because  boats  go- 
ing upstream  were  stopped 
by  the  rapids  and  falls. 
N ow  many  of  these  villages 
have  become  large  cities. 
Note  (Fig.  66)  how  many 
cities  are  on  the  Fall  Line. 
Name  them. 

On  the  western  side  of  the 
mountains  is  the  Allegheny 
Plateau,  which  5    Theslope 
slopes     gently  west  of  the 
toward      the  »«»»»*«*■ 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers. 
Near    the     mountains,     in 
West   Virginia    and   Penn- 
sylvania,   the    rivers    have 
cut    deep    valleys    in    this 
plateau;     and    it    is    there- 
fore  so  rugged   and   rocky 
that   it   has   attracted   few 

settlers,  except  near  the  rich  coal  beds  that 

lie  buried  in  the  rocks. 

You  have   already  learned    (p.   26)  that 
the   A  p  p a 1 a  c  h i  an 

Moun-   6.   Passage- 
tains   ways  across  the 

were  APPalacllians 
at  first  a  serious 
barrier  to  westward 
migration  ;  but  at 
the  beginning  of 
the  last  century 
many  emigrants 
pushed  their  way 
across  them.  This 
migration  was 
greatly  aided  by 
the  fact  that  several 
rivers,  such  as  the 
Mohawk,  Delaware 
(Fig.  67),  Susque- 
hanna, Potomac, 
and  James  flow 
across  a  part  or  the 
mountain  system.  These 
gateways    to    the    fertile 


whole 
rivers 


of    the 
formed 


50 


NORTH  AMERICA 


western  plains  beyond  the  mountains. 
Describe  the  course  of  each  of  these  rivers, 
telling  through  what  states  it  flows. 

The  map  shows  many  lakes  in  New  York, 
northern    New    Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania. 

7.  Effects  of  the  There  are  also  many  waterfalls 
Great  Glacier  anci  rapids.  Niagara  (Fig. 
68),  on  the  boundary  of  New  York,  is  the 
grandest  waterfall  in  the  world; 
and  two  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
which  are  also  partly  in  New 
York,  are  among  the  largest 
lakes  in  the  world.  There  are 
several  other  large  lakes  in  this 
state.  Name  some  of  them 
(Fig.  64).  As  in  New  England, 
many  of  these  lakes  and  water- 
falls were  caused  by  the  Great 
Glacier.  Trace  its  southern 
boundary  in  these  states  (Fig. 
18).  What  about  lakes  and 
waterfalls  south  of  that  line? 

In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States, 
as  in  New  England,  the  sinking 

8.  Effects  of  the  °f       the      land      haS 

sinking  of  the  caused  numei'ous 
coast  large  bays  and  fine 

harbors.  Through  these  the 
tide  often  reaches  far  inland. 
In  the  Hudson  River,  for  in- 
stance, it  extends  above  Albany; 
and  in  the  several  branches  of 
the  Chesapeake  Bay,  it  reaches 
nearly  to  the  Fall  Line.  Most 
of  the  coast,  unlike  the  rocky 
coast  of  New  England,  is  low 
and  sandy,  with  long,  gently 
sloping  beaches,  where  the  bath- 
ing is  excellent  (Fig.  69). 

The    northern    part    of    New 

York    is    in    45    degrees    north    latitude. 

How    far    is    that    from    the 

ima  e       equator  ?       From     the     north 

pole  ?     How  much   nearer   the   equator   is 

the  southern  part  of  Virginia  ? 

While  the  climate  of  the  northern  part 
of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  resembles 
that  of  New  England,  that  of  the  southern 


portion  is  much  warmer.  Its  greater 
warmth  is  due  partly  to  the  lower  latitude, 
and  partly  to  the  ocean  currents.  The 
cold  Labrador  current  does  not  extend 
south  of  Cape  Cod,  but  the  Gulf  Stream 
passes  very  near  the  Virginia  coast  (Fig. 
313). 

The  climate  in  Virginia  is  so  mild  that 


Fig.  68.  —  A  view  of  Niagara  Falls. 

sleighing  and  skating  are  rarely  possible, 
while  places  near  the  entrance  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  —  such  as  Old  Point  Comfort  and 
Newport  News  —  are  important  winter 
resorts.  Among  the  mountains,  however, 
the  climate  is  cooler  ;  and  even  as  far  south 
as  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  there  are 
cool  summer  resorts  on  the  mountain  slopes. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


51 


Photograph  supplied  by  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 
Fig.  69. —  Bathing  on  Cape  May  Beach,  N.J. 


The  winds  of  this  section  often  blow  from 
the  ocean,  so  that  there  is  abundant  rainfall 
for  crops  and  for  the  growth  of  dense 
forests.  In  most  of  these  states,  from  forty 
to  fifty  inches  of  rain  falls  every  year. 

Many  of  the  prominent  industries  in  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  are  the  same  as  those 
Lumbering  of  New  England.  There  are 
and  related  in-  extensive  forests  in  both  the 
dustries  Adirondack    and  Appalachian 

mountains,  as  well  as  upon  the  Allegheny 
Plateau.  In  the  southern  part,  in  and  near 
West  Virginia,  many  hard-wood  trees  are 
found  ;  but  in  the  northern  portion,  both 
the  trees  and  the  methods  of  lumbering 
resemble  those  in  Maine. 

Williamsport,  in  Pennsylvania,  is  ex- 
tensively engaged  in  the  lumber  busi- 
ness. There  are  also  many  paper  mills 
supplied  from  the  forests,  as  at  Water- 
town,  near  the  Adirondack^.  The  sugar 
maple  grows  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  and  in  most  of  the  states  tannic 
acid  is  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  hem- 
lock or  oak.  , 

Over  most  of  this  section  the  woods  have  been  so 
wastefully  cut  down  that  it  is  now  necessary  for  the 
government  to  protect  those  that  are  left.  In  several 
of  the  states  there  are  forest  reservations  in  which 
it  is  forbidden  to  cut  down  the  trees,  or  where  only 
a  few  of  the  largest  are  cut  each  year.  Besides  this, 
some  large  tracts  of  woodland,  called  qame  preserves, 
are  carefully  protected  by  certain  citizens,  for  the 
purpose  of  fishing  and  hunting  at  the  proper  season. 
State  laws  also  protect  the  game. 


Fishing 


for   cod   and  halibut  is  a  much 
less  important  industry  than  in  New  Eng- 
land.    It  is  too  far  to  the  Fish- 
ing  Banks  (p.   37)   for   many     ls  l  s 
vessels  to  go  there  from  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States. 

Some  vessels  are  engaged  in  catching 
mackerel,  bluefish,  and  other  ocean  fish  ;  and 
many  shad  are  caught  in  the  i.  Kinds  of 
bays  and  rivers.  This  fish  fish  caught 
swims  into  fresh  water  each  spring  in  order 
to  lay  its  eggs,  or  spawn  ;  and  the  young 
remain  there  until  they  are  large  enough  to 
venture  to  the  sea.  It  is  while  they  are  on 
the  way  to  or  from  the  spawning  grounds 
that  most  shad  are  caught. 

Oysters  are  found  all  the  way  from  Cape 
Cod  to  the  Rio  Grande  (Fig.  267)  ;  but  one 
of  the  best  places  for  them  is  2.  The  oyster 
Chesapeake  Bay,  where  the  industry 
waters  are  warm,  shallow,  and  quiet.  From 
this  broad,  branching  bay  they  are  collected 
in  great  quantities,  some  being  shipped  away 
fresh  in  the  shell,  while  many  are  canned, 
like  fruit.  Baltimore  and  Norfolk  are 
especially  noted  for  this  industry. 

When  young,  the  oysters  swim  freely  about;  but 
after  reaching  a  certain  age,  they  sink  to  the  bottom, 
fasten  themselves  to  some  solid  substance,  like  a 
stone  or  an  oyster  shell,  and  never  afterwards  move 
from  that  spot.  They  depend  for  food  upon  what  is 
brought  to  their  mouths  by  the  tidal  currents. 

Oysters  live  only  in  shallow  water,  and  can  some- 
times be  picked  up  by  hand  from  a  boat ;  but  usually 
they  must  be  dragged,  or  dredged,  up  with  a  long- 


52 


NORTH  AMERICA 


handled  rake.  Small  steamers  and  sailing  boats  are 
used  for  gathering  them.  Many  men  are  engaged 
in  the  oyster  industry,  which  is  so  profitable  that 
there  are  many  private  oyster  beds,  which  are  care- 
fully protected.  Such  beds  are  sometimes  called 
oyster  farms,  or  plantations.  Young  oysters  are 
often  brought  here  and  put  into  the  water  to  grow, 
as  seeds  are  planted  in  a  garden. 

There    is    more    good   farm   land  in  the 

Middle  Atlantic  States  than  in  New  England, 

.     .    „.  and   agriculture    is,   therefore, 

Agriculture  &       .  .     , 

a     more    important    industry. 

1.  Where  the        "         ,  ,        ,    «        ,    ,    t-»i    • 

farms  are  The  low,  level  Coastal  Plains, 

located  tne    gently    rolling    Piedmont 

Plateau,  and  nearly  all  of  New  York,  except 
the  Catskill  and  Adirondack   regions,  are 
dotted  with   farms.     There    is   also    much 
farm  land  in  the  broader  val- 
leys   of   the    Allegheny    Pla- 
teau, west    of   the    mountains, 
and  in  the  valleys  which  lie 
between  the  Appalachian 
Mountain  ridges.     Among  the 
latter    by    far    the    most    im- 
portant is  the  Great  Valley  of 
Pennsylvania,   Maryland,   and 
Virginia. 

Many  of  the  farmers  turn 
their  attention  chiefly  to 
dairying  ;  and, 
although  butter 
and  cheese  are  made  in  every 
state  in  the  Union,  this  work  is  especially 
important  in  New  York. 

The  number  of  cows  in  a  dairy  herd 
(Fig.  70)  varies  from  a  dozen  to  several 
score.  In  summer  they  are  allowed  to  graze 
in  the  pastures,  but  during  the  winter  they 
are  kept  in  large  barns,  where  hay  is  fed  to 
them.  Twice  each  day  they  are  milked, 
and,  as  in  New  England  (p.  39),  the  milk 
may  be  sent  to  a  neighboring  city  to  be 
sold  by  the  quart,  or  it  may  be  kept  for 
making  butter  or  cheese. 

Utica,  on  the  Mohawk  River,  is  an  im- 
portant cheese  market ;  and  small  cheese 
and  butter  factories,  or  creameries,  are  scat- 
tered over  New  York.  They  are  common 
in  the  other  states,  also.     These  creameries 


3.   Tobacco 


furnish  a  ready  market  for  the  milk,  and  are 
therefore  of  great  value  to  the  farmers  near 
by  ;  indeed,  milk  is  even  brought  by  train 
to  some  of  the  creameries. 

The  tobacco  plant,  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  about  three  and  a  half  feet,  has 
large,  thick  leaves  (Fig.  106), 
somewhat  like  those  of  the  pie- 
plant, or  rhubarb.  These  leaves,  which  are 
the  valuable  part  of  the  plant,  are  plucked 
in  the  fall,  hung  in  a  room  to  dry,  and  then 
are  ready  for  market. 

The  climate  of  most  parts  of  New  Eng- 
land and  New  York  is  too  severe  for  this 
plant,  but  large  quantities  are  raised  in 
the  Connecticut  Valley,  and  in  the  valleys 


2.   Dairying 


Fiu.  7U.  —  A  dairy  herd  in  New  York  feeding  in  the  pasture  late  in  the  Fall, 
after  the  first  snow  has  fallen. 


of  southern  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
states  farther  west  (Fig.  256).  Far  the 
greatest  amount  of  tobacco  raised  in  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  comes  from  Vir- 
ginia. In  the  vicinity  of  Lynchburg  and 
Danville,  where  much  tobacco  manufac- 
turing is  carried  on,  immense  quantities  are 
grown ;  and  Richmond  and  Petersburg, 
on  the  Fall  Line  (Fig.  66),  are  among  the 
leading  tobacco  markets  of  the  world. 
Find  these  cities  on  the  map. 

Both  the  soil   and  the   climate  of  these 

states   are   well  suited  to  the  .    „  .         . 
.    -      .,  ,  ,        4-  Raising  of 

raising  or    fruits  and  vegeta-  fruits  and  vege- 

bles.       Nearly    every     farmer  *ables 

raises    some    of     each.       The  W  Sections 

,  it  p   important  for 

sections  near   large    bodies  of  those  products 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


53 


water,  however,  have  the  best  climate  for 
fruit.  This  is  because  the  presence  of  water 
tends  to  equalize  the  climate,  thus  checking 
the  danger  from  frosts. 

One  of  the  most  noted  sections  for  fruit 
is  along  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Erie 
in  western  New  York.  Here  grapes  in 
particular  are  cultivated  (Fig.  71).  Apples 
form  another  important  fruit  crop  in  New 
York,  being  grown  in  many  parts  of  the 
state,  but  especially  along  the  southern 
shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  There  is  so  much 
fruit  raising  in  New  York  that  the  nursery 
business,  or  that  of  raising  young  fruit  trees, 


Fig.  71. 


-Grapes  on  a  vine  in  a  vineyard  in  western 
New  York. 


vines,  and  bushes  to  sell,  is  a  flourishing  in- 
dustry. One  of  the  principal  centers  for 
this  business  is  Rochester. 

On  the  Coastal  Plains  and  Piedmont 
Plateau  of  eastern  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia,  grapes,  peaches, 
strawberries,  apples,  and  other  fruits  flour- 
ish. Besides  fruit,  such  common  vegetables 
as  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes,  beans, 
and  sweet  corn  are  grown  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States. 

There  are  so  many  large  cities  in  these 
states  that  there  is  great  demand  for  fruits 
(2)  7V  market  and  vegetables.  In  the  early 
/or  them  spring  they  are  sent  from  the 

south  in  large  quantities  to  the  northern 
markets,  being  carried  on  fast  trains,  and 


often  in  special  cars.     Many  kinds  are  eaten 
fresh  during  the  proper  season. 

The  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for 
winter  use  has  become  an  important  in- 
dustry in  several  cities,  as  in  Baltimore 
and  Wilmington.  Many  farmers  are  en- 
gaged almost  entirely  in  raising  crops  for 
this  purpose.  Probably  as  many  peaches, 
berries,  tomatoes,  etc.,  are  put  up  in  cans, 
as  are  eaten  fresh.  These  canned  goods 
may  be  seen  in  every  grocery  store.  The 
fruits  are  prepared  for  use  in  other  ways 
also  ;  for  instance,  the  juice  of  grapes  is 
made  into  wine,  and  that  of  apples  into 
cider  and  vinegar. 

Besides  the  cattle  necessary  for  dairying, 
many  horses  are  raised  in  these  5.  other  farm 
states.  In  some  of  the  more  products 
hilly  sections,  like  western  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania,  there  are  many  sheep.  Hogs 
are  raised  on  most  of  the  farms  ;  and  also 
hens,  ducks,  and  turkeys. 

Among  the  most  important  crops  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  are  hay  and  the 
grains,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  corn,  barley, 
rye,  and  buckwheat.  Far  more  land  is 
used  for  these  crops  than  for  those  already 
mentioned.  However,  since  the  states 
farther  west  are  even  more  noted  for  hay 
and  grain,  a  description  of  this  kind  of 
farming  will  be  given  later,  in  connection 
with  those  states  (pp.  93-97). 

There  are  many  more  kinds  of    mineral 
products  in  the  Middle  Atlan- 
tic States   than  in  New  Eng-     ining 
land  ;   and  they  are  far  more  valuable. 

One  of  these  is  salt,  a  mineral  which  is 
necessary  to  every  one.  In  the  early  days 
salt  springs  were  discovered 
at  the  point  where  Syracuse 
now  stands,  and  that  city  owed  its  early 
growth  to  those  springs.  Little  salt  is  now 
produced  there ;  but  large  quantities  of 
soda  are  made  of  brine  obtained  from  the 
salt  beds  near  by. 

These  beds  of  salt  were  deposited  in  the 
sea  which  covered  this  region  before  the 
Goal     Period.       They    were    later    buried 


1.   Salt 


54 


NORTH   AMERICA 


beneath  layers  of  rock,  much 

as  the  coal  beds  were  buried. 

In     the     region 

(1)  Wherefound  ,  .     c 

south  or  Syra- 
cuse and  Rochester,  the  salt 
beds  lie  deep  in  the  earth,  and 
from  them  salt  is  obtained  at 
a  number  of  places.  In  fact, 
New  York  produces  more  salt 
than  any  other  state,  with  the 
exception  of  Michigan,  which 
ranks  first.  Ohio  and  Kansas 
also  produce  large  quantities. 

When  in  the  earth,  salt  is  hard, 
somewhat    like   coal,   and   may   be 

obtained    in    either 

(2)  How  one    of    two 
obtained 


Fig.  12.  —  The  salt  in  these  great  piles  was  brought  to  the  surface  in  brine 
that  rose  through  wells  bored  dawn  to  the  salt  beds  of  central  New  York. 
The  brine  was  then  evaporated,  leaving  the  salt. 


ways.  By  the  one 
method  a  small  hole  is-  bored  to 
the  salt,  and  water  allowed  to  run  down  and  dissolve 
it ;  then  the  brine  is  pumped  up  and  the  water  is 
evaporated  by  heat  until  only  the  salt  is  left  (Fig. 
72).  By  the  other  method  a  deep  hole,  or  shaft, 
large  enough  for  men  to  pass  up  and  down,  is  dug- 
down  to  the  salt ;  then  lumps  of  salt  are  broken 
off  and  hoisted  to  the  surface.  A  salt  mine  is  a 
beautiful  sight  with  its  clear,  crystal  white  walls 
and  clean  floor. 


Fid.  73.  —  A  miner  digging  out  bituminous  coal  in  a  tunnel,  far  uuderground 
near  Pittsburg.    The  entire  wall  of  this  tunnel  is  solid  coal. 


Although  there  is  little  water  power  south 
of  the  region  that  the  glacier  covered,  there 
ismuchcoal — an  excellentsub-  2.  Coal 
stitute.  The  coal  swamps,  that  (i)  where 
existed  millions  of  years  ago  (p.  found 
2),  stretched  from  the  ancient  Appalachian 
Mountains  westward  beyond  the  Mississippi 
River.  Most  of  the  coal  now  found  in  this 
region  is  soft,  or  bituminous,  coal,  and  enor- 
mous quantities  of  it 
are  mined  (Fig.  73). 
In  two  or  three  places, 
however,  as  near 
Wilkes-Barre  and 
Scrantox,  there  are 
beds  of  hard  coal,  or 
anthracite.  It  is  to 
this  coal  that  these 
cities  owe  their  impor- 
tance. 

Although  much  coal 
is  mined  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States  are  most 
noted  for  this  mineral. 
About  half  the  coal  of 
the  United  States  comes 
from  Pennsylvania; 
West  Virginia  is  second, 
and  Illinois  third,  while 
Ohio  produces  a  large 
quantity. 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


55 


(2)  Hoto anthra- 
cite coal  was 
formed,  and  its 
special  value 


Anthracite  coal  was  once  soft.  Had  it  not  been 
for  the  folding  of  the  mountains,  it  would  doubtless 
now  be  bituminous  coal,  like  that 
farther  west,  near  Pittsburgh.  But 
the  pressure  caused  by  the  folding  of 
the  mountain  rocks  has  changed  it 
to  hard  coal.  All  woody  matter, 
and  even  soft  coal,  contains  gases ;  but  in  the 
anthracite  these  gases  have  been  mostly  driven 
off. 

This  has  made  anthracite  coal  harder  and  more 
difficult  to  burn ;  but  since  it  gives  forth  a  more 
intense  heat  than  bituminous  coal,  and  burns  with 
less  smoke,  anthracite  is  preferred  for  some  purposes, 
such   as  heating  and  cooking.     Throughout   Xew 


th  ra  cite  coal  is 

prepared/or 

market 


Fig.  74.  —  A  drawing  to  illustrate  how  coal  is  mined.    There 
straight  down,  then  tunnels  extend  off  from  it  into  the  diffe 

England  and  many  parts  of  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  it  is  almost  the  only  coal  used  for  these 
purposes. 

In  some  places  the  coal  is  found  close  to 
the  surface,  though  in  many  others  it  is 
(3)  Method  several  hundred  feet  beneath 
<tf mining  the  surface.     Where  the  coal 

lies  far  down  in  the  earth,  deep  shafts  must 
be  sunk  to  reach  it.  From  the  sides  of  such 
a  shaft,  tunnels  (Fig.  74)  are  dug  into  the 
coal  beds,  and  from  these  the  coal  is  re- 
moved. 

Usually  there  are  several  beds  of  coal,  with  thick 
layers  of  rock  between,  and  the  shaft  extends  down- 
ward through  them  all,  with  tunnels  reaching  out 


into  each  of  the  coal  beds  (Fig.  74).  In  a  large 
mine  one  may  travel  through  miles  and  miles  of 
tunnels.  Since  it  is  very  dark  so  far  underground, 
the  tunnels  are  sometimes  lighted  by  electricity  ;  but 
the  workmen  often  furnish  their  own  light  by  means 
of  lamps  fastened  to  their  caps. 

The  miners  drill  holes  in  the  coal  beds  with  drills 
run  by  steam  or  compressed  air,  and  break  the  coal 
out  by  blasting ;  the  larger  lumps  are  then  broken 
up  with  picks.  After  this  is  done,  the  coal  is  placed 
in  cars,  drawn  to  the  shaft  by  mules,  or  by  electricity, 
aud  then  hoisted  to  the  surface.  The  mules  are 
kept  underground  for  months,  being  fed  and  allowed 
to  sleep  in  stables  cut  out  of  solid  coal. 

Soft  coal  is  sold  in  the  form  that  it  reaches  the 
surface ;  but  anthracite  must  first 
be  sorted  so  that  the 
lumps  of  one  size  are  (*)  How  an- 
together.  This  work 
is  done  in  great 
buildings,  called  coal 
breakers,  which  stand  close  by  the 
mouth  of  the  shafts.  The  coal  is 
hoisted  to  the  top  of  the  breaker, 
where  the  larger  lumps  are  broken 
up.  It  then  passes  down  through 
the  building  and  is  separated  into 
different  sizes  by  means  of  sieves 
and  various  kinds  of  machinery. 

There  is  much  rock  mixed  with 
the  coal,  and  this  must  be  picked 
out.     Some  of  this  work  is  done  by 
machinery ;  but  much  of  it  is  done 
by  boys,  called  breaker  boys,  who  sit 
on  low  wooden   benches,  as  the  coal 
passes    by,   watching    carefully   for 
pieces  of  rock.     These  they  pick  out 
and  throw  away.     You  can  imagine 
how  black  they  become  before  their 
day's  work  is  done. 
Both  the  hard  and  the  soft  coal  are  used 
not  only  for  heating  houses  and  for  cook- 
ing, but  also  in  making  steam 

r  !  (5)   Uses  of  coal 

tor  use  in  running  locomotives, 
steamboats,  and  the  machinery  of  factories. 
Much  coal  is  used  also  in  smelting  iron  and 
other  metals,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
illuminating  gas  for  use  in  lighting  houses. 
Coal  is,  indeed,  the  most  useful  of  all  min- 
erals. Without  it,  our  country  could  not 
have  prospered  as  it  has.  It  is  fortunate, 
therefore,  that  there  is  so  much  coal  in  the 
United  States,  and  that  it  is  found  over  so 
large  an  area. 

In   the  rocks  of   the   plateau  along  the 


is  a  shaft  going 
rent  coal  heds. 


56 


NORTB  AMERICA 


western  border  of  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains, two  other  fuels,  oil  and  natural  gas, 
3.  Petroleum  are  often  found.  Petroleum, 
and  natural  gas    as  the  oil  is  generally  called, 

(1)  where  found  means  "  rock  oil,"  —  a  name 
which  suggests  its  origin. 

Formerly  no  region  in  the  world  pro- 
duced so  much  oil  as  western  Pennsylvania, 
West  Virginia,  and  eastern  Ohio  ;  but  now 
this  region  is  rivaled  by  California  and 
a  part  of  the  Gulf  region  in  Oklahoma  and 
Texas.  Outside  of  the  United  States  the 
only  region  in  the  world  that  approaches 
either  of  these  in  the  amount  of  oil  pro- 
duced is  in  Russia,  near  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Ages  ago,  when  the  layers  of  rook  were  being 
deposited  on  the  ocean  floor  (p.  6),  countless  num- 
bers of  animals  and  plants,  dying  and 

(2)  How  formed    d,.opp;ng  to  the  hottom<  were  impris. 

oned  in  the  sediment  and  deeply  buried.  These 
then  slowly  decayed,  forming  oil  and  natural  gas 
which  entered  the  crevices  between  the  grains  of 
the  sandstones  and  other  rocks.  Thus  these  sub- 
stances have  become  stored  deep  down  in  the  earth. 
Oil  of  much  the  same  kind  is  now  manufactured 
from  fish;  and  nearly  the  same  kind  of  gas  may 
often  be  seen  rising  from  swampy  places,  where 
plants  are  decaying. 

When  a  hole  is  bored  down  to  a  rock 
layer   where  gas   is   thus   stored,   the   gas 

(3)  How  ob-  rushes  to  the  surface.  It  is 
tainedfrom  then  led  away  in  pipes,  often 
underground  to  distant  places.  Thousands 
of  homes  in  Buffalo,  Pittsburgh,  and 
other  cities  are  heated  with  natural  gas ; 
and  in  many  factories,  too,  the  gas  is  used 
for  fuel. 

Borings  in  which  petroleum  rises  are 
called  oil  wells.  From  these  the  oil  some- 
times spurts,  or  gushes  out ;  but  frequently 
it  must  be  pumped  out.  Near  the  oil  wells 
cities  have  grown  up,  such  as  Braditord 
and  Oil  City  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Olean 
in  New  York. 

After  being  taken  from  the  earth,  the 
petroleum  is  stored  in  large  tanks  and  then 

(4)  Products  refined.  In  its  natural  state  it 
from  the  oil  [s  a  thick,  dark  yellow  or  red- 
dish yellow  fluid ;  but  in  the  refinery  it  is 


changed  so  that  a  large  part  of  it  becomes 
clear,  colorless  kerosene  oil. 

Benzine,  naphtha,  and  gasoline  are  also  made 
from  petroleum.  The  thick  substances  that  are 
left,  after  the  refining,  are  used  in  making  dyes  of 
various  kinds,  machine  oil,  vaseline,  and  paraffin. 
The  latter  is  used  in  many  ways ;  for  example,  in 
making  chewing  gum,  and  candles. 

The  oil  business  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company.     From  the  wells  the  oil  is 
led  to  the  refineries  in  pipes   (Fig. 
75),   sometimes   hundreds   of   miles    (»)  Principal 
long,  and  the  company  owns  many   ™™pa™Jt  han~ 
special  tank  cars  for  hauling  the  ker- 
osene, as  well  as  steamers  for  shipping  it  to  foreign 
lands.      Watch  for  one  of    the   tank  cars,  and  de- 
scribe it. 


Fig.  75,  —  A  large  pipe  through  which  petroleum  is 
flowing  from  the  oil  wells  to  the  refinery. 

Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  the 
other  states  mentioned  enjoy  a  great  advan- 
tage in  having  such  an  abun-  .    . 

i  e  i-i  c  on  ore 

dance  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas  for  ,j,  where 
fuel.  Iron  ore  is  also  found  found,  and  why 
in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  important 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  New  Jersey,  and 
some  other  states.  Thus  both  the  raw  mate- 
rial and  the  fuel  for  manufacturing-  it  into 
useful  articles,  are  found  almost  side  by  side. 
Both  coal  and  iron  are  easily  sent  to  all 
the  cities  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States 
for  use  in  the  factories.  This  is  very  im- 
portant, since  iron  is  the  most  useful  of  all 
metals  for  manufacturing. 

In  appearance,  iron  ore  is  sometimes  a 
hard,  black  mineral;  sometimes  a  soft,  loose, 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


57 


yellowish   or  reddish   brown  earth.     It   is 
not  iron  at  all,  any  more  than 

(2)  Its  apppar-         ,  .      a  ...  , 

ance;  aim  how    wheat  is  flour;  it  is  only  iron 
formed  and        ore,  a    mineral    out    of   which 
iron  may  be  made  by  a  great 
deal  of  work. 

Like  coal,  the  iron  ore  in  the  earth  was  prepared 
long  ago.  though  in  a  very  different  manner,  as  fol- 
lows: Small  quantities  of  iron  exist  in  many  min- 
erals and  rocks  ;  indeed,  the  red  and  yellow  colors  of 
many  soils,  and  of  some  rocks,  are  due  to  it.  As 
water  slowly  works  its  way  through  the  rocks,  it 
dissolves  the  iron,  much  as  it  would  dissolve  salt  or 


and  limestone  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union. 
Pennsylvania  leads  all  other  states  in  the  value  of  its 
building  stone,  and  New  York  ranks  third. 

To  obtain  iron  from   iron  ore,  two  mate- 


rials, coke  and  limestone,  are  Manufacturi 

used.      They  are  mixed  with  .    „     .  A 

,  ,1,,  i    at  1-   Manufacti 

the   ore  and   heated,  and  the  of  iron  g00ds 

process  of  getting  out  the  iron  (i)  jjow  iron 

is  called  smelting.  made 


Coke  is  obtained  from  soft  coal  by  burning  it  in 
stone  or  brick  furnaces,  called  coke  ovens  (Fig.  76). 
There  the  coal  is  set  on  fire,  and  the  ovens  are  closed, 


Fig.  76.  —  Coke  ovens  near  Pittsburgh. 


Each  of  the  small  doors  leads  to  an  oven  where  the  coal  is  burned  and 
changed  to  coke. 


sugar  if  those  substances  were  there.  Where  the 
conditions  have  been  favorable,  the  water  has  brought 
quantities  of  the  iron  to  one  point,  and  there  depos- 
ited it.  This  has  formed  beds,  or  veins,  of  iron  ore, 
and  it  is  these  that  are  now  being  mined. 

Sometimes  the  veins  lie  very  deep,  and  the  ore 
must  be  mined  in  much  the  same  way  as  coal  is 
mined  (p.  55).  Again  the  veins  are  so  near  the 
surface  that  the  ore  is  taken  out  of  great  open  pits, 
somewhat  as  stone  is  removed  from  a  quarry. 

Besides  these  valuable  substances,  there  are  many 
other  minerals  found  in  these  states.  Among  them 
are  zinc,  found  in  New  Jersey ; 
gypsum  and  graphite,  or  black  lead, 
in  New  York ;  and  a  great  variety  of 
clays  and  building  stones  in  all  the  states.  Pennsyl- 
vania, for  example,  produces  more  slate,  sandstone, 


5.   Other  min- 
eral products 


so  that  little  air  can  enter.  Indeed,  so  little  air  is  let 
into  the  ovens  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  substances 
in  the  coal  is  burned.  It  is  mainly  the  gases  in  the  coal 
that  are  burned  up  or  driven  out,  one  of  these  being 
the  common  illuminating  gas,  already  mentioned 
(p.  55).  The  solid  part  that  is  left  forms  very  light, 
porous  coke.  This  can  then  be  burned  and  made  to 
furnish  intense  heat,  if  supplied  with  plenty  of  air. 
It  is  this  heat  that  is  used  to  melt  the  iron  ore. 

Limestone  is  obtained  from  limestone  quarries. 
It  is  valuable  because  it  unites  with  the  worthless 
part  of  the  ore,  forming  a  substance  much  lighter 
than  iron,  called  slag.  This  is  easily  separated  from 
the  iron,  and  is  thrown  away. 

In  reducing  iron  ore  to  iron,  more  coke 
than  ore  is  used,  so  that  it  is  a  special  ad- 


58 


NORTH  AMERICA 


vantage  to  have  the  mines  of  coal  and  iron 
ore  near  each  other.  The  coke,  iron  ore, 
and  limestone  are  all  dumped 
together  into  a  high,  towerlike 
structure,  called  a  blastfurnace 
(Fig.  77).  It  is  so  named 
because  a  blast  of  air  is  forced 
through  it,  to  produce  a  strong 
draft  while  the  coke  is  burning. 
The  great  heat  melts  the  ore 
and  limestone,  and  the  iron, 
being  heaviest,  sinks  to  the 
bottom  of  the  fiery  hot  liquid. 
The  limestone,  united  with 
those  parts  of  the  ore  that  are 
not  iron,  rises  to  the  surface, 
forming  worthless  slag,  which 
is  drawn  off  through  an  open- 
ing in  the  furnace.  Through 
a  lower  opening,  the  heavy 
iron  is  run  off  into  trenches, 
made  of  sand,  on  a  sand  floor. 


and  shipped  away,  to  be  made  into  thousands  of 
different  articles. 


There  is  one   main    trench   with 
many   side    branches,   and    each  of 
these  has  still  smaller  branches  connected  with  it, 
as  shown   in   Figure   78.     When  the  molten  iron 
cools,  the  little  bars  of  iron,  called  pig  iron,  are  still 


Fig.  77.  —  A  blast  furnace  in  which  iron  ore  is  changed  to  iron. 


Some  ii'on  goods,  such  as  stoves  and  the  iron  parts 
of  your  desk,  are  nothing  more  than  this  pig  iron 
melted  and  cast,  in  molds,  into  the 


(2)   The  kinds 
of  iron  made 


B^BCifi 

1  ■^^H 

\    ^^ 

1  ■-  < 

J- 

4- 

''■     m 

E  ij^ffl 

'  i  a 

\  i 

7    11 

r  **s3m 

iHm 

^bBtttoh^M^ 

!3?5T^iF3!*S£e 

^•^^^pSlX 

-:*-- *    :,JU. 

_  i. 

"•—'- 

-ri      -      -■».-—•-' 

Fig.  78. —  Interior  of  a  blast  furnace.  Here  the  white-hot  iron  is  running 
down  a  trench  near  where  the  men  are  standing,  theu  iuto  side  brauches 
where  it  cools  as  pig  iron. 


attached  to  a  larger  one.     These  rough  bars,  which 
are  small  enough  to  be  lifted,  are  then  broken  off 


shape  that  is  desired. 
This  is  cast  iron, 
which  is  so  brittle  that  it  easily 
breaks  under  a  heavy  blow.  Other 
materials,  such  as  knife  blades,  boiler 
plates,  rails  for  railways,  and  watch 
springs  are  made  of  steel.  This  also 
is  made  of  pig  iron,  though  not  until 
it  has  been  melted  again  and  greatly 
hardened  and  strengthened  by  an 
expensive  process.  Wrought  iron,  a 
third  kind,  is  used  where  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  metal  to  be  tough  and 
at  the  same  time  to  bend  easily,  as 
in  iron  wire. 

Almost  every  city  in  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  is  en- 
gaged     in     iron  (3)  Centers  for 

WOl'k  of  One  kind    iron  manufac- 

or  another,  some  tur,n9 
in  making  iron  and  steel  out 
of    ore,   others    in    manufacturing  articles 
out  of   iron    and   steel.      For  example,  iu 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


59 


New  York  State,  Buffalo  manufactures 
car  wheels,  machinery,  and-  many  other 
articles.  It  has  several  thousand  factories, 
many  of  them  making  iron  goods.  In  New 
York  City,  iron  and  steel  products  of  al- 
most all  kinds  are  made.  Iron  and  steel 
goods,  bicycles,  etc.,  are  manufactured  in 
Syracuse  ;  stoves  are  made  in  Albany 
and  Troy  ;  and  there  are  iron  foundries  in 
Binghamton,  Elmira,  and  Schenec- 
tady. 

In  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia  manu- 
factures steel  ships,  cars,  and  hundreds  of 
other  iron  products  ;  Pittsburgh,  towhich 
Allegheny  is  now  united,  makes  steel  and 
iron  goods  of  nearly  every  kind  (Fig.  79); 
and    Scranton,   Reading,    Harrisburg, 


they  also  need  to  buy  clothes,  shoes,  etc.,  this  one 
factory,  by  furnishing  the  money  for  all  these  pur- 
chases, helps  to  support  farmers,  storekeepers,  shoe 
factories,  railways,  and  many  other  industries. 
However,  since  it  is  the  farmer  who  buys  the  im- 
plements, it  is  he  who  has  really  caused  the  factory 
to  be  built.     Thus  one  is  dependent  upon  the  other. 

Manufactories  using  three  other  mineral 
products  are  especially  worthy  of  note. 
One  of  these  is  glass,  which  is 

-,  i  t-i  2.    Manufacture 

made  at  and  near  .Pittsburgh,  of  lasS|   ot_ 
Wheeling,  and  other  places,  tery,  brick,  and 
especially    where    natural    gas  cement 
furnishes  cheap  fuel.     In  the  (1)  Glass 
vicinity  of  the  former  city,  there  are  sands 
which,  when  mixed  with  other  substances, 
and  melted,  make   an   excellent  quality  of 


■.:ji:LV.:    . , 


Fig.  79.  —  Homestead  Steel  Works,  oue  of  the  many  iron  and  steel  manufactories  in  and  near  Pittsburgh. 


Erie,  Altoona,  and  a  score  of  other  places, 
have  furnaces,  foundries,  and  machine 
shops  for  iron  manufacturing.  In  New 
Jersey,  Jersey  City,  Newark,  Camden, 
and  Hoboken  manufacture  iron  goods.  In 
Delaware,  Wilmington  is  noted  for  its 
cars  and  steel  ships.  In  Maryland,  Balti- 
more, like  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  has 
a  great  variety  of  iron  manufactures. 
Wheeling  in  West  Virginia,  and  Rich- 
mond and  Roanoke  in  Virginia,  are  also 
engaged  in  such   work. 

The  importance  of  even  a  single  manufactory  is 
proved  by  the  following  facts  :  At  the  Osborne  works 
in  Auburn,  New  York,  where  fanning  implements, 
such  as  mowers,  rakes,  reapers,  and  harrows  are 
made,  over  2700  men  have  been  employed  at  one 
time,  making  one  complete  implement  every  forty 
seconds.  In  a  year  these  men  and  their  families 
consume  about  0000  barrels  of  flour,  62,000  bushels 
of  potatoes,  200,000  dozen  eggs,  1.400,000  quarts  of 
milk,  375.000  pounds  of  butter,  and  1,300,000  pounds 
of  meat,  besides  much  coffee,  tea,  and  sugar.     Since 


glass.  Pittsburgh  is  the  greatest  center  in 
the  country  for  the  production  of  plate 
glass. 

In  a  number  of  places  clay  is  found  which 
is  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  pottery  ;  but 
much  clay  for  pottery  is  im-  (2)  pottery 
ported.  A  high  grade  of  pot-  and  bricks 
tery  is  made  at  Trenton,  N.J.,  where 
the  pottery  industry  has  become  very 
important. 

So  many  bricks  are  used  for  building, 
that  brick  yards  are  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  nearly  all  cities.  Bricks  are  made 
of  clay,  which  is  first  pressed  into  the  brick 
shape  when  damp,  then  dried,  and  finally 
baked.  In  this  process  some  of  the  grains 
melt,  so  that  when  cooled  again,  they  cling 
together  like  stone.  The  clays  near  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  great  clay  beds  of  the 
Hudson  Valley,  above  New  York  City,  sup- 
ply an  abundance  of  brick  for  these  and 
neighboring  cities. 


60 


NORTH  AMERICA 


(3)   Cement 


Portland  cement  has  become  of  great  im- 
portance within  the  last  few  years.  It  is 
made  in  many  places,  especially 
in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
and  New  York.  To  make  it,  limestone 
is  ground  fine  and  mixed  with  coal  dust. 
The  two  are  then  placed  in  a  furnace, 
where  the  burning  coal  dust  gives  out  so 
much  heat  that  the  limestone  melts.  It 
comes  out  of  the  furnace  as  a  kind  of 
clinker,  which  is  then  ground  into  fine  pow- 
der for  use.  This  cement 
has  the  valuable  property  of 
becoming  hard  like  rock,  or 
setting,  when  water  is  added. 
It  is  used  for  sidewalks,  for 
buildings,  dams,  bridges,  and 
many  other  purposes,  taking 
the  place  of  wood,  stone,  and 
iron. 

In    the    Middle    Atlantic 
States,  as  in  New  England, 

3.  Other  kinds      there   al'e   many 
of  manufactur-       Other     kinds     of 

ing  manufacturing. 

For  example,  flour  is  made 
at  Rochester;  silk  at 
Paterson  ;  shirts,  collars, 
and  cuffs  at  Troy  ;  starch  at 
Oswego  ;  cotton  goods  at 
Utica  ;  boots  and  shoes  at 
Binghamton  and  Roch- 
ester ;  carpets  and  hats 
at  Yonkers;  and  furniture  at 
Jamestown.  Cotton  and 
woolen  mills  are  found  at  a  number  of 
places,  and  the  manufacture  of  clothing  is 
of  great  importance  in  all  the  "large  cities. 
There  is  some  manufacturing  in  nearly 
every  town ;  and  in  the  larger  cities  so 
many  different  kinds  flourish  that  a  score 
of  pages  would  be  required  even  to  make 
a  list  of  them. 

Since  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  unlike 
New  England,  produce  great  quantities  of 
Commerce  coal  and  iron,  as  well  as  many 

l.  its  extent      other  raw  materials,  they  have 
more  manufacturing,  and   a   much   greater 


population,  than  New  England.  Trade  and 
transportation  of  goods  are,  therefore,  much 
more  extensive  industries  here. 

As  in  New  England,  the  commerce  is 
due,  first  of  all,  to  the  excellent  harbors 
along  the  coast.  Locate  the 
three  bays  here  :  that  is,  New 
York  Bay,  Delaware  Bay,  and  Chesapeake 
Ba}'.  The  most  noted  harbor  of  all  is  on  the 
first,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River. 
The   others   are   also   very  important,  for 


2.  The  harbors 


Map  ol  the 

CANALS 

of 

NEW  YORK 

0   10  20  30  40  50  CO  70 


Fig.  80.  —  The  Erie  Canal  and  other  water  routes  of  New  York  and  vicinity. 


large  vessels  can  ascend  Delaware  Bay  as 
far  as  Philadelphia,  and  Chesapeake 
Bay  to  Baltimore  and  Washington. 
The  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  as  well  as 
its  branches,  has  fine  harbors,  such  as  that 
of  Norfolk.  Note  the  cities  in  that  sec- 
tion, and  observe  how  easy  it  is  to  reach 
Richmond,  the  capital  of  Virginia,  by 
water. 

Good  harbors  are  of  little  use  unless  they 
can  be  easily  reached  from  the  3    connections 
interior.      New    York    Bay  is  with  the  interior 
especially  favored  in   this  re-   (1)  By  water 


THE   UN 1 TED   STATES 


61 


spect,  for  it  is  connected  b}-  water  with  the 
very  heart  of  the  fertile  country  to  the 
west.  This  water  way  first  leads  north- 
ward   up    the    Hudson 


River,    where    the 


first  railway  train  which  ran  out  of  Albany 

ocean  tide  rises  as  far  as  Troy,  just  above 
Albany.  Thus,  good-sized  boats  can  go  as 
far  as  that  point. 

From    near    Albany,  westward,  the  Erie 
Canal  (Fig.  80)  has  been  dug  for  a  distance 
of  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  connecting 
the  Hudson  River  with 
Lake  Erie  at  Buffalo. 
The    canal   follows   the 
route  formerly  taken  by 
the    Indians,    which    is 
the  easiest    route    from 
the    Eastern    States   to 
the  central  part  of  the 
country.       From     Buf- 
falo, lake  boats  are  able 
to  go  to  Cleveland,  De- 
troit, Chicago,    Duluth, 
and  other  ports  on  the 
Great  Lakes.     Thus  by 
river,    canal,    and    lake, 
New    York     harbor    is 
connected  by  water  with 
a     productive,     thickly 
settled    country    extending    westward    for 
more  than  a  thousand  miles.     This  is  one 
of   the  most  extensive  and   useful   interior 
water  wavs  in  the  world. 


Sevoral  shorter  canals  have  been  built  in  New 
York,  as  may  be  seen  in  Figure  SO;  point  them  out 
and  explain  their  importance.  The  smaller  lakes  are 
also  used  for  transportation.  Locate  some  of  them. 
A  number  of  canals  have  been  built  in  Pennsylvania, 
as  well  as  in  Xew  York  ;  but 
there  is  no  canal  connecting 
Philadelphia  with  the  Great 
Lakes,  because  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  and  Alle- 
gheny Plateau  lie  in  the  way. 

The  Erie  Canal  is  not 
nearly  so  important  at 
present    as 
it    was    at   »*»«* 
first,  though  it  is   now 
being  enlarged  to  a  barge 
canal.     It  is  largely  be- 
cause the  railways  carry 
freight      much      faster, 
that  the  canal  has  lost 
much  of  its  importance.     When   the  Erie 
Canal    was   dug,   there  were  no   railways ; 
but  when  it  was   found  that  steam  could 
be  used  for  running  locomotives,  men  be- 
gan to  build  railroads  rapidly. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  rail- 


Fig.  82.  —  The  Empire  State  Express,  one  of  the  trains  of  the  present  day  on  the 
New  York  Central  Railroad.  This  picture  was  taken  while  the  train  was  running 
at  a  speed  of  90  miles  an  hour. 

ways  iii  the  country  was  built  in  New  York 
State  (Fig.  81).  This  line,  now  called  the 
New  York  Central,  extends  from  the  very 
heart  of  New  York  City  along  the  Hudson 


62 


NORTH  AMERICA 


River  to  Albany,  where  it  connects  with 
Boston  trains.  From  Albany  westward  to 
Buffalo  the  route  is  almost  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Erie  Canal.  At  Buffalo  the 
Central  connects  with  railways  leading  to 
various  points  in  the  West.  Several  other 
railways  connect  New  York  with  the  West, 
some  of  them  entering  the  city  through 
tunnels  under  the  Hudson  River. 

As  in  the  case  of  New  York,  great  trunk 
lines  enter  Philadelphia.  These  connect 
it  with  the  other  cities  of  Pennsylvania,  such 
as  Harrisburg,  the  capital, 
and  Pittsburgh,  as  well  as 
with  the  cities  of  the  North, 
South,  and  West.  Among 
these  lines  are  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railway  and  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad. 
Baltimore,  Washington,  and 
Richmond  are  likewise  con- 
nected with  the  interior  by 
important  railways,  the  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  roads  passing 
through  the  former  two. 

The  greatest  of  all  the  cities 
of  the  United  States  is  New 
York,  w  h  i  c  h 
contains  nearly 
five  million  in- 
habitants, and 
is  second  only 
to  London  among  the 
cities  of  the  world.  There  are  several 
other  large  cities  near  by,  the  largest  being 
Jersey  City,  Newark,  Elizabeth, 
Paterson,  and  Hoboken  (Fig.  89),  all 
west  of  the  Hudson  River  in  New  Jersey. 
Although  in  another  state,  they  are  so 
closely  related  to  New  York  in  business 
that  they  may  almost  be  considered  a  part 
of  New  York  City  ;  so  also  may  Yonkers, 
which  lies  up  the  Hudson  just  above  New 
York  City.  Before  it  became  a  part  of 
New  York,  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  on  Long 
Island,  was  itself  fourth  among  the  cities 
of  the  country.     Probably  more   than   six 


million  persons,  or  one  fifteenth  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  United  States,  live  within 
twenty  miles  of  New  York  harbor. 

It  is,  first  of  all,  the  excellent  opportunity 
for  shipping  that  has  caused  so  great  a  num- 
ber of  people  to  collect  at   this    ,2)  Reasons 

point.     Not  only  can  goods  be  for  this  vast 
easily  sent  far  inland  by  water  vopuiation 
and   rail,   as   already   explained,  but  they 
can  also  be  carried  on  the  ocean  to  any  port 
in  the  world.     The  harbor  is  deep  enough 
for  the  largest  vessels,  and  large  enough  to 


Principal  cities 

1.   New  York 
City  and  vicinity 

(1)  Population 
near  New  York 
harbor 


Fig.  S3.  —  Brooklyn  Bridge,  connecting  Brooklyn  and  New  York. 


great 


accommodate  all  that  come.  Thus  it  is  the 
connecting  link  between  the  distant  interior 
and  distant  ocean  ports.  More  than  half  of 
all  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  is 
carried  on  through  this  port,  which  is  the 
leading  shipping  point  in  the  New  World. 

The  second  reason  for  the  vast  population 
here  is  the  fact  that  this  is  the  greatest 
manufacturing  center  in  the  New  World. 
The  place  from  •which  goods  are  most  easily 
shipped  in  all  directions  is,  for  that  very 
reason,  one  of  the  best  places  for  the  location 
of  factories. 

Nearly  every  manufactured  article  that  men  need 
is  made  in  or  near  New  York,  but  one  of  the  most 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


63 


Fig.  8t.- 


Copyrigfited,  1903,  by  William  II.  Rau. 
The  high  buildings,  or  skyscrapers,  on  the  end  of  Manhattan  Island. 


extensive  industries  is  the  manufacture  of  clothing. 
Cotton  and  woolen  goods  are  sent  here  from  the  fac- 
tories of  New  Eng- 
land and  other  sec- 
tions to  be  made 
into  such  articles  as 
dresses,  men's  suits, 
and  underclothing. 
Large  buildings,  in 
which  hundreds  of 
men  and  women  are 
employed,  are  given 
up  to  this  work 
alone. 

Iron  and  coal  are 
so  near  that  the 
manufacture  of  iron 
goods  is  another 
great  industry.  The 
refining  of  petroleum 
is  a  third,  the  oil  be- 
ing led,  in  pipes,  from 
the  oil  fields  of  west- 
ern Pennsylvania  to 
refineries  in  New 
Jersey,  near  the 
metropolis.  The  re- 
fining of  sugar  is 
another  immense 
business  in  and  near 
New  York-,  as  at 
Jersey  City  and 
Brooklyn. 


ping  point  and 
chants  from  all 


Being    so    im- 
portant   a    ship- 


Fig.  85.  —  The  Flatiron  building,  built  with  this  shape 
occupies  the  corner  where  two  streets  come  together 
offices  occupy  every  rloor  in  this  tall  building. 


manufacturing  center,  mer- 
parts  of  the  United  States 
come  here  to  buy 
goods  for  their 
stores.  This 
business,  called 
the  wholesale 
trade,  is  a  third 
reason  why  so 
many  people  have 
collected  around 
New  York  harbor. 
At  the  southern 
end  of  Manhattan 
Island,  on  which 
much  of  New 
York  is  built, 
there  are  about 
eight  square  miles 
of  the  city  given 
up  almost  entirely 
to  the  wholesale 
trade.  Since  the 
land  is  very  ex- 
pensive, as  much 
use  as  possible  is 
made  of  every 
square  foot  of  it. 
For  that  reason 
the  buildings  are 


because  it 
Stores  or 


64 


NORTH  AMERICA 


high    (Fig.   84). 
office    buildings 


Many  of  the  stores  and 
are  thirty  or  forty  and 
one  even  fifty  stories  in  height.  Goods 
manufactured  in  the  city,  together  with 
those  that  are  brought  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  are  collected  in  this  part  of  New 
York.  Merchants  in  Denver,  Louisville, 
St.  Paul,  Galveston,  Indianapolis,  and  other 
cities  come  here  to  purchase  these  goods,  in 
order  to  sell  them  again 
in  their  own  stores. 


columns.  Others  go  by  train  in  the  subway,  which 
extends  for  many  miles  underground,  and  even 
crosses  under  the  rivers  to  Brooklyn,  Jersey  City, 
and  Hoboken. 

How  different  all  this  is  from  the  country,  where 
only  two  or  three  houses  may  be  seen  at  a  time  I 
Where  sunlight  and  fresh  air  enter  one's  home  from 
all  sides  of  the  building  !  Where  there  is  plenty  of 
room  to  play,  with  green  grass,  large  trees,  and 
singing  birds  in  the  yard  !  Xo  wonder  that  people 
living  in  great  cities  are  anxious  to  visit  the  country, 


(3)  Life  in  the 
great  city 


The  contrast  between  life 
in  New  York  City  and  upon 
a  farm  (p.  93), 
is  striking. 
On  some  of 
the  streets  scarcely  anything 
but  stores  can  be  seen  for  ten 
or  twelve  miles,  many  of  them 
being  small,  but  some  occupy- 
ing enormous  building's,  and 
employing  many  hundreds  of 
clerks. 

Families  whose  homes  are 
in  the  city  do  not  usually 
occupy  a  whole  house,  but 
often  hundreds  of  people  live 
in  one  building.  Such  a  struc- 
ture, called  an  apartment  build- 
ing, may  be  from  six  to  eight 
stories  high,  and  some  are 
from  fifteen  to  twenty.  They 
are  so  arranged  that  one 
family  occupies  only  a  small 
part  of  one  floor,  called  an 
apartment,  or  flat.  Other 
families  live  above  and  be- 
low, as  well  as  on  each  side, 

being  separated  by  only  a  few  inches  of  brick  or 
boards.  Since  land  is  so  valuable,  sometimes  costing 
scores  of  dollars  a  square  foot,  there  is  usually  neither 
front  nor  back  yard. 

In  the  poorer  sections  of  the  city  the  people  are 
even  more  densely  crowded.  Some  of  the  children 
have  never  seen  the  country,  and  scarcely  any  birds, 
trees,  or  grass,  except  possibly  in  one  of  the  city  parks. 
In  these  crowded  sections  there  are  many  foreigners, 
from  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.. 

To  escape  such  a  crowded  city  life,  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  men  live  in  suburban  towns,  or  country 
homes,  from  ten  to  forty  miles  from  their  places  of 
business.  Every  day  they  spend  from  one  to  three 
hours  traveling  back  and  forth.  Some  ride  upon 
elevated  railways  built  in  the  street,  two,  three,  and 
four  stories  above  the  ground,  and  supported  by  iron 


« 1 ! J 


U'Lf,    10    ONE   !■.;■? 


UIUS  CCMVING  «..  ti.t. 


Fig.  86.  —  Map  showing  location  of  Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Albany. 


the  mountains,  the  lakes,  and  the  seashore,  during  a 
few  weeks  in  the  summer ! 

Most  of  the  other  large  cities  in  New 
York  State  are  found  along  the  water  and 
rail  route  from  New  York  2  Buffalo  and 
City  to  Lake  Erie  (Fig.  80).  cities  along  the 
The  most  important  of  these  ErieCanal 
is  Buffalo  (Fig.  86),  on  Lake  Erie,  at  the 
western  end  of  the  Erie  Canal.  Before  the 
canal  was  built,  Philadelphia  was  larger 
than  New  York,  and  Buffalo  was  only  a 
village.  But  both  New  York  and  Buffalo 
have  had  a  very  rapid  growth  since  1825, 
when  the  canal  was  completed. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


65 


Since  the  canal  (Fig.  87)  is  only  seventy  feet  wide, 
and  seven  feet  deep,  all  freight  coming  in  lake 
steamers  from  the  West,  and  bound  farther  by 
water,  must  be  unloaded  at  or  near  Buffalo,  and 
placed  in  canal  boats.  These  clumsy  looking  boats 
are  made  with  broad,  flat  bottoms,  in  order  that 
they  may  carry  heavy  loads  without  sinking  too  deep 
into  the  water.  They  are  drawn  by  horses  or  mules 
that  walk  along  the  toicpath  at  the  side. 

Buffalo  is  a  great  railway  center,  as  well 
as  an  important  lake  port.  Here  immense 
quantities  of  grain,  flour,  lumber,  and  iron 
from   the  West   are   transferred   from  lake 


Lockport.  This  electric  power  is  carried 
by  wire  even  as  far  east  as  Syracuse.  Plow 
far  is  that '! 

Name  other  cities  along  the    Erie   Canal   route 

(Fig.  80),  and  recall  what  has  been  said  about  them. 

Js'otice  especially  Lockport.     At  this  point  the  land 

has  a  decided  slope,  so  that  the  canal  boats  have  to 

be  raised  and  lowered,  according  to  the  direction  they 

are  going.     This  is  done  in  inclosed  parts   of   the 

canal,  called  lucks  (hence  the  name  of  the  city),  into 

one  of   which    a  boat  enters  (Fig.  87).     Then,  by 

turning  in  more    water,   or   allowing   some  to  run 

out,   the  boat   is  either   raised  or   lowered  at  will. 

A  canal  boat  thus  enters  one  lock 

after  another  until  it  is  raised  to  the 

top  of  the   slope   if  going  west,  or 

lowered  to  the  base  if  going  east. 

New  York  State  is  prominent 
in  education.     Columbia  Uni- 
versity is  located   Education  in 
in     New     York   New  York 
City  ;       and      at   state 
Ithaca,  in  the  central  part  of 
the  state,  is  Cornell  University, 
beautifully     situated     on    the 
hillside    above    Lake    Cayuga 
(Fig.     88).       Both    of    these 
should     be     associated     with 
Princeton    University  in  New 
Jersey,  and  with  Harvard  and 

FIG.  87.-Locks  in  the  Erie  Canal.     The  canal  boats  are  drawn  into  one  of     Yale  universities  in  New  Eng- 
these  spaces,  which  is  then  filled  with  water,  raising  the  boat  to  a  higher     land,    as   among    the    most   im- 
!  then  repeated  until  the  boat  is  raised  to  the  level  of  the     portant      educational      institu- 
tions  in   the  country.      North 
of    New    York    City,    on    the 


level. 

canal  above  the  locks.     Or,  it  a  boat  is  going  the  other  way,  it  is  lowered 
in  the  locks  by  letting  the  water  run  out. 


vessels  to  railways  as  well  as  to  canal  boats; 
and  coal  and  manufactured  goods  shipped 
westward.  There  is  also  much  manufactur- 
ing of  many  kinds  (p.  59). 

Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  68),  which  are  about 
twenty  miles  from  Buffalo,  supply  electric 
power  for  use  in  lighting  the  city  and  in 
running  street  cars  and  factories.  Much 
use  is  made  of  this  electric  power  near  the 
Falls,  as  at  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls, 
which  has  become  an  important  manufac- 
turing center.  The  Niagara  power  is  used 
for  running  electric  cars  between  Buffalo 
and  Niagara  Falls  and  between  Buffalo  and 


Hudson  River,  is  West  Point,  the  place 
where  the  government  school  for  the  train- 
ing of  army  officers  is  located.  At  Pough- 
keepsie,  also  on  the  Hudson,  is  Vassar 
College,  one  of  the  leading  colleges  for 
women,  like  Smith  and  Wellesley  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Biyn  Mawr  near  Philadelphia. 
Largely  on  account  of  the  enormous  popu- 
lation of  New  York  City,  with  its  extensive 
manufacturing  and  great  Rank  of  New 
wealth,  New  York  is  called  the  York  State 
Empire  State;  for  it  ranks  first  in  the 
Union  in  population,  manufacturing,  com- 
merce, and  wealth  (^Figs.  247  and  278). 


66 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The    leading    cities    southwest    of    New 
York  as  far  as  Richmond  are  located  along 

3.   Philadelphia     t]\e    Fal1    Li"re;       Name     them 
and  neighboring     (Fig.     66).       The 

cities  greatest  of  all  is 

Philadelphia  (Fig-  89), 
which  has  over  1,500,000  in- 
habitants, and  ranks  third 
among  the  cities  of  the  United 
States.  As  in  the  case  of  New 
York,  other  important  cities 
are  near  by,  the  largest  being 
Trenton  and  Camden,  in 
New  Jersey ;  Chester  and 
Norristown,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  and  Wilmington,  in 
Delaware. 

Lines  of  steamships  (Fig.  89) 
run  from  Philadelphia  to  the 
leading  seaports  of  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries, 
carrying  both  passengers  and 
a  multitude  of  products.  Because  of  its 
nearness  to  the  coal  fields,  Philadelphia  has 
become  a  great  shipping  point  for  coal. 
The  coal  and  iron  have  made  possible  the 
manufacture  of  cars,  heavy  machinery,  and 


woolen  goods  ;  there  is  much  manufacturing 
of  clothing;  and  in  carpet  manufacture  this 
is  the  most  important  city  in  the  country. 


Fig. 


A  view  of  Cornell  University  with  Lake  Cayuga  in  the  distance. 


Philadelphia  is  called  the  Quaker  City, 
because  it  was  founded  by  William  Penn 
and  other  Quakers,  many  of  whose  descend- 
ants still  live  there.  It  was  the  home  of 
Benjamin  Franklin  ;    and  at  one  time,  be- 


■  — slIssi 

j-  •  ■-■'■■^Wt 

■ 

Fig.  90. 


Copyright,  1S97,  lixj  William  Rem. 
-The  Battleship  Iowa  going  at  full  speed.    This  was  built  in  the  shipyards  below  Philadelphia. 


steel  ships  (Fig.  90)  at  Philadelphia  and 
Wilmington.  Philadelphia  is  a  great  tex- 
tile manufacturing  center,  making  especially 


fore  Washington  was  built,  it  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  United  States.  Independence 
Hall,  in  which  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 


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FIG.  89. 
Map  to  show  the  location  of  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 


THE   V SITED   STATES 


67 


ence  was  signed,  and  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  drawn  up,  is  still  standing 
there  (Fig.  91).  The  leading  educational 
institution  of  the  city  is  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania  has  the  city  of  Erie,  on 
Lake  Erie,  corresponding  to  Buffalo  in 
4.  Other  cities  New  York;  but,  while  it  is 
in  Pennsylvania  an  important  shipping  and 
manufacturing  center,  it  is  much  smaller 
than    Buffalo.     Two    reasons    for    this   are 


Fig.  91.  —  Independence  Hall,  in  Philadelphia. 

that  it  lacks  water  connection,  across  Penn- 
sylvania, with  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  that 
it  is  not  close  to  the  eastern  end  of  the 
lake.  Goods  from  the  Great  Lakes  that 
are  bound  for  the  coast  are  naturally  car- 
ried eastward  by  water  as  far  as  Buffalo, 
before  being  transferred  to  the  railroad. 

The  city  in  Pennsylvania  which  ranks 
next  to  Philadelphia  is  Pittsburgh,  to 
which  Allegheny  is  now  united,  making  it 
the  eighth  city  in  size  in  the  United  States. 
Located  at  the  point  where  the  Allegheny 
and  Monongahela  rivers  unite  to  form  the 
Ohio  River,  Pittsburgh  has  extensive  water 
connections.  It  is  a  center  for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel,  and  articles  made 


5 .   Baltimore 


from  them.  Indeed,  it  is  the  greatest  cen- 
ter for  such  work  in  the  country.  Other 
cities  in  this  locality,  like  Wheeling  in 
West  Virginia,  being  in  the  midst  of  the 
coal  and  iron  region,  are  also  extensively 
engaged  in  manufacturing. 

At  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  in  Mary- 
land, is  Baltimore,  the  seventh  city  in  size 
in  the  United  States.  It  has 
a  good  harbor,  is  connected 
with  the  West  by  trunk  railways  (Fig.  92), 
and  easily  receives  coal  from  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  West  Virginia.  For  these 
reasons  it  has  become  noted  for  manufactur- 
ing and  shipping. 

Baltimore  is  the  seat  of  Johns  Hopkins 
Universit}r ;  and  a  few  miles  south,  at  An- 
napolis, is  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy, which  prepares  officers  for  the  navy, 
as  West  Point  prepares  them  for  the  army. 

Southwest  of  Baltimore,  on  the  Potomac 
River,  is  the  District  of  Columbia,  where 
Washington,  our  national  6.  District  of 
capital  (Fig.  92),  is  situated.  Columbia 
This  site  was  chosen  for  the  capital  long 
ago,  when  this  was  near  the  center  of  the 
settled  part  of  the  country.  On  Figure  246 
you  will  find  a  star  showing  where  that 
center  is  now.  The  District  of  Columbia 
does  not  form  a  part  of  any  state,  but  is 
controlled  directly  by  the  national  govern- 
ment. 

Washington  is  unlike  other  cities  in  two 
respects.  In  the  first  place,  since  it  was 
certain  that  it  would  one  day  be  very  large, 
it  was  carefully  planned,  with  wide  streets 
and  many  parks.  For  that  reason  it  is 
more  beautiful  than  most  cities.  In  the  sec- 
ond place,  the  people,  unlike  those  of  other 
large  cities,  are  not  chiefly  interested  in 
manufacturing  and  commerce.  Here  reside 
the  President  and  his  cabinet,  members  of 
Congress,  and  the  foreign  ambassadors  and 
other  representatives  of  the  great  nations 
of  the  world.  Besides  these  there  are 
many  thousands  of  men  and  women  at 
work  in  the  different  departments  of  the 
government.     The    chief   buildings,   there- 


NORTH  AMERICA 


fore,  are  not  factories  and  private  offices, 
but  government  buildings  (Fig.  93). 

The  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay  has  already 
been  referred  to  as  the  site  of  important  har- 
7.  Cities  of  bors.  The 
Virginia  principal 

city  at  this  point  is  Nor- 
folk, a  manufacturing 
and  shipping  center  for 
cotton,  lumber,  iron,  and 
other  products.  It  is  one 
of  the  leading  Southern 
ports,  and  has  been  ad- 
vancing very  rapidly. 
Near  by  is  Portsmouth, 
where  there  are  ship- 
yards  belonging  to  the 
United  States.  Ship- 
building is  an  important 
industry  at  Newport 
News,  also. 

The  winter  climate  in 
this  section  is  so  mild 
that  many  people  from 
the  North  go  there  for 
the  winter  season.  Nor- 
folk, Newport  News,  and 
Old  Point  Comfort  are 
popular  winter  resorts. 

The  largest  city  of 
Virginia  is  Richmond, 
the  capital  of  the  state, 
at  the  head  of  tide  water 
on  the  James  River.  It 
is  important  as  a  tobacco 
market,  and  as  a  rapidly 
growing  manufacturing 
center.  Other  promi- 
nent cities  in  the  state 
are  Roanoke,  Lynch- 
burg, and  Danville. 


slope  west  of  the  mountains?  5.  What  rivers  have 
cut  passageways  across  the  Appalachians  ?  Of  what 
importance  are  these  gateways?  6.  State  the  effects 
of  the  Great  Glacier  on  this  group  of  states.  7.  The 
effects  of  the  sinking  of  the  coast.     8.   Describe  the 


(.   S':-l  b  KT.:,t  .NCH       _ 


1.    What    mountains    are 
there  in  the  Middle  Atlantic 

States,  and  in  what  parts  are  they? 
Review  2     w]|a(.   a|.e   t]]e    surface    features 

Questions 


Fig.  92.  —  Map  to  show  the  location  of  Baltimore  and  Washington. 


east  of  the  mountains?  3.  What 
is  meant  by  the  Fall  Line,  and  why  is  it  im- 
portant?   4.    What  facts   can   you  give   about  the 


climate.  0.  Tell  about  the  lumbering  and  related 
industries.  10.  What  kinds  of  fishing  are  there? 
11.  What  about  the  oyster  industry?  12.  Where 
are  the  best  farming  sections?  13.  What  can  you 
tell   about  the  dairying?     14.   About   the   tobacco 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


69 


industry?  15.  What  sections  are  noted  for  fruits 
and  vegetables?  10.  What  about  the.  market  for 
these  products?  17.  What  other  farm  products  are 
raised  in  these  states?  18.  Where  is  salt  found? 
How  is  it  obtained?  19.  Where  is  coal  found? 
20.  How  was  anthracite  formed,  and  what  is  its 
special  value  ?  21.  Describe  the  method  of  mining- 
coal.  22.  Of  preparing  it  for  market.  23.  In  what 
ways  is  coal  used?  21.  Where  are  oil  and  natural 
gas  found?  25.  How  have  these  been  formed? 
20.    How   are    they   obtained    from    underground  ? 

27.  What  products  are  made  from  the   crude  oil? 

28.  How  is  the  oil  handled  ?  29.  Where  is  iron  ore 
found  in  these  states,  and  why  is  it  »  very  im- 
portant? 30.  Describe  it;  also,  tell  1  how  it 
was  formed  and  how  it  is  mined.  ,-jjj>  31.  What 
other  important  mineral  products  are   |    j    found  in 


50.  For  what  are  Philadelphia  and  neighboring 
cities  important?  51.  Name  and  locate  other  cities 
in  Pennsylvania.  52.  State  the  principal  facts 
about  Baltimore.  53.  Where  is  the  District  of 
Columbia?  For  what  is  it  important?  How  does 
Washington  differ  from  other  large  cities  in  the 
United  States?  54.  Name  and  locate  the  larger 
cities  of  Virginia.  \Vhat  can  you  tell  about  each? 
New  York  (X.Y.).  1.  Where  are  the  mountains? 
2.  What  are  their  names?  3.  Why  are  forests  exten- 
sive here  ?  Why  is  there  little 
agriculture  among  the  mountains?  evle^  ^"e^" 
4.  What  about  the  surface  features 
of  the  rest  of  the  state?  5.  What  about  the  extent 
of  agriculture  ?  0.  Tell  about  the  dairying.  7.  What 
fruits  are  important  in  New  York,  and  where  are 
they   raised?     8.  What   waters   form    parts   of   the 


Fig.  93.  —  The  National  Capitol  Building  at  Washington. 


these  states?  32.  How  is  iron  made  from  ore? 
33.  What  are  the  kinds  of  iron  ?  34.  Name  and 
locate  the  principal  iron-manufacturing  centers. 
35.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  manufacture  of 
glass?      36.    Pottery?     37.     Brick?      38.     Cement? 

39.  What  other  kinds  of  manufacturing  are  there? 

40.  What  about  the  extent  of  commerce  in  these 
states?  41.  Where  are  the  harbors?  42.  What 
connections  are  there  with  the  West  by  water? 
43.  By  rail?  41.  What  is  the  population  about 
New  York  harbor?  45.  Give  several  reasons  for 
so  great  a  population  here.  40.  Describe  life  in 
New  York  City.  47.  Why  are  there  so  many  cities 
along  the  Erie  Canal  ?  Locate  each.  For  what  is 
each  important?  48.  Name  and  locate  the  lead- 
ing educational  institutions  in  New  York  State. 
49.    What  is  the   rank  of   New  York   as   a   state? 


boundary  of  the  state  ?  9.  Into  what  rivers  do  the 
lakes   empty?     10.  What  rivers  drain  New  York? 

11.  State  clearly  the  importance  of  the  Erie  Canal. 

12.  Which  cities  mentioned  in  the  text  are  on  the 
canal?  Which  are  on  the  Hudson?  13.  Compare 
New  York  in  size  with  all  of  New  England. 
14.  Draw  a  map  of  New  York  like  that  of  Maine 
(p.  47).  When  studying  each  of  the  other  states, 
do  the  same  for  it. 

New  Jersey  (N.J.).  15.  Why  should  peaches  and 
grapes  grow  better  in  New  Jersey  than  in  New  Eng- 
land ?  10.  Name  and  locate  each  of  the  cities  men- 
tioned in  the  text.  17.  For  what  is  each  important? 
18.  In  what  ways  are  some  of  the  largest  cities  de- 
pendent upon  the  products  of  Pennsylvania?  19.  Add 
together  the  populations  of  all  the  cities  within  about 
twenty  miles  of  New  York. 


70 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Pennsylvania  (Pa.  or  Penn.).  20.  Where  would 
you  look  for  the  best  farm  land?  21.  The  principal 
forests?  22.  The  leading  coal  mines?  23.  Where 
are  the  principal  cities?  Why  located  where  they 
are  ?  24.  Why  are  there  fewer  lakes  in  Pennsylvania 
than  in  New  York?  25.  Should  you  expect  to  find 
fewer  waterfalls  also  (p.  50)  ?  26.  Why,  then,  is 
manufacturing  so  important  in  this  state  ?  27.  What 
kind  of  manufacturing  is  especially  important? 
Why?  28.  What  advantage  do  you  see  in  the  posi- 
tion of  Pittsburgh  ?  29.  By  or  through  what  states 
would  one  pass  in  going  by  boat  from  Pittsburgh  to 
the  Gulf?  (See  map,  Fig.  40.)  30.  Measure  the 
length  and  width  of  Pennsylvania.  Also  find  its 
area  (Appendix,  p.  426).  31.  Is  Pennsylvania  larger 
or  smaller  than  New  York?  Virginia?  New  Eng- 
land ?  32.  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  the  state  you 
live  in?     How  much  ? 

Delaware  (Del.).  33.  Which  is  the  principal  city 
in  this  state?  34.  For  what  is  it  noted?  35.  Why 
is  it  especially  well  situated  for  that  industry  ? 
36.  Compare  it  with  Albany  in  size.  37.  The  prin- 
cipal industries  of  the  state  are  fruit  raising  and 
farming.  What  two  reasons  can  you  give  for  this 
fact? 

Maryland  (Md.).  38.  In  which  section  is  farming 
most  important?  Why?  39.  What  products  can 
you  expect  from  the  mountains?  Why?  40.  Notice 
how  branching  Chesapeake  Bay  is.  Why  is  it  so  ir- 
regular? 41.  What  influence  must  this  have  upon 
the  number  of  oysters  found  there?  42.  Why  is 
Baltimore  favorably  situated  for  receiving  coal  and 
iron  from  Pennsylvania?  43.  For  canning  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  oysters  ?  44.  What  might  be  the 
effect  upon  the  growth  of  Baltimore  if  the  land 
should  rise,  so  that  Chesapeake  Bay  disappeared  and 
the  Susquehanna  flowed  through  it?  45.  Compare 
the  size  of  Baltimore  with  that  of  Boston. 

Virginia  (Va.).  46.  In  what  other  state  is  the 
capital  the  most  important  city?  47.  Locate  the  fer- 
tile Great  Valley  that  is  found  in  Virginia  (Fig.  92). 

48.  What  kinds  of  agriculture  are  carried  on  here  ? 

49.  What  river  separates  Virginia  from  Maryland? 
What  river  crosses  the  middle  of  Virginia  ?  50.  Com- 
pare Richmond  in  size  with  Albany.  51.  How 
does  Virginia  rank  in  iron  production  (Fig.  270)  ? 
52.  Of  what  importance  are  the  branching  bays  that 
enter  Virginia?  53.  If  goods  are  to  be  shipped 
across  the  ocean  from  Kentucky  (see  map,  Fig  40), 
is  it  nearer  to  send  them  to  Norfolk  or  to  New 
York  ? 

West  Virginia  (W.  Va.).  54.  What  disadvantage 
is  it  to  this  state  that  it  has  no  seacoast?  55.  How 
could  we  reach  the  ocean  by  water  from  West  Vir- 
ginia? 56.  Where  is  the  largest  city  ?  Why  there? 
57.  How  does  this  city  compare  in  size  with  Pitts- 
burg? 58.  Should  you  expect  to  find  much  forest 
in  this  state?    Why?  "  59.  Much  fanning?    60.  Coal, 


iron,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas  are  found  here.     Of 

what  value  are  these?     61.  What  mountain  range 

lies  on  the  eastern  boundary? 

62.  Describe  the  surface  features  of  this  group  of 

states  from  the  relief  map  (Fig.  65).     63.  Describe 

the  differences  in  climate  in  the  dif-    „ 

General 


Review 
Questions 


ferent  parts.     64.  State  the  principal 

industries   of    the    Middle   Atlantic 

States.     65.  Make  a  list  of  the  ten 

largest  cities.     Add  their  populations  together,  and 

compare   the  result  with   the   ten   largest  in   New 

England.     (See  Appendix,  pp.  427-428.) 

1.  Collect  pictures  of  Niagara  Falls.  2.  Examine 
a  live  oyster,  or  clam,  to  see  what  holds  the  two 
parts  of  the  shell  together.  What  is  „ 
the  use  of  the  shell?  3.  Find  where  SuSgestl0ns 
the  canned  fruits  and  vegetables  in  a  neighboring 
grocery  store  have  come  from.  4.  Make  a  collection 
of  the  kinds  of  coal  for  the  school  ;  of  some  coke 
and  iron  ore.  5.  In  small  bottles  collect  products 
made  from  petroleum.  6.  Collect  samples  of  cast 
iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel.  7.  Estimate,  by 
use  of  the  map  (Fig.  40),  the  distance  by  water 
from  New  York  City  to  Duluth.  8.  Visit  a  canal 
and  examine  a  lock.  9.  Make  a  toy  canal  having  a 
lock  in  it.  10.  Give  reasons  why  freight  rates  are 
cheaper  on  canals  than  on  railways.  11.  Can  you 
give  a  reason  why  the  Erie  Canal  should  have  reached 
to  Lake  Erie  instead  of  to  Ontario?  12.  Write  a 
composition,  giving  the  reasons  why  one  might  pre- 
fer   to    live   in   a   large   city ;    or   in   the   country. 

13.  Collect  pictures  of  scenes  in  a  large  city ;  in  the 
country.  14.  Make  a  drawing  of  these  states,  in- 
cluding the  principal  rivers  and  cities.  Locate  the 
capitals. 

4.    Southern  States 

1.  In  what  three  parts  of  this  section  are  there 
mountains?  2.  What  are  the  names  of  the  moun- 
tains? 3.  Which  states  have  none  ?  _ 
4.  What  are  the  principal  tributaries 
to  the  largest  river?  5.  Through  or  ou  the  borders 
of  what  states  would  you  pass  in  going  by  water 
from  New  Orleans  to  Chattanooga,  in  Tennessee? 
6.  What  natural  boundaries  do  you  find  for  this  sec- 
tion? 7.  Compare  the  coast  with  that  of  New  Eng- 
land. Why  the  difference  (p.  12)?  8.  Why  are 
there  so  few  lakes  (p.  9)  ?  9.  The  rivers  that  rise 
in  western  Texas  —  as  the  Colorado  —  are  often  quite 
dry  in  the  western  part  of  their  course.  Why 
(p.  30)?  10.  Name  the  states  in  this  group. 
11.  Find  the  capital  of  each.  12.  Which  of  the 
states    have    a    seacoast?     13.  Which    have    none? 

14.  Which  border  the  Mississippi?  15.  Which 
drain  into  that  river?  16.  What  reasons  can  you 
suggest  for  the  fact  that  the  largest  city  is  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  ? 


TEE    UNITED    STATES 


71 


SOUTHERN 
STATES 

Modeled  by 
EDWIN    E.  HO 


Q     tfl    w  too  SW*        *-ocl 

III  I  J 1  ™\* 


Fig.  95.  — Relief  map  of  the  Southern  States. 


Figure  94  shows  that  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  continue  southwest- 
ward  as  far  as  Alabama.  In 
what  states  are  they  found  ? 
These  mountains  are  generally 
low,  as  they  are  in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States;  but  in  western 
North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee  they 


Surface 
features 

1.   Resemblance 
of  northeastern 
part  to  the 
country 
farther  north 


Copynr, 

Fig.  96.  —  Asheville,  situated  in  a  valley  among  the  hi; 
western  North  Carolina. 


are  much  higher  (Fig.  96).  In  fact,  the 
highest  peak  east  of  the  Mississippi  River 
is  Mount  Mitchell  in  North  Carolina.  It 
rises  6711  feet,  or  432  feet  higher  than 
Mount  Washington  in  New  Hampshire. 

East  and  southeast  of  the  Appalachians 
the  surface  features  resemble  those  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States.  First  there  is  the 
Piedmont  Plateau,  which 
slopes  gradually  from  the 
base  of  the  mountains,  where 
it  is  about  1000  feet  above 
sea  level,  to  the  Fall  Line. 
Trace  this  line  in  Figure  66. 
The  Coastal  Plain  begins  at 
the  Fall  Line  at  an  elevation 
of  100  to  500  feet,  and  slopes 
gently  toward  the  sea.  It 
includes  all  of  Florida,  as 
well  as  parts  of  several 
other  states.  Name  them. 
As  in  Pennsylvania  and 
West  Virginia,  there  is  a 
rough  plateau  along  the 
western  base  of  the  Ap- 
palachians. As  in  those 
states,  also,  this  plateau  is 


iht.  1908,  by  X.  Brock 
h  mountains  of 


72 


NORTH  AMERICA 


deeply  cut  by  the  river  valleys,  and  is  so 
rugged  that  it  is  still  covered  by  extensive 
forests  and  has  few  inhabitants.  It  gradu- 
ally becomes  lower  and  more  regular  farther 
west,  until  it  merges  into  the  broad  and 
fertile  plains  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  mountains  and  plateaus  just  men- 
tioned include  only  a  small  part  of  the 
2.  Level  charac-  Southern  States.^  The  remain- 
terofmostof  der  consists  mainly  of  plains 
this  region  (Fig.  97).     The  Coastal  Plain 

extends  westward  along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  is  very  level. 
So  also  are  the  delta  and  flood 
plains  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
These  plains  rise  toward  the 
north  and  west  until  they 
merge  into  the  plains  and 
prairies  that  lie  between  the 
Appalachian  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Toward  the  north  they 
reach  no  great  height,  but  in 
Avestern  Texas  they  become 
high  plateaus,  from  4000  to 
5000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  plateau  region 
is  a  part  of  the  Great  Plains 
of  the  West. 

In  only  a  few  places  are 
these  vast  plains  broken  by 
mountains.  In 
northwestern 
Arkansas,  for  instance,  are  the 
low  Ozark  Mountains ;  and 
southwest  of  these  is  the  mountainous  coun- 
try of  eastern  Oklahoma.  From  here  low 
mountains  extend,  with  some  breaks,  to  the 
central  part  of  Texas.  In  the  extreme 
western  part  of  Texas,  also,  low  spurs  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  are  found.  Aside  from 
the  Appalachians,  and  these  few  small 
mountainous  areas,  the  surface  of  the  South- 
ern States  is  mainly  made  up  of  plains, 
which  are  usually  very  level. 

The    coast  is    much    more    regular    than 
that  of   New  England.     Give 
the  reason    for  this  as  stated 
There   are   numerous    bays, 


but  none  so  large  as  Chesapeake  Bay  and 
other  bays  in  the  North.  Sand,  drifted 
by  waves  and  currents,  has  been  built 
into  sand  bars,  which  often  partly  shut  in 
the  bays,  and  thus  make  the  coast  more 
regular. 

The  irregular  coast  of  southern  Florida 
is  due  to  the  work  of  coral  polyps,  which 
live  in  countless  millions  in  the  warm 
waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  (Fig.  313). 
These  polyps  have  built  the  limestone  rock 
of  which  the  southern  part  of  the  Florida 


3.   Where  the 
mountains  are 


4.  The  coast 
line 

on    page 


Fig.  97.  —  A  view  in  the  Southern  States.  Much  of  the  land  is  as  level  as 
this.  The  crop  raised  in  this  field  is  the  peanut,  which  the  boys  and 
girls  are  picking  from  the  roots  of  the  peanut  plants. 


peninsula  is  composed.  They  have  also 
made  the  many  reefs  and  small  islands,  or 
keys,  that  lie  just  south  of  Florida. 

The  low  plains  of  the  Southern  States 
lie  so  far  south  that  the  climate  is  every- 
where warm,  and  the  damp  sea  „, 

.     ,     ,    .  .         -,      ,       .        The  climate 

winds  bring  an  abundant  rain- 
fall to  most  parts.  During  the  cold,  dis- 
agreeable Northern  winter,  the  weather  in 
the  South  is  mild,  like  spring  and  autumn 
in  the  North.  Flowers  are  in  blossom  and 
birds  are  singing,  many  of  the  birds  being 
Northern  species,  that  have  migrated  there 
for  the  winter.     Large  numbers  of  Northern 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


73 


people  also  go  South  to  spend  the  winter. 
Among  the  principal  winter  resorts  in 
Florida  are  Jacksonville,  Tampa,  and 
St.  Augustine,  one  of  the  early  Spanish 
settlements. 

The  climate  is  cooler  in  the  mountains, 
where  there  are  many  pleasant  summer 
resorts,  as  in  the  mountains  of  the  North- 
ern States.  The  best-known  mountain 
resort  is  Asheville,  in  North  Carolina 
(Fig.  96). 

The  western  part  of  Texas  has  a  different 
climate  from  the  other  parts  of  the  South  ; 


river   flood  plains,  and   among  the   moun- 
tains.    Among  the  forests  are  many  trees 

either  unknown  or  uncommon   T      t    . 

xt  ?  Lumbering 

in   the    North,  some   ot   them,    ,    _.  .     . 

.  1.    Kinds  of 

such  as  the  magnolias,  bearing   trees,  and  their 
large,    sweet-scented    flowers.    uses 
Another  is  the  live  oak,  whose  green  leaves 
remain  on  the  tree  all  winter,  and  whose  hard 
wood  is  highly  valued  for  shipbuilding. 

The  long-leaved  or  hard  pine,  often  called 
the  Georgia  pine,  is  a  very  valuable  wood, 
and  is  much  used  for  floors.     This  lumber 
is  sent  to  all  the  cities  of  the  North.      It  is 
shipped  from  the  coastal  cities 
of  Charleston,  S.C.,  Savan- 
nah   and    Brunswick,    Ga., 
Jacksonville    and    Pensa- 
cola,  Fla.,  and  Mobile,  Ala., 
as  well  as  from  other  seaports. 
While   the   pine   thrives   on 
the     low,    sandy     plains,    the 
hardy  oak  and  other  valuable 
hard-wood  trees  are  found  upon 
the    plateaus    and    upon    the 
mountains  (Fig.   99).      Quan- 
tities of  hard  wood  are  shipped 
from  Memphis  and  from  other 
points. 


Fig.  98.  —  A  view  at  Miami  in  Florida,  showing  the  palms  and  other 
vegetation  of  a  warm  climate. 


for  it  is  too  far  from  the  sea  to  be  reached 
by  damp  winds,  and  therefore  receives  little 
rain.  As  one  travels  westward  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  he  finds  first  dense  forests  ; 
then  come  plains  with  scattered  trees,  es- 
pecially the  live  oak;  beyond  this  are  broad 
prairies  without  trees,  but  with  extensive 
cotton  fields.  Next  a  section  is  reached 
which  is  too  dry  for  cotton  ;  and  this  coun- 
try, fitted  only  for  ranching,  stretches  west- 
ward for  several  hundred  miles. 

The  South  is  now  the  greatest  lumber 
section  in  the  country.  There  are  immense 
tracts  of  forest  on  the  Coastal  Plain,  on  the 


The  method  of  lumbering  in  the 
South  is  very  different  from  that  of 

New  England  (p.  34). 

t      i.t      f      i.i     ii     '      2.   Method  of 
In   the   South   there    ,     J"CL"""V1 

lumbering 
are  no  heavy  snows 

to  level  up  the  uneven  ground  and 

to   cause   floods   in   the   streams.      Therefore,   logs 

cannot  be  floated  down  to  tide  water  by  means  of 

spring  freshets.     On  this  account  the  sawmills  are 

located  in  the  midst  of  the  forests,  if  possible  on  the 

river  banks.     To  them  the  logs  are  brought,  either 

by  water,  by  wagon,  or  by  train  (Fig.  100),  and  then 

sawed  into  lumber. 

In  this  section  there  are  no  fishing  banks  where  such 
food  fish  as  cod  and  halibut  live.  But  in  the  rivers, 
along  the  coast,  and  in  the  bays,  are  . 

excellent  food  fish  which  are  caught 
mainly  for  use  in  the  South. 

There  is  also  extensive  oyster  fishing  in  the  shal- 
low bays,  as  in  Mobile  Bay,  for  instance;  and  in 
southern  Florida  there  is  sponge  and  turtle  fishing'. 
The  sponge  grows  in  the  warm,  shallow  waters  of 
the  coral  reefs  ;  and  the  immense  sea  turtle  swims 


74 


NORTH  AMERICA 


about  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  The  alligator, 
whose  skin  is  made  into  the  valuable  alligator  skin 
leather,  is  also  found  in  Florida. 

With  its  fertile  soil  and  favorable  climate, 
the  South  has  naturally  become  a  great  agri- 
Agriculture        cultural     country. 

1.  its  rank  as  It  is  far  better 
an  industry  suited  to  farming 
than  either  the  Middle  Atlantic 
or  the  New  England  States. 
Many  people  are  engaged  in 
other  occupations,  it  is  true, 
but  farming  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry. 

The  crop  that  exceeds  every 
other  in  value,  in  the  South,  is 

2.  Cotton  cotton.     The  early 

(1)  Its  relation     Colonists   SOOll   dis- 

to  slavery  covered  that  cotton 

could  easily  be  raised  here,  and 

that  there  was  a  ready  market 

for  it  abroad.     The  cotton  fields, 

or  plantations,  were  very  large, 

and  there  was  a  vast  amount  of 

work    in  planting  and    picking 

the    cotton,    and    in    separating 

the  fiber  from  the  seed.     This  called  for 

a   great    many    laborers,  —  far   more    than 

could  be  found  there. 

In  those  days  it  was  common  for  people 
to  own  slaves,  and  negro  slaves  were  offered 


with  the  spread  of  slavery  in  the  Southern 
States. 

In  1910  the  Southern  States  produced 
about  11,400,000  bales  of  (2)raeam(nmt 
cotton,  each  weighing  a  little  produced 


Fig.  99. 


Fig.  100.  —  Lumbermen  loading  logs  on  a  train  in  the  forest  of  eastern 
North  Carolina. 


for  sale  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Since 
they  were  found  to  be  well  suited  for  work 
in  the  cotton  fields,  they  were  brought  to 
our  country  for  that  purpose.  In  this  way 
it  came  about  that  cotton  had  much  to  do 


Lumbermen  at  work  cutting  hard-wood  logs  in  the  mountains 
of  western  North  Carolina. 


over  500  pounds.  Of  this,  about  8,000,000 
bales  were  shipped  abroad,  especially  to 
England.  The  remainder  was  manu- 
factured at  home,  mainly  in  New  England 
and  the  South.  In  the  same  year  the  entire 
world  produced  a  little  less  than 
20,000,000  bales,  which  makes 
it  clear  that  the  United  States 
furnishes  much  more  than  half 
of  all  the  cotton  grown.  Since 
so  much  of  the  clothing  worn 
by  men  and  women  of  all 
nations  is  made  of  cotton,  we 
see  that  one  of  the  chief  in- 
dustries of  the  Southern 
States  is  to  help  clothe  the 
peoples  of  the  world. 
Cotton  requires  a  rather  fertile  soil  and 


a    long,  warm    summer.     These  conditions 
exist   throughout    the    region    (3)  The  climate 
marked    as    the    cotton    belt  in  c°«°"  requires 
Figure  253,  but  they  are  wanting   in   the 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


75 


North,  where  the  summers  are   altogether 

too  short. 

The  cotton  seeds  are  planted  in  the  spring,  in  rows 
about  three  feet  apart,  and  the  weeds  are  kept  out 
until  the   plants  are  nearly  grown. 
(4)  Method  of      These  reach  a  height  of  two  or  three 
noting  and  f  d  blossoms  appear  that  pro- 

marketing  it         \  ,      ,    „ .      v.  ■   ., 

duce  a  pod  or  boll  m  which  the  cotton 

and  cotton  seed  are  contained.  When  ripe  the 
pod  bursts  open,  making  a  white,  woolly  ball, 
known  as  cotton,  which  resembles  in  appear- 
ance the  downy  substance  in  the  thistle,  or  in 
the  pod  of  the  milk-weed  (Fig.  101). 

When  a  great  number  of  these  pods  have 
opened,  a  cotton  plantation  presents  a  beauti- 
ful  sight,  —  much   like   a   field    flecked    with 
snow  (Fig.  102).     Then  the  busy  season  for 
the  pickers  begins.     As  many  as  two  or 
three  hundred  men,  women,  and  children 
may  assemble  in  one  field,  carrying 
bags  to  be  filled  with  cotton,  sing- 
ing and  chattering  the  livelong  day. 

When    plucked    from    the  /- 

boll,  the  cotton  is   attached 
to  seeds,  and  these  must  be        (: 
removed  before  the  cotton 
can  be  of  use.     The  seed- 
less cotton   is  tightly 
pressed      into      bales 
which  are  covered 
with    coarse   jute 
bagging,      bound 
with   iron   bands, 
and  shipped  away 
to  the  warehouses. 
to  be  sold. 


Sugar  cane 
is  a  second  im- 
portant crop 
that  is  confined 
to  our  South- 
ern States. 

There  are  a 
number  of 
plants    from 


Fig. 


whose  sap  sugar  is  made. 
One  of  these,  the  sugar  maple, 
has  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  41)  i  another  is  the  sugar 
beet,  raised  in  great  quantities 
in  Europe,  and  also,  of  late,  in  many  of  our 
states.  This  beet  is  now  a  very  important 
source  of  sugar,  because  it  can  be  raised  in 


3.   Sugar  cane 
and  sugar 

(1)  Plantsfrom 
which  sugar  is 
obtained 


a  cool,  temperate  climate.  For  a  long  time, 
however,  the  principal  source  of  sugar  lias 
been  the  sugar  cane,  a  plant  that  looks 
somewhat  like  corn  (Fig.  103). 

Sugar  cane  requires  a  fertile  soil,  and 
grows  only  in  warm  regions  where  there  is 
little  or  no  frost,  even  in  winter.  #)  Where  sugar 
For  this  reason  cane  is  grown 
most  of  the  cane  sugar  comes 
from  tropical  lands,  such  as 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  the 
Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Cuba  (Fig.  255).  In  our 
own  country  the  most  noted 
sugar  district  is  the  delta 
of  the  Mississippi  River 
Louisiana ;  but  sugar 
raising  is  increasing  in 
importance  in  Texas 
and  Georgia. 

Some  of  the  plantations 
in  these  states  have  several 

thousand     _     _ 

(3)  How  it  is 

acres       in        „ .     .   . 
cultivated 

sugar    cane. 

The  cane  is  planted  either 
in  the  fall  or  spring,  in  rows 
about  six  feet  apart.  The 
stalks  grow  in  the  summer 
to  be  two  or  more  inches  in 
diameter,  and  reach  such  a 
height  that  a  man 
riding  through  a 
field  on  horseback 
may  be  entirely 
hidden  from  view. 
The  cane  is  ready 
to  be  cut  in  the 
fall,  after  the 
middle  of  Octo- 
ber. As  soon  as 
the  stalks  are  cut, 
they  are  drawn  to 
the  sugarhouse  in  wagons,  or,  on  the  larger  planta- 
tions, in  railway  cars  (Fig.  104). 

In  the  sugarhouse  the  cane    is    ground 
between  rollers  in  order  to  squeeze  out  the 
juice.      The   waste   cane,   left  ,^  jjow  the 
after  the  juice  is  pressed  out,  sugar  is 
is  used  as  a   fuel   to   run  the  obtained 
engines    of    the   sugarhouse;    the  juice  or 


101.  —  Pii-king  cotton  on  a  Southern  plantation.    The  white,  woolly 
cotton  is  seen  on  the  plant  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner. 


76 


NORTH  AMERICA 


sap  is  placed  in  large  vats  and  warmed 
to  evaporate  the  water  in  it  and  to  crys- 
tallize the  sugar.  This  leaves  two  prod- 
ucts, a  thick  black  molasses  and  brown 
sugar.  Some  large 
sugarhouses  produce  as 
much  as  14,000,000 
pounds  of  sugar  in  a 
year. 

The  crude,  brown 
sugar  is  sent  from  the 
sugarhouse  to  some  re- 
finery, either  in  New 
Orleans  or  in  the 
North.  At  the  refinery 
it  is  changed  to  white 
sugar,  from  which  the 
various  grades  of  granu- 
lated, powdered,  and 
lump  sugar  are  made. 
In  changing  the  brown 
to  the  white  sugar, 
burned  bones,  called  boneblack,  are  used  to 
filter  out  the  impure  parts.  The  bones  are 
obtained  from  Chicago,  and  elsewhere,  where 
large  numbers  of  animals  are  killed  for  meat. 


and   is   not   of    great   value   to   the   sugar 
raiser. 

Rice,  a  third  valuable  crop  in  the  South, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  foods  in  the 


Fig.  103.  —  Cutting  the  sugar  cane  on  a  plantation  in  Louisiana. 


The  molasses  is  used  for  various  pur- 
poses, some  of  it  being  manufactured  into 
sirup  and  molasses  for  the  table,  and 
some  of  it  into  rum.  Molasses  is  a  by- 
product,  like   sawdust   in   a   lumber   mill, 


Fig.  102.  —  A  cotton  field  on  a  Southern  plantation  in  the  picking  season. 

world ;  it  is,  in  fact,  the  chief  food  of  some 
nations,  such  as  the  Chinese.   4.  Rjce 
It  is  not  eaten  so  extensively   (i)  its  impor- 
in    our  country,    but  still  we   tanceasafood 
consume    large    quantities,  — 
far    more,    indeed,    than    we 
raise. 

One  reason  why  we  have 
raised  too  little  rice  for  our 
use,  is  that  we  (2)  mi/we 
have  not  had  the  may  raise  more 
proper  conditions  l"  lheS<"ure 
for  its  growth.  Rice  requires 
a  warm  climate  and  a  damp, 
even  swampy  soil.  The  cli- 
mate is  suitable  in  many  parts 
of  the  South,  but  the  wet  soil 
is  not  so  common.  On  the 
Coastal  Plain  and  river  flood 
plains,  from  the  Carolinas  to 
Texas,  there  is  some  such 
land,  and  there  rice  culture  has  long  been 
carried  on,  the  principal  districts  being 
South  Carolina  and  Louisiana  (Fig.  105). 

Recently  the  area  of  rice  production  has 
been  greatly  increased  by  irrigation.     By 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


77 


leading  the  water  from  streams,  or  springs, 
it  has  been  found  possible  to  make  the  soil 
as  wet  as  necessary  even  on  some  of  the 
higher,  well-drained  plains.  With  irriga- 
tion, rice  culture  may  be  carried  on   over 


5.  Tobacco 


Fig.  KM. 


-Carrying  the  sugar  cane  to  the  ears  which  will  take  it  to  the  sugarhouse. 
A  scene  on  a  Louisiana  plantation. 


much  of  the  warmer  part  of  the  South. 
Some  day,  therefore,  our  country  may  sup- 
ply all  the  rice  we  need,  and  even  have 
some  to  spare.  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Ar- 
kansas produce  most  of  the  rice  now  raised 
in  the  country,  though  some  comes  from 
other  Southern  States. 


To  raise  rice  the  ground  must  first  be  prepared, 
(3)  Method  of  as  ^or  otaer  grains.  After  the  seeds 
cultivating  and  are  planted,  the  fields  are  flooded. 
preparing  for  As  the  plant  grows,  it  forms  a  slender 
market  stalk,  from  three  to   sis  feet  high, 


upon  the  top  of  which  appears  a  head  of  seed  some- 
what resembling  a  head  of  oats.  Shortly  before  the 
harvest  season  the  water  is  drawn  off,  so  that  horses 
may  be  used  in  harvesting  the  crop.  The  rice  is 
then  cut  and  the  kernels  threshed  out,  as  in  the  case 
of  wheat  (Fig.  105).  After  the  hull  is  removed,  the 
grains  are  sent  to  Sew  Or- 
leans, Galveston,  Savan- 
nah, or  Charleston,  to  be 
polished,  after  which  they 
are  ready  for  market. 

Unlike  cotton,  rice, 
and  sugar  cane,  tobacco 
is  not  con- 
fined to  our 

Southern  States.  Yet 
it  is  naturally  a  Southern 
plant,  and  is  raised  in 
the  North  in  only  a  few 
places  where  conditions 
are  especially  favorable. 
Virginia  and  Kentucky, 
where  tobacco  is  a  very 
important  product  (p.  52),  have  a  milder 
climate  than  the  rest  of  the  Middle  At- 
lantic States.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  in  all 
the  Southern  States,  but  most  of  all  in 
Tennessee  (Fig.  106)  and  North  Carolina. 
Claeksville,  Tenn.,  and  Durham,  N.C., 
are  centers  for  trade  in  tobacco.  Name 
some  Virginia  cities  likewise  engaged  in  the 
tobacco  trade. 

Fruits,  such  as  strawberries,  watermelons, 
apples,  peaches,  pears,  grapes,  6   Fnjits  and 
and   oranges,    flourish   in   the  vegetables 


Fig.  10o.  —  Threshing  rice  on  a  large  rice  plantation  in  Louisiana. 


78 


NORTH  AMERICA 


warm  climate  of  the  Southern  States  ;  so 
do  vegetables,  such  as  peas,  beans,  potatoes, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  tomatoes.  All  these 
ripen  earlier  than  in  the  North. 

Florida  is  so  far  south  that  it  has  fruits 
of  an  entirely  different  kind.  Besides 
oranges  (Fig.  107),  there  are  lemon  and 
grape-fruit  groves  in  many  parts  of  the 
state.  In  southern  Florida  the  climate  is  so 
warm  that  even  tender  tropical  plants,  such 
as  cocoanuts  and  pineapples, 
thrive  there.  The  pineapple 
plant,  whose  fruit  is  nestled 
in  the  midst  of  sharp-pointed 
leaves,  grows  especially  well 
on  the  low  coral  keys  and 
reefs  that  fringe  the  southern 
tip  of  Florida. 

Fruits  and  vegetables  from 
the  South  are  sent  in  great 
quantities  to  the  North, 
where  they  appear  in  the 
markets  early  in  the  spring. 
The  oranges  are  sent  through- 
out the  winter.  Thousands 
of  bushels  of  fruit  and  vege- 
tables are  shipped  at  one 
time,  by  fast  train  or  steamer, 
and  at  the  proper  season  one 
may  even  see  a  whole  train 
load  of  strawberries.  Quan- 
tities of  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  canned  in  the  South. 

Many  other  crops  besides 
those  named  are  raised  in  the 
7.  Other  farm  South,  corn, 
products  wheat,  and  hay  being  among 

the  most  important.  An  immense  quantity 
of  corn  is  produced  (Fig.  108),  and  over 
even  a  wider  area  than  cotton  itself;  but 
since  corn  and  wheat  are  raised  even  more 
extensively  in  other  states,  these  grains  are 
treated  later  (pp.  95  to  97). 

Peanuts  and  sweet  potatoes  are  two  valuable  prod- 
ucts of  these  states.  Stock  of  various  kinds,  such 
as  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  is  also  raised,  each 
plantation  usually  having  some  of  these  animals. 
Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  also  reared  in  the  open 


pine  forests  of   the    Coastal    Plains,  especially   in 
Florida  and  Georgia. 

An  important  draft  animal  in  the  South,  wellsuited 
to  the  warm  climate,  is  the  mule.  On  the  fertile 
plains,  especially  in  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  Ken- 
tucky, there  are  stock  farms  where  particular  at- 
tention  is  paid  to  raising  mules  and  fine  breeds  of 
horses. 

In  the  western  part  of  Texas,  where  there 
is  little  rainfall,  grazing  is  the 
chief   industry.     The   climate 


8.  Ranching 


Fig.  106.  — A  field  of  tobacco  in  Tennessee. 

is  so  dry  that  the  grass  cures,  and  becomes 
hay,  Avhile  still  upon  the  ground,  making 
excellent  food  for  cattle  (Fig.  109)  and 
sheep.  One  may  travel  for  miles  over 
the  plains  of  western  Texas,  seeing  little 
else  than  a  ranch  house  here  and  there, 
with  an  occasional  herd  of  cattle  or  sheep, 
and  cowbo}rs  riding  to  and  fro. 

While  there  is  no  reason  for  large  cities 
here,  and  the  life  of  the  cowboys  and  sheep 
herders  is  a  lonely  one,  it  is  their  work  that 
helps  to  supply  our  tables  with  meat,  and  to 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


79 


give  us  our  woolen  clothing  and  our  shoes. 
Explain  how  hundreds  of  New  England 
families  depend  for  their  daily  meat  upon 
the  products  of  these  distant  lonely  ranches. 
How  dependent  people  are  upon  one 
another ! 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  minerals  in  the 
South  ;  but  here,  as  in  the  North,  the  most 
Mining  important  of  all  are  coal  and 

1.  Coal  and  iron  iron  ore.  One  fourth  of  the 
coal  of  the  country,  and  about  one  ninth  of 


Fig.  107.  —An  orange  grove  near  Jacksonville,  Florida 


the  iron  ore,  now  come  from  the  states  south 
of  Pennsylvania. 

Coal  and  iron  ore  are  found  among  the 
mountain  ranges,  and  in  the  Appalachian 
Plateau,  all  the  way  from  Pennsylvania  to 
Alabama.  They  are  mined  in  several  places, 
as  near  Chattanooga  in  eastern  Ten- 
nessee ;  but  most  noted  of  all  is  the  district 
around  Birmingham,  Ala.,  near  the  ex- 
treme southern  end  of  the  Appalachian 
system.  This  region  is  so  rich  in  coal  and 
iron  that  it  now  ranks  as  the  second   iron- 


producing  section  of  the  continent ;  and  in 
coal  production  Alabama  ranks  sixth  among 
the  states  of  the  Union.  The  Birmingham 
region  is  especially  favorable  because  iron 
ore,  coal,  and  limestone,  the  three  materials 
necessary  for  the  production  of  iron  and 
steel  (p.  57),  are  found  there  close  to- 
gether. 

Coal  is  obtained  not  only  in  the  Appa 
lachian  Mountains  and  Plateau,  but  in  cen- 
tral Texas  and  Oklahoma.  There  are  also 
iron  ore  and  other  minerals 
here.  Beneath  the  plains 
bordering  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, from  the  Rio  Grande  to 
Georgia  (Fig.  268),  there  is 
much  brown  coal,  or  lignite. 
This  is  not  so  good  as  the 
bituminous  coal  of  the  Ap- 
palachians, but  it  is  valuable, 
and  can  be  used  for  many 
purposes. 

There  is  not  much  natural 
gas  produced  in  the  Southern 
States,  though 
it  is  found  in 
several  of  them.  The  great- 
est quantity  comes  from 
Oklahoma.  Petroleum,  how- 
ever, is  of  very  great  im- 
portance. Vast  quantities 
have  been  found  in  Texas 
and  Louisiana,  near  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  this  is  now 
one  of  the  most  noted  oil 
regions  in  the  world.  Much 
is  also  found  in  Louisiana,  and  some  in 
Tennessee. 

There  are  valuable  deposits  of  granite  in  several 
of  the  states,  especially  North  and  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Arkansas,  and  Texas.  Ex- 
cellent  sandstone  for  building,  and  8tones  and  clays 
limestone  for  various  uses,  are  also 
widely  distributed.  Among  the  important  uses  of 
the  limestone  here,  as  in  the  North,  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  Portland  cement  (p.  60). 

There  is  much  beautiful  marble  in  Texas,  Georgia, 
and  Tennessee.  The  Georgia  marble  is  widely 
known  for  its  great  beauty ;  and  near  Knoxville, 


2.   Oil  and  gas 


80 


NORTH  AMERICA 


4.   Phosphates 


in  eastern  Tennessee, 
marble  of  different  colors  is 
quarried  (Fig.  110).  What 
city  in  Vermont  is  likewise 
noted  for  marble  (p.  36)  ? 

Clays  of  fine  quality  for 
bricks,  tiles,  etc.,  are  found 
in  many  places;  and  there 
are  also  deposits  of  clay 
suited  to  the  manufacture 
of  high-grade  pottery. 

The  soil  of  farms 
often  becomes  worn 
out  and 
needs  a 
fertilizer.  There  are 
various  kinds  of  fertil- 
izers, such  as  manure 
and  bone  dust,  which 
furnish  the  plant  food 
needed  by  crops;  but 
one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant kinds  is  mineral 
phosphate.  This  is 
found  in  great  quan- 
tities in  Florida,  Ten- 
nessee, and  South 
Carolina ;  and  from 
these  states  much  of 
our  phosphate  is  now 
obtained.     Besides  be- 


5 .   Other  min- 
eral products 


Fig.  108. —  A  field  of  corn  in  Arkansas.    Notice  how 
very  tall  the  corn  grows  in  this  warm  climate. 


ing  used  in  the  South,  it  is  shipped  from  |       Before   the   Civil 


Charleston,  Jack- 
sonville, and  Tampa 
for  use  on  farms  in  the 
North. 

The  phosphate  is  a  de- 
posit in  which  are  found 
fossil  remains  of  many 
animals,  such  as  the  teeth 
of  sharks,  and  the  bones 
and  teeth  of  many  lai-ge 
land  animals,  such  as  the 
huge  mastodon,  which  once 
lived  in  this  country. 

The  South  produces  a 
variety  of  other  minerals. 
Salt,  for  in- 
stance, is 
obtained  in 
Texas  and  Louisiana. 
Bauxite,  the  mineral  from 
which  aluminum  is  made, 
is  found  in  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, and  Arkansas.  Gold 
is  mined  in  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
and  Alabama ;  silver  in 
Texas  and  Tennessee ;  and 
copper  in  Tennessee.  Some 
precious  stones,  such  as  the 
sapphire  and  the  diamond, 
are  also  found.  The  South 
is,  therefore,  a  rich  mineral 
region,  and  the  mining  is 
rapidly  growing  in  im- 
portance. 

War   there   was  little 


Fig.  109.  —  Cattle  on  a  ranch  in  western  Texas. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


81 


Fig.  110.  —  A  marble  quarry  near  Knoxville,  Tennessee. 


manufacturing  in  the  South.  The  negroes, 
who  did  most  of  the  hand  labor,  lacked  the 
Manufacturing  training  necessary  to  handle 
1.  Great  ad-  machinery  ;  and  the  raw 
vances  in  this  materials  were  shipped  away, 
industry  while    manufactured     articles 

were  brought  back.  Thus  cotton  went  to 
England,  New  England,  and  elsewhere,  some 
of  it  to  be  returned  in  the  form  of  cloth ; 
and  lumber  was  shipped  to  various  Northern 
cities,  often  to  be  sent  back  in 
the  form  of  furniture.  Very 
little  iron  ore  :r  coal  was  mined 
in  those  days. 

The  situation  is  now  greatly 
changed  (Fig.  111).  Indeed, 
the  advance  made  in  manufac- 
turing, since  the  Civil  War,  has 
been  wonderful.  The  raw  mate- 
rials are  very  abundant,  and  of 
many  kinds,  as  we  have  seen. 
Name  some  of  them.  Most  of 
these  raw  materials  must  be 
changed  more  or  less  for  use, 
and  this  calls  for  manufacturing. 
There  is   a    great  abundance  of 


coal,  to'  furnish  power  for 
such  work  ;  and  there  is  also 
much  water  power  along  the 
Fall  Line,  in  the  Piedmont 
Plateau,  and  among  the 
mountains.  The  conditions 
here  are  very  favorable, 
therefore,  for  manufacturing. 
Why,  then,  should  these  raw 
materials  be  sent  far  away 
to  be  manufactured  ? 

This  is  a  question  that  the 
Southern  people  have  asked 
themselves ;  and  they  have 
answered  it  by  the  manufac- 
ture of  many  goods  on  a 
grand  scale.  There  is  every 
reason,  too,  to  believe  that  this 
manufacturing  will  rapidly 
increase  in  the  future,  for 
the  South  has  all  that  is 
necessary  for  very  extensive 
manufacturing,  and  the  people  are  awake 
to  their  opportunities. 

Although   much  of   the   pine,  oak,    and 
other  lumber  is  sent  North,  a  great  deal  of 
it  is  made  into  doors,  blinds,   2    Manufac- 
f  urniture,  etc.,  at  factories  in   tures  from  the 
Macon,    Montgomery,    Mo-  forest 
bile,   Chattanooga,    Memphis,    Little 
Rock,   and  Atlanta  (Fig.  112).     High 
Point,   in    North    Carolina,    "the    Grand 


1880 

1900 

3 

M 

■"^ 

\ 

2/      w     :ft\ 

/ 

^ 

1 

Ik 

1 

J. 

v 

jt: 

•/■'vj1 

1  ]:  '    >    [Proportion  exported 

-^— --^ 

'—\           ^Proportion  aent   to  Horihern  atatee 

3  ^^^H/v  p  rtion  consumed  in  Svttth 

Fig.  111. 


Diagram  to  show  what  was  dime  with  the  Southern  cotton  in 
1900,  as  compared  with  1880. 


82 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Rapids  of  the  South,"  is  now  one  of  the 
most  noted  furniture  manufacturing  centers 
of  the  South,  although  a  few  years  ago  it 
was  hardly  known.  There  are  now  eighty 
manufacturing  plants  there. 

The  Southern  forests  are  of  value  in  several  other 
ways.     From  them  are  obtained  turpentine,  wood  alco- 


Fig.  112.  —  A  planing  mill  in  eastern  North  Carolina. 
Notice  the  great  piles  of  boards  in  the  yard  behind 
the  mill. 

hoi,  and  tannic  acid  (p.  42).  The  tannic  acid  from 
the  hemlock  bark  of  the  North  gives  the  leather  a 
red  color,  so  that  shoes  made  from  it  need  to  be 
blackened;  but  tannic  acid  from  the  chestnut  oak 
of  the  South  gives  a  lighter,  or  tan,  color,  and  it  is 
from  such  leather  that  tan  shoes  are  made. 

Turpentine  is  obtained  from  the  sap  of  the  long- 
leafed  pine.  The  bark  is  cut  through  near  the  base 
of  the  tree,  when  the  liquid  oozes  forth.  This  is 
then  distilled  in  a  furnace,  and  one  of  the  products 
is  turpentine.  Other  products  obtained  from  the 
pine  are  rosin,  tar,  and  wood  alcohol.  Thus  the 
long-leafed  pine  is  a  very  valuable  tree,  for  all  these 
products  are  used  in  every  part  of  the  country. 

Birmingham,  the  leading  iron  manufac- 
turing center  of  the  South,  and  for  that 
3.  Manufacture  reason  called  the  "  Pittsburgh 
of  iron  and  steel  of  the  South,"  is  located  on  an 
goods  old  cotton  plantation.    In  1880 

the  town  had  a  population  of  3086  ;  but 
now  it  contains  over  132,000  persons. 
What  special  advantages  has  it  (p.  79)? 
In  and  near  this  city,  as  at  Pittsburgh,  the 
iron  ore  is  reduced  to  iron  in  blast  furnaces 
(p.  58)  and  then  changed  to  steel  and  vari- 
ous other  useful  articles. 

Several  other  cities  near  the  mountains 
are  noted  for  their  iron  manufacturing,  as 
Rome  and  Atlanta,  in  Georgia,  and  Knox- 


4.  Cotton  manu- 
facturing 

(1)  Extent  of 
cotton  manu- 
facturing, and 
leading  centers 


ville  and  Chattanooga,  in  Tennessee. 
Chattanooga  is  also  a  center  for  the  manu- 
facture of  farm  machinery. 

In  some  cities  there  are  many  cotton 
mills;  for  example,  in  Charlotte,  N.C., 
there  are  twenty-three,  and  in 
and  near  Spartanburg,  S.C. 
thirty-eight.  In  other  towns 
there  are  only  one  or  two. 
From  Danville,  Va.,  to  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  cotton  mills  are 
very  numerous,  and  there  are  others  through- 
out the  cotton  belt.  Indeed,  the  Piedmont 
Plateau  has  become  one  of  the  greatest 
cotton  manufacturing  sections  in  the  world. 
The  map  (Fig.  113)  shows  the  distribution 
of  these  mills  in  a  number  of  the  Southern 
States. 

While  hundreds  of  Southern  cities  and 
towns  now  manufacture  cotton  cloth  and 
cotton-seed  oil,  Charlotte,  N.C.,  Colum- 
bia, Greenville,  and  Spartanburg, 
S.C,  and  Augusta,  Columbus,  and 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  lead  in  these  industries. 
What  cities  in  New  England  are  noted 
for  cotton  manufacture  ? 


Fig.  113.  —  A  map  to  show  the  extent  of  cotton  manufac- 
turing iu  the  South.    Each  dot  represeuts  one  mill. 

The  following  facts  from  an  Alabama  cotton  mill 
give  some  idea  of  the  size  and  output  of  these  mills. 
This  particular  mill  employs  600 
hands,  including  men,  women,  boys, 
and  girls,  and  pays  them  about 
$2000  a  week  in  wages.  Every  day  this  mill  con- 
sumes 15  bales  of  cotton,  each  weighing  about  500 
pounds.  Since  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  land 
is  about  250  pounds,  you  can  easily  figure  out  how 


(2)  Meaning  of 

a  "  mill" 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


83 


many  acres  of  cotton  are  called  for  in   one  year  by 
this  single  mill. 

In  this  mill,  as  in  many  others,  white  people  are 
employed  to  do  the  work.  While  many  of  the  mills 
are  in  the  cities,  others  are   in   the   country;  and 


Fig.  114.  —  Interior  of  a  cotton  mill  in  the  South.  There  are  scores  of 
machines,  and  each  one  works  steadily  weaving  the  cotton  fiber  into 
cloth. 


there  villages  have  sprung  up  near  the  mills.  Some 
of  these  new  villages  are  already  so  large  that  they 
have  their  own  schoolhouses  and  churches. 

In  the  early  days  the  cotton   seeds   were 
slowly  picked  out  of  the  cotton  by  hand, 

(3)  Value  of  the  and  then  thrown  away.  Whit- 
cottongin  ney's  invention  of  the  cotton 
gin,  in  1793,  made  it  possible  for  one  laborer 
to  separate  as  much  as  a  thousand  pounds 
from  the  seed  in  the  same  time  -that  five 
or  six  pounds  could  be  cleaned  by  hand. 
That,  of  course,  made  cotton  raising  far 
more  profitable,  and  led  the  planters  to 
cultivate  it  more  extensively. 

The  seeds  have  also  been  found  to  be  of 
value,    and    are    no    longer    thrown    away. 

(4)  Value  of  They  are  made  into  cotton- 
cottonseed  seed  oil,  which  is  used  in  mak- 
ing soap,  imitation  lard  and  butter,  and  a 
substitute  for  olive  oil.  There  are  from 
two  to  three  pounds  of  seed  to  one  pound 
of  cotton,  and  since,  on  the  average,  one 
acre  produces  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 


of  cotton,  the  value  of  the  cotton  seed  from 
a  large  plantation  is  considerable.  The 
part  of  the  seed  that  is  left,  after  the  oil  is 
pressed  out,  has  been  found  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent food  for  cattle,  and  a 
good  fertilizer.  Thus  the 
cotton  plant  now  produces 
two  valuable  substances  be- 
sides the  cotton  fiber. 

Some  of  the  other  articles 
manufactured  in  the  South 
have  already  been  5  other  manu- 
mentioned  ;  for  factures  in  the 
example,  tobacco  South 
(p.  77)  and  sugar  (p.  75). 
In  each  case  the  work  is  con- 
fined mainly  to  the  section 
from  which  the  raw  material 
comes.  Thus,  New  Orleans, 
near  the  sugar  plantations, 
has  large  sugar  refineries  ; 
and  Raleigh,  Durham, 
Winston-Salem,  and  other 
cities  in  northern  North  Caro- 
lina, manufacture  tobacco. 
Key  West,  on  a  small  coral  key  south  of 
the  Florida  peninsula,  is  also  noted  for  its 
tobacco  factories.  It  is  so  near  Cuba  that  the. 
Havana  tobacco,  so  much  prized  by  cigar 
smokers,  is  easily  obtained.  There  is  also 
cigar  manufacturing  at  Tampa.  Why  there? 
Besides  the  articles  mentioned,  the  South 
makes  a  great  variety  of  other  goods  from  the 
products  of  the  farm,  ranch,  forest,  and  mine. 


Fig.  115.  —  A  cotton  mill  at  Htmtsville,  Alabama.  There 
are  many  others  as  large  as  this,  and  many,  also,  that 
are  even  larger. 


84 


NORTH  AMERICA 


With  so  many  raw  materials  and  so  much 
manufacturing,  commerce  in  the  South  is 
Transports-  extensive, 
tion  of  goods  There  are 
excellent  opportunities 
for  transportation  of 
goods  both  by  rail  and 
by  water.  While  some 
of  the  harbors  are  shal- 
low and  partly  closed  by 
sand  bars,  others  are  deep 
enough  for  large  ocean 
ships.  The  principal  sea- 
ports are  kept  open  by 
building  jetties,  and  by 
dredging  the  sand  away. 
Here,  as  in  the  North,  the 
government  spends  large 
sums  of  money  each  year 
for  this  purpose. 

The  Mississippi  River 
is  a  great  artery  of  trade 
(Fig.  117),  with  many 
navigable  branches;  and 
on  the  Coastal  Plains 
there  are  numerous  short 
streams  navigable  for 
small  boats.  Railroads, 
also,  are  well  developed, 
connecting  all  important 
points  in  the  South  with 
one  another,  and  with 
other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Among  these  are 
some  of  the  leading  rail- 
ways of  the  country,  such 
as  the  Southern,  the 
Southern  Pacific,  and  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville 
railways. 

The  greatest  of  all  the 
Southern 


ated  at  the  gateway  to  the  most  productive 
valley  in  North  America,  about  one  hundred 


Leading  cen- 
ters of  com-  cities       is 
merce  New  Orleans,  the  largest  in 
l.  New  Orleans  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
(l)  its  size  and  States  south  of  St.  Louis,  with 
location  a    p0puiaticm    of    over    three 

hundred  thousand.     New   Orleans  is  situ- 


Fig.  116.  —  Map  to  show  location  of  New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Birmingham, 
and  Atlanta. 


miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 
On  the  map  (Fig.  116)  you  will  see  that 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  called  Lake  Pontchar- 
train,  reaches  up  to  the  city,  and  that  New 
Orleans  is  located  at  the  place  where  the 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


85 


river  and  lake  are  nearest  together.  At 
this  point  the  Mississippi  makes  a  great 
bend,  in    the  form  of   a  half-circle,   which 


Fig.  117.  —  River  steamers  at  New  Orleans.    These  boats  carry  large  amounts 
of  freight,  as  well  as  passengers,  up  and  down  the  river. 


explains  the  name,  Crescent  City,  commonly 
given  to  New  Orleans. 

That  particular  spot  was  selected  for  the 
site  of  the  city,  because  the  sailing  ships  of 
two  centuries  ago  could  reach 
it  by  crossing  the  lake,  while 
they  could  not  sail  a  hundred 
miles  up  the  river  without 
great  difficulty.  On  account 
of  the  shallow  water,  the  large 
ocean  steamers  now  in  use 
cannot  enter  the  lake,  but 
they  can  reach  the  city  by 
the  river  route. 

When  we  recall  the  advan- 
tages of   New   York's  water 
connection  with 


reached  from  New  Orleans  by  boat  (Fig. 
40).  How  do  these  distances  compare  with 
those  from  New  York  to  Chicago  and 
to  Duluth  ?  Also,  how  far 
apart  are  Pittsburgh  andKan- 
sas  City  ?  Much  of  the 
country  between  these  cities 
is  within  easy  reach  of  the 
Mississippi  or  some  of  its 
branches. 

There  is  now  a  plan  to  improve 
the  Mississippi  River  so  that  large 
boats  can  navigate  it  more  easily. 
When  this  is  done,  the  port  of  New 
Orleans  will  be  even  more  impor- 
tant as  a  shipping  point  for  the 
fertile  Mississippi  Valley. 

Like  New  York,  New  Orleans  is 
connected  with  the  interior  of  the 
country  by  rail  as  well  as  by  water. 
The   Illinois   Central   Railway  ex- 
tends all  the  way  to  Chicago,  run- 
ning parallel  to  the  river  for  much 
of  the  distance ;  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville    reaches    Louisville,    St. 
Louis,  and   other  cities;   and   the 
Southern  Railway  runs  from  Wash- 
ington to  Atlanta,  with  connections  to  New  Orleans, 
and  thence  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  extends 
westward,  across  Texas,  to  California. 

Much  of  the  land  on  which  New  Orleans  is  built 
is  frequently  below  the  level  of  the  river.     In  fact, 


(2)  Its  Interior 

connections  by      the      West,      we 

voter  and  rail      can   readily   un_ 

derstand  the  growth  of  New 

Orleans.      Pittsburgh  on  the 

Ohio,    St.    Paul    on    the    Mississippi,    and 

Kansas   City   ou  the    Missouri,  can  all    be 


By  courtesy  uf  Mississippi  River  Commission. 

Fig.  118.  — The  embankment,  or  levee,  along  the  Mississippi,  built  to  prevent 
the  river  from  overflowing  the  flood  plain. 


from  Memphis  southward,  a  large  part  of  the  land 
on  either  side  of  the  Mississippi  is  a  low  flood  plain, 


86 


NORTH  AMERICA 


caused  by  the 
river 


spreading  out  for  many  miles,  and  often  threatened 
■with  floods.  The  mighty  river,  receiving  tributaries 
from  regions  thousands  of  miles 
!)  Difficulties  ap^t,  js  charged  with  yellow  mud, 
which  gradually  sinks  to  the  bottom 
as  the  current  becomes  slower  toward 
the  mouth.  This  has  built  up  the  bed  of  the  river, 
so  that  at  high  water  the  floods  would  spread  out 
over  the  low  land  if  they  were  not  shut  in  by  strong 
walls  of  earth,  called  lerees  (Fig.  118). 

In  spite,  of  their  strength,  these  embankments 
sometimes  give  way,  especially"  in  the  springtime, 
when  the  snows  are  melting  in  the  North ;  then  the 
destruction  to  life  and  property  is  appalling.  At 
such  times  hundreds  of  men  patrol  the  levees,  night 


midwinter  weather  is  rarely  colder  than 
the  early  autumn  of  the  North.  What 
must  be  the  effect  of  this  climate  upon  the 
style  of  houses  ?  Also  upon  the  presence 
of  birds,  flowers,  and  fruits  in  winter  ? 

Memphis  and  Atlanta  (Fig.  116)  are 
two  other  large  and  rapidly  growing 
southern  cities.  The  for-  2.  Memphis 
mer  is  situated  in  Tennessee,  and  Atlanta 
on  a  bluff  with  the  Mississippi  River  at 
its  base.  Why  is  that  a  favorable  loca- 
tion for  the  growth  of  a  large  city  ?     Mem- 


Fig.  119.  —  A  view  of  Atlanta. 


and  day,  to  check  the  slightest  leak.  A  hole  made 
by  even  a  crawfish  may  be  the  beginning  of  a  de- 
structive flood. 

Because  the  land  near  the  river  is  so  low,  the 
soil  on  which  New  Orleans  stands  is  very  damp. 
Indeed,  in  digging  foundations  for  buildings, 
water  is  reached  a  short  distance  below  the  sur- 
face. On  that  account  it  has  been  difficult  to  pro- 
vide proper  drainage.  A  system  of  drainage  and 
sewerage  has,  however,  been  established  at  great 
expense. 

New  Orleans  once   belonged  to  France 
(p.  25),  and  one  person  in  six  in  the  city 
is   of   French  stock.     French 
is    still    spoken    by   some    of 
these. 
Frost  seldom  reaches  this  city,  and  the 


(4)  People,  and 
climate  of  the 
city 


phis  is  a  noted  river  port,  and  one  of  the 
great  cotton  centers  and  lumber  markets  of 
the  South. 

Atlanta  (Fig.  119),  the  "  Gate  City,"  is 
one  of  the  few  large  cities  not  located  upon 
a  water  route.  Northeast  of  it,  for  over 
three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  there  is  no 
easy  pass  across  the  mountains,  and  until 
1880,  in  all  that  distance  no  railway  crossed 
the  Appalachian  Mountains.  Near  Atlanta, 
however,  there  is  a  good  route ;  and  rail- 
ways reaching  westward  from  the  Carolinas, 
or  northern  Georgia,  come  together  here, 
making  Atlanta  a  great  railway  center. 

Owing  to  its  favorable  situation  as  a  rail- 
way shipping  point,  Atlanta  is  the  leading 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


87 


interior  wholesale  market  of  the  South  ; 
and  it  surpasses  all  Southern  cities  in  the 
number  and   variety   of    its   manufactures. 


3    Nashville, 
Knoxville,  and 
Chattanooga 


Fig.  lliO.  —  Moccasin  Bend  in  the  Tennessee  River,  as  seen  from  Lookout 
Mountain.  Chattanooga  is  situated  on  the  river  bank  just  to  the  right  of 
the  middle  of  the  picture. 


Among  its  factories  are  lumber,  cotton,  and 
iron  mills.  It  is  one  of  the  most  progres- 
sive cities  in  the  country,  and,  like  other 
Southern  cities,  is  a  busy  center. 

If  we  recall  the  roughness 
of  the  plateau  west  of  the 
Appalachians,  we  can  under- 
stand the  reason 
for  the  location 
of  Chatta- 
nooga. It  is  on  the  Ten- 
nessee River  (Fig.  120),  at  a 
point  which  makes  it  a  gate- 
way somewhat  like  Atlanta. 
There  is  much  manufacturing 
here,  especially  of  articles 
made  of  iron  and  wood. 
Another  busy  manufacturing 
city,  near  by,  is  Knoxville, 
which  is  not  quite  so  large 
as  Chattanooga. 

Nashville,  the  capital  of 
Tennessee,  has  sawmills,  fur- 
niture factories,  and  flour 
mills.  There  are  more  than  six  hundred 
factories  in  this  city.  Being  in  the  midst 
of  a  splendid  farming  country,  it  is  a  dis- 


tributing point  for  supplies  to  the  sur- 
rounding towns  and  farms.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  educational  centers  of  the  South, 
having  \randerbilt  University 
and  other  important  schools. 
There  are  several  other  well- 
known  universities  in  the 
South,  and  each  state  sup- 
ports a  state  university. 
Many  of  these  take  a  high 
rank  among  the  universities 
of  the  country. 

The  coast  cities  are  chiefly 
engaged   in   shipping  cotton 
and  lumber,  and  4    Seaport3 
most     of     them    east  of  the 
are  located  near  Mississippi 
the  mouths  of  rivers,  so  that 
these  goods  may  be  brought 
to  them  by  water  as  well  as 
by  rail.      In  them,  also,  there 
is  important    manufacturing,  especially  of 
cotton   goods    and    lumber.       Two    of   the 
best-known  seaports  are  Charleston  and 
Savannah,  both   long  noted  as  shipping 


Copyright,  19(M>,  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

Fig.  121.  —  Thousands  of  bales  of  cotton  on  one  of  the  wharves  at  Savannah, 
ready  for  shipment. 


points  for  cotton  (Fig.  121),  lumber,  and 
other  goods.  Charleston  is  the  leading 
lumber  port   in  the  South.      Mobile,   on 


88 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Mobile  Bay,  is  another  important  Southern 
port. 

In  Florida  are  Tampa  and  Pensacola, 
both  with  excellent  harbors,  and  both  rap- 
idly growing.  Besides  its  cigar  manufac- 
turing (p.  83),  Tampa  has  a  growing  trade 
with  the  West  Indies.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  important  railways,  and  is  the  nearest 
port  in  the  country  to  the  Panama  Canal. 
Owing  to  the  canal  the  trade  of  both  Pensa- 
cola and  Tampa  has  already 
greatly  increased. 

Since    so    much    cotton    is 
shipped  away,  there  has  been 

5.  Other  cities     need    of    a    lar§'e 
of  the  Missis-      number  of  ship- 


while  an  important  line  reaches  southward 
into  Mexico.  Much  of  the  land  along  the 
Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  rivers,  and  some 
other  streams,  is  irrigated  ;  but  in  most  of 
the  western  part  of  Texas  the  chief  indus- 
try is  cattle  raising,  in  which  Texas  is  the 
leading  state  of  the  Union. 

P2ast  of  the  arid  and  semiarid  plateau, 
most  of  the  crops  of  the  Southern  States 
grow  in  great  abundance.     Rice  and  sugar 


ping      points. 


sippi  Valley 

Therefore,  besides  the  cities 
already  named,  most  of  which 
are  extensively  engaged  in 
cotton  shipping,  we  find  the 
cotton  ports  of  Vicksburg, 
Natchez,  and  Baton  Rouge, 
on  the  Mississippi,  and 
Shrevepobt  and  Little 
Rock  on  tributaries  to  that 
river. 

Texas  is  the  largest  state  in 
the  Union.     It  is  even  larger 

than     all     the 

thirteen      states 

included  in  New  England  and 

the  Middle  Atlantic  States, 
and  has  a  greater  area  than  either  France 
or  Germany.  At  one  time  it  was  a  separate 
country,  having  won  its  independence  from 
Mexico  in  1836.  But  it  desired  later  to 
enter  our  Union,  and  was  admitted  as  a 
state  in  1845. 

Throughout  the  arid  western  section 
there  are  no  cities  and  few  large  towns, 
(2)  Smaiimss  except  in  the  extreme  western 
o/thepopuia-  corner  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
Hon  in  the  west     w]iere    El     pAg0     jg     located. 

The  Spanish  word  "  El  Paso  "  means  "  the 
pass,"  for  this  city  is  situated  at  a  pass  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  through  which  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railway  extends  westward, 


6.    Cities  in 
Texas 

(1)  Size  of  this 
state 


Fig.  122.  —  The  Alamo,  at  San  Antonio  —  an  old  Spanish  church,  famous 
in  the  history  of  Texas. 


cane    flourish   on   the    Coastal 


(3)  Resources  in 


Plain,  and  forests  are  exten-  the  east,  and  the 
sive.  On  the  higher  plains,  Cltiesthere 
just  west  of  these  lowlands,  the  warm  cli- 
mate and  fertile  soil  are  especially  favorable 
to  .cotton.  Texas  leads  all  the  states  in  the 
production  of  this  valuable  crop.  What 
important  minerals  are  found  in  Texas,  and 
in  what  parts  of  the  state  (pp.  79,  80)  ? 

Naturally,  since  so  many  raw  materials 
are  produced  in  the  eastern  half  of  this 
state,  large  cities  are  located  there.  Two  of 
them  are  Dallas  and  Fort  Worth  —  both 
shipping  points,  the  former  for  cotton,  the 
latter  for  cattle  from  the  plains  of  the 
West.  Dallas  is  also  a  busy  manufacturing 
center.     Austin,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Col- 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


89 


orado  River,  and  San  Antonio  (Fig.  122), 
the  largest  city  in  the  state,  lies  farther 
southwest. 

Two  other  important  cities  are  Houston, 
near  the  coast,  and  Galveston,  the  princi- 
pal seaport  west  of  New  Orleans.  Immense 
quantities  of  cotton  and  other  products  are 


Fig.  123.  —  A  view  of  Oklahoma  City  as  it  appeared  April  22,  1889 

with  Figure  124. 


shipped  from  Galveston.  It  is  also  a  port 
of  outlet  for  goods  from  the  Far  West. 
Railroads  from  the  north  and  west  cross 
Texas  to  Galveston  and  other  Gulf  ports  ; 
and  railway  lines  likewise  cross  the  state  to 
Mexico  and  California. 

No  one  of  the  cities  of  Texas  is  yet  of 
great  size,  since  manufacturing  is  not  ex- 
tensively developed. 
But  here,  as  in  the  other 
Southern  States,  there 
is  much  recent  advance 
in  manufacturing. 

All  of  our  states,  ex- 
cept the  thirteen  orig- 
inal states,  were  once 
territories,  occupied  by 
7.  Oklahoma  Indians. 
(1)  Its  history  As  they  be- 
came settled  they  were, 
one  by  one,  admitted  to 
the  Union  as  states.  One  of  the  last  states 
to  be  admitted  was  Oklahoma,  and  it  is 
therefore  of  special  interest.  Not  many 
years  ago  Oklahoma  was  occupied  by  Indians 
alone.  As  the  red  men  in  various  parts  of 
our  country  were  conquered,  and  the  land 
that  they  occupied  became  needed  by  white 


men,  the  Indians  were  placed  on  lands  re- 
served for  them  in  different  places.  These 
reserved  sections  were  called  Indian  reser- 
vations, and  at  one  time  nearly  all  the  area 
at  present  included  in  the  state  of  Okla- 
homa was  given  over  to  the  Indians.  It 
was  then   called   Indian   Territory. 

As  our  country  be- 
came more  and  more 
settled,  and  it  was  found 
that  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory had  great  resources, 
the  white  men  desired 
this  land  also.  One 
strong  reason  for  taking 
it  from  the  Indians  was 
that  they  did  so  little 
to  develop  it.  Accord- 
ingly, in  1890,  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  Indian 
Territory  was  thrown  open  to  white  settlers, 
and  called  Oklahoma.  People  rushed  in 
there,  by  thousands,  to  secure  the  free 
farms  that  the  government  offered,  and 
the  region  was  rapidly  settled  (Figs.  123 
and  121).  Then  people  asked  that  the  two 
divisions,  the  Territory  of  Oklahoma  in 
the  west  and  Indian  Territory  in  the  east, 


Compare  this 


Fig.  124.  —  A  view  of  a  part  of  Oklahoma  City  in  1908.    Compare  this  with 
Figure  123  to  see  the  great  change  in  less  than  twenty  years. 


be  admitted  into  our  Union  as  one  state. 
This  was  granted,  and  in  1907  the  new 
state  was  admitted  under  the  name  of 
Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma,  like  Texas,  is  largely  a  plain  ; 
but  in  the  east  there  are  low, 


forest-covered  mountains,  con- 


(2)  lis  resources 


90 


NORTH  AMERICA 


(3)  Chief  cities 


taining  coal,  iron,  and  other  valuable  min- 
erals. In  the  extreme  west  the  climate  is 
more  arid,  and  grazing  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry ;  but  in  most  of  the  state  the  plains 
are  splendidly  fitted  for  agriculture.  Many 
farm  crops  are  produced,  the  leading  ones 
being  corn  and  other  grains  in  the  north, 
and  cotton  in  the  south. 

Although  the  state  is  so  new,  there  has 
already  been  great  development  of  agricul- 
ture, lumbering,  and  mining, 
and  no  doubt  there  will  be 
much  greater  advance  in  the  next  few 
years.  The  progress  in  manufacturing  is 
indicated  by  the  number  and  size  of  cities 
and  towns  that  have  already  sprung  up. 
The  largest  is  the  capital,  Oklahoma  City, 
but  Muskogee,  Shawnee,  and  Guthrie 
are  also  large  and  growing  cities. 

1.   How  are  the  surface  features  of  the  northeast- 
ern portion  of  these  states  similar  to  those  farther 
.  north  ?    2.   To   what  extent  is  the 

n        .  surface  of  the  Southern  States  level  ? 

"  3.   What  mountains  are  found  there, 

besides  the  Appalachians?  4.  What  is  the  character 
of  the  coast  ?  5.  Describe  the  climate.  6.  What 
is  the  rank  of  the  South  in  the  lumbering  industry  ? 
7.  Name  the  kinds  of  trees  found  there,  and  tell  how 
the  lumbering  is  carried  on.  8.  What  about  fish- 
ing ?  9.  To  what  extent  is  agriculture  important  ? 
10.  Why  was  slave  labor  needed  on  the  cotton 
plantations?  11.  Tell  about  the  amount  of  cotton 
produced,  and  the  climate  it  requires.  12.  How 
is  the  cotton  raised  and  marketed?  13.  What 
plants  produce  sugar?  14.  Where  is  sugar  cane 
grown,  and  how  is  it  cultivated  ?  15.  How  is  sugar 
obtained  from  the  cane  ?  16.  What  about  the  im- 
portance of  rice  as  a  food?  Why  may  we  expect 
that  more  will  be  raised  in  the  future  ?  17.  How 
is  it  cultivated  and  prepared  for  market?  18.  Where 
is  tobacco  produced  in  the  South  ?  19.  What  can 
you  tell  about  fruit  and  vegetable  raising  here  ? 
20.  What  other  farm  products  are  raised?  21.  Where 
is  ranching  important  ?  Why?  22.  Where  are  coal 
and  iron  ore  found?  23.  Oil  and  gas  ?  24.  What 
about  building  stones  and  clays  in  the  South  ? 
25.  Phosphates?  20.  What  other  mineral  products 
are  important  ?  27.  How  has  manufacturing  in  the 
South  advanced  since  the  Civil  War?  28.  What  goods 
are  manufactured  from  products  of  the  forests  ?  29. 
Name  the  principal  cities  engaged  in  that  work.  30. 
What  cities  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
goods?    31.   What  is  the  extent   of  cotton   manu- 


facturing? 32.  Name  the  chief  cotton  manufac- 
turing cities.  33.  Explain  the  value  of  the  cotton 
gin.  34.  Of  what  value  are  the  cotton  seeds  ? 
35.  What  other  manufacturing  is  carried  on  in  the 
South  ?  36.  What  conveniences  has  the  South  for  the 
transportation  of  goods?  37.  Tell  about  the  size  and 
location  of  New  Orleans.  38.  What  connections 
'by  water  and  rail  has  it  with  the  interior  of  our 
continent?  39.  What  difficulties  are  caused  by  the 
Mississippi  River?  40.  Tell  about  the  people  in 
New  Orleans.  What  about  the  climate  there? 
41.  State  the  important  facts  about  Memphis  and 
Atlanta.  42.  About  Nashville,  Knoxville,  and 
Chattanooga.  43.  Locate  and  give  the  principal 
facts  about  the  coast  cities  east  of  the  Mississippi ; 
other  cities  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  44.  What 
about  the  size  of  Texas  ?  45.  Why  is  the  population 
so  small  in  the  western  part  ?  46.  What  are  the 
resources  in  its  eastern  part,  and  the  chief  cities 
there?  47.  Give  a  brief  history  of  Oklahoma. 
48.  What  are  its  resources?  49.  Name  and  locate 
its  chief  cities. 

North  Carolina  (N.C.).  1.  Which  part  is  moun- 
tainous ?  Name  and  locate  the  highest  peak  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River.     2.    What  are  . 

the  surface  features  of  this  state?     3.    ..        .      „.   . 
,,.,  .....  ,.        ,   .     ,,  .     tions by  States 

Which  cities  are  mentioned  in  this 

text?    Where  is  each  ?     For  what  is  each  important  ? 

4.    What  capes  do  you  find  on  the  coast?     5.   What 

are  the  leading  industries?     (See  Figs.  249  to  278) 

6.   Draw  an  outline  map  of  this  state,  like  that  of 

Maine.     Do  the  same  later  for  each  of  the  other 

states. 

Tennessee  (Tenn.).  7.  Where  are  the  mountains  ? 
The  plains?  8.  Name  two  cities  among  the  moun- 
tains. For  what  is  each  important  ?  9.  State  facts 
about  two  other  cities  in  Tennessee.  10.  Which 
city  is  the  largest  ?  -(See  table,  Appendix,  p.  427.) 
11.  What  large  rivers  drain  the  state  ?  12.  What 
are  the  leading  industries  in  this  state? 

South  Carolina  (S.C.).  13.  Describe  the  surface 
features  of  the  state.  14.  What  are  the  principal 
industries  ?  15.  What  city  is  on  the  Fall  Line  ? 
On  the  seacoast  ?  For  what  is  each  important  ? 
16.   Which  city  is  largest  ? 

Georgia  (Ga.).  17.  Where  are  the  mountains? 
18.  The  plains?  19.  What  are  the  industries? 
20.  Trace  the  Fall  Liue  across  the  state  (Fig.  66). 
What  cities  are  on  it?  21.  Why  is  Atlanta  situated 
where  it  is?  22.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with 
the  largest  city  in  each  of  the  three  states  just  men- 
tioned ?  23.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  New 
Orleans,  Buffalo,  and  Providence?  24.  Name  the 
two  seaports.     What  do  they  ship  ? 

Florida  (Fla.).  25.  What  about  the  relief  of 
this  state?  26.  Explain  the  irregular  southern 
coast  and  the  Florida  Keys.  27.  Describe  the 
climate.     How    does     this     influence     the     crops? 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


91 


is  it  important '.' 
industries  of  Bir- 
aised  in  Alabama? 
in    manufacturing 


28.  What  Florida  cities  are  mentioned,  and  how  is 
each  important?  Locate  each.  29.  What  mineral 
product  comes  from  Florida? 

Alabama  (Ala.).  30.  Trace  the  Fall  Line  across 
this    state.      What     cities    are    situated     on     it  ? 

31.  Where    is    Mobile?      How 

32.  Describe   the   location   and 
mingham.     33.  What  crops  are 
34.  What    cities    are    engaged 
cotton?     35.  In  lumber  manufacturing?     36.  Com- 
pare Mobile  in  size  with  Atlanta  and  Birmingham. 

Mississippi  (Miss.).  37.  Why  is  there  no  city  on 
the  coast?  3S.  In  what  way  can  the  products  of  the 
state  be  shipped  by  water?  39.  From  what  cities? 
40.  What  are  the  products?  41.  Why  no  mining? 
42.  What  about  the  extent  of  cotton  raising  in  this 
state  (Figs.  253,  254)  ? 

Louisiana  (La.).  43.  State  the  reasons  for  the 
great  importance  of  New  Orleans.  44.  Why  has 
it  a  better  location  than  Mobile  or  Charleston? 
45.  Compare  it  in  size  with  those  cities.  40.  With 
Boston  and  Baltimore.  47.  What  large  tributary 
enters  the  Mississippi  in  Louisiana  ?  48.  What 
crops  are  raised  in  Louisiana?  Why  there?  49.  Tell 
how  the  delta  is  caused  to  grow  (p.  6). 

Arkansas  (Ark.).  50.  What  large  river  enters 
the  Mississippi  in  this  state  ?  51.  There  is  much 
forest  in  Arkansas;  what  kinds  (Fig.  265)?  52.  Is 
Arkansas  in  the  cotton  belt?  (See  Fig.  253.) 
53.  The  capital  is  the  largest  city.  Compare  it  in 
size  with  Memphis.  Why  is  it  less  favorably  situ- 
ated than  that  city? 

Texas  (Tex.).  54.  Where  are  the  mountains? 
55.  Where  are  the  forests?  Why  there?  56.  What 
are  the  industries  on  the  western  plains  ?  57.  What 
city     lies     in     the     western     part?      Why     there? 

58.  What    are   the    industries    in    eastern    Texas? 

59.  What  cities  are  in  eastern  Texas?  60.  For 
what  is  Galveston  noted?  61.  Compare  it  in  size 
with  New  Orleans  and  Charleston.  62.  Texas  is 
how  many  times  as  large  as  Rhode  Island?  (For 
area,  see  table  in  Appendix,  p.  425.)  As  Pennsyl- 
vania? 63.  Add  together  the  areas  of  all  the  New 
England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States,  and  compare 
the  total  with  the  area  of  Texas.  64.  Compare 
the  population  of  Texas  with  that  of  Massachusetts. 
(See  Appendix,  p.  425.) 

Oklahoma  (Okla.).  65.  What  has.  been  the  history 
of  this  state?  66.  What  about  the  climate  of  the 
western  part?  67.  What  crops  are  raised  in  the 
northern  part  ?  In  the  southern  part  ?  68.  Into 
what  river  does  the  state  drain  ?  69.  Name  and 
locate  the  chief  cities. 

70.  Which  is  the  smallest  of  the  Southern  States? 
"1.  Compare  it  with    Pennsylvania 
and  Massachusetts  in  size.    72.  State 
the  principal  industries  of  the  South. 
73.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  that  they  are   so  dif- 


General  Review 
Questions 


ferent  from  those  of  the  North?  74.  Name  the 
principal  cities  on  the  Fall  Line,  and  explain  the  im- 
portance of  each. 

1.  Show  several  ways  in  which  New  England  and 
the  Southern  States  are  dependent  on  each  other. 
2.  What  effect  did  our  Civil  War 
have  on  the.  cotton  manufacturing  of  " 
England?  3.  Near  what  places  were  some  of  the 
great  battles  of  the  war  fought?  4.  What  other  in- 
ventions may  well  be  compared  with  the  cotton  gin 
in  importance?  5.  About  how  much  sugar  does 
your  family  use  each  year?  6.  What  reasons  can 
you  give  for  expecting  the  cotton  mills  in  New  Eng- 
land to  prove  less  profitable,  now  that  the  South  is 
developing  such  mills?  7.  Find  out  how  much 
nearer  it  is  from  Chicago  to  the  Panama  Canal  by 
way  of  New  Orleans  than  by  way  of  New  York. 
What  effect  will  this  probably  have  on  New  Orleans  ? 
8.  Through  what  waters  would  a  boat  go  from  New 
Orleans  to  Kansas  City?  To  Pittsburgh?  To 
Chicago?  To  San  Francisco?  9.  Make  a  drawing 
of  these  states,  including  the  principal  rivers  and 
cities.     Locate  the  capitals. 

5.   Central  States 

1.  Name  the  large  rivers  of  this  group.  2.  Draw 
a  sketch  map  showing  them.  3.  Into  what  ocean 
does  the  Red  River  of  the  North 
flow?  4.  Sketch  the  five  Great  "lap!,tuily 
Lakes.  5.  Locate  upon  each  of  these  sketches  the 
cities  printed  in  large  type.  6.  Are  any  of  the  very 
large  cities  in  these  states  not  situated  on  rivers  or 
lakes  ?  7.  How  far  did  the  glacier  advance  in  these 
states  (Fig.  IS)?  8.  In  what  ways  must  the  Great 
Lakes  have  influenced  the  development  of  this  re- 
gion? 9.  Where  are  mountains  found  in  these 
states?  10.  What  does  the  fact  that  there  are  so 
many  rivers  tell  about  the  rainfall? 

A  little  over  a  hundred  years  ago,  when\M 
the  pioneers  had  pushed  across  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  into  Ohio  and    surface 
Kentucky,  they  were  gladdened  features 
by  the  sight  of  immense  tracts   1.  Extent  of 
of  level  land  (Fig.  121).     For  level  land 
hundreds  of  miles  the  plains  slope  gently 
toward   the   Mississippi ;    and  beyond  that 
river,  they  slowly  rise  again,  for  hundreds 
of  miles,  to  the  very  base  of   the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

In  western  South  Dakota  and  in  southern 
Missouri,  low  mountains  rise  above  the 
plains.  There  is  a  hilly  region  around  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Superior,  in  Michigan, 


92 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota;  and  in  eastern 
Ohio  and  Kentucky  there  is  also  hilly  land, 
for  the  Appalachian  Plateau  extends  into 
these  states.  With  the  exception  of  these 
small  areas  of  mountains  and  hilly  lands, 
most  of  the  region  is  a  vast  level  tract,  quite 


remove  the  trees  from  a  single  acre,  and  to 
drag  away  or  bury  the  bowlders.  On  the 
prairies  (p.  19)  of  the  Central  States,  how- 
ever, such  labor  was  unnecessary,  for  there 
were  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles 
covered  with  grass  (Fig.  127). 


«>0     \oo 
U.L..M.I    — 


■2.00 

1 


CENTRAL-     STATES 

Modeled  by  Edwin  E. Howell. 


300 


Fig.  120.  —  Relief  map  of  the  Central  States. 


unlike  the  hilly  and  mountainous  country 
farther  east.  What  are  the  names  of  the 
mountains  of  the  Central  States? 

The  hearts  of  the  pioneers  were  gladdened 
not  only  because  the  land  was  level,  but  be- 

2.   Absence  of       caUse    a    larSe   Part   of     [t   waS 

trees  and  free  from  forests  and  bowlders, 

bowlders  jn  many  sections  of  New  Eng- 

land weeks  of  hard  labor  were  required  to 


Being  so  far  from  the  coast,  this  region  is 
not  influenced  by  sea  breezes,  as  are  some 
of  our  states.  Florida,  for 
example,  being  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  water,  receives 
breezes  from  the  ocean  that 
greatly  temper  the  heat  of 
summer.  Similar  breezes  greatly  temper 
the  cold  in  winter,  for  the  ocean  does  not 


Climate 

1.  The  tempera- 
ture, with  rea- 
sons for  the 
extremes 


' 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


93 


become  so  cold  as  the  land.  Thus  water 
makes  the  temperatures  of  the  two  seasons 
more  nearly  equal,  or  equalizes  it.  For  that 
reason  such  a  climate  is  said  to  be  equable. 
Because  the  Central  States  are  so  far 
from  the  ocean,  the  summers  are  very 
warm,  while  the  winters  are  very  cold.  It 
is  often  as  hot  there  in  summer  as  it  is  in 
the  Southern  States ;  but  in  winter  the 
coldest  part  of  our  country  is  in  North 
Dakota  and  Minnesota.  Such  a  climate, 
with  hot  summers  and  cold  winters,  is  com- 
mon in  the  interior  of  continents  and  is, 
therefore,   called  a  continental  climate.     It 


have  ample  rain  for  farming,  as  is  indicated 
by  their  many  rivers.  This  rain  is  brought 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  by  the  winds  which  every  few  days 
blow  from  the  south  and  east. 

From  eastern  Ohio  to  western  Nebraska, 
and  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  agriculture  is  a  very  Agriculture 
important    industry.      Indeed,   east  0f  the 
millions  of  persons  in  Europe   arid  lands 
and  in  our  coast  cities  look  to  l-  its  impor- 
the  Mississippi  Valley  for  their    ance 
bread,  meat,  and  other  food,  as  they  look  to 
the  South  for  cotton. 


Fig.  127 


-A  view  on  the  level  plains  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.    For  hundreds  of  miles  there  is  just  such 

level  land  as  this. 


is  also  said  to  be  extreme,  in  distinction 
from  a  climate  that  is  equable. 

The  Great  Lakes  are  such  large  bodies 
of  water  that  they  influence  the  climate 
near  them  much  as  the  ocean  does,  only  to 
a  less  degree.  Thus  the  climate  is  cooler 
in  summer,  and  warmer  in  winter,  along1  the 
shores  of  the  lakes,  than  at  a  distance  from 
them. 

Since  these  states  are  so  far  from  the  ocean 
one  might  suppose  that  they  would  receive 
2.  The  fail  of  little  rain.  This  is  true  of  the 
rain,  with  western   part  of  Kansas,  Ne- 

reason  braska,  and  the  two  Dakotas, 

where  the  climate  is  arid.  The  reason  for 
this  arid  climate  has  already  been  stated 
(p.  7).  With  the  exception  of  the 
western  border,  however,  the  Central  States 


The  farms  vary  greatly  in  size,  from  a 
few    acres    to   several    thousand,    but    the 
majority    contain   from   80    to   2    Afarmin 
160  acres.     In  the  main,  they  central  Ohio 
resemble  the  one  in  Ohio  that   m  The  house 
is    here    described.     On   this  ana  its  snr- 
Ohio  farm  of    160   acres,  is  a  "»»"«'** 
house  in  which  the  family  lives,  with  a  barn 
near  by  for  horses,   milch   cows,   and   hay, 
and  with  sheds  near  it  for  storing  grain  and 
farming  implements. 

A  windmill  at  the  rear  of  the  house 
keeps  the  milk  house  well  supplied  with 
cold  water,  and  also  fills  the  water  troughs 
in  the  barnyard.  Near  the  house  is  an 
orchard  (Fig.  129)  of  apple,  peach,  and  pear 
trees,  with  a  few  rows  of  berry  bushes  in  one 
part,  and  a  chicken  house  in  another  (Fig. 


94 


NORTH  AMERICA 


128).     Here  enough  chickens  are  raised  to 

supply  some  meat,  and  all  the  eggs  that  are 

needed,  with  some  to  sell.     On  one  side  of 

the  front  yard  are  a  few  beehives,  and  back 

of  them,  between  the  orchard 

and  the  barn,  is  a  garden  of 

vegetables.       Still    back    of 

that  are  several  pigpens,  in 

which  hogs  are  fattened  for 

home  use,  and  also  for  the 

market. 

Farther  away  from  the 
house  are  fields  in  which  there 
/ox  rn.   B  7j       are  at  least  three 

(2)   The  fields, 

and  what  is         or  tour  different 

done  with  their     kinds    of    Crops. 

c  Every  farmer  in 

that  vicinity  expects  to  raise 
corn,  —  perhaps  sixty  acres 
of  it,  —  some  grass  for  graz- 
ing and  for  hay,  and  wheat 
or  some  other  kind  of  grain. 

After  these  crops  are  harvested,  they  are 
either  sold  or  fed  to  stock  —  horses,  cattle, 
hogs,  or  sheep  —  upon  the  farm.  The  lat- 
ter plan  is  often  followed,  chiefly  because  it 


the  farm,  which  not  only  supply  the  family 
with  fresh  milk  and  butter,  but  furnish  some 
cream  or  butter  to  sell. 

Since  there  are  usually  only  a  few  houses 


:-■-     - 

■■■/  ■■'■  ■  :  ■■'  v-;v&$&.-    '  M       -.:.\ 

ai    ^rnnnTrS^ni  ifi'iii   ; 

Fig.  129.  —  A  farmer  and  his  family  in  the  orchard  near  the  house. 


pays  better  to  fatten  stock  and  sell  it,  than 
to  sell  the  crops  themselves.  There  are 
generally  two  or  three  good  milch  cows  on 


Fig.  128.  —  A  farmer  feeding  his  chickens  and  turkeys. 


in  sight  of  a  farmhouse,  and  no  store  or  post 
office  within  a  number  of  miles,  (3)  contactwith 
the  farmer  and  his  family  may  neighbors 
not  meet  with  other  persons  for  several 
days  at  a  time,  although  they 
often  see  friends  driving  by. 
In  the  busiest  season,  from 
spring  till  fall,  they  make 
few  trips  to  town.  How- 
ever, they  have  a  telephone 
by  which  they  can  talk  with 
neighbors,  and  with  friends 
and  merchants  in  town,  while 
the  postman  brings  the  mail 
to  their  doors. 

Some    persons   would    not 
care  for  such  a  life  as  this, 

because  it  is  too    (4)  Attractions 

lonesome,     and  of  such  a  life 
there  is  too  much  hard  work 
connected  with  it.     But  this 
farmer  enjoys  it  greatly;  be- 
cause he  likes  to  take  care  of 
his  stock,  to  work  in  the  soil,  and  to  watch 
his  crops  grow.     In  addition,  he  is  able  to 
raise  most  of  his  own  food,  and  his  whole 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


95 


Fig.  l.TO.  —  A  farmex  cutting  and  binding  wheat  in  the  harvest  season 


or  maize 

(1)  Extent  to 
which,  it  is 
raised 


life    is    more    independent    than    that    of 
persons  in  a  town  or  city. 

Some  of  our  greatest  men  have  come 
from  farms.  Can  }rou  name  two  Presidents 
who  spent  their  childhood  on  farms  of  the 
Central  States  ?  Where  were  their  homes? 
What  can  you  tell  about  their  early  life  ? 

Corn  (Fig.  131)  is  raised  in  most 
of  the   states   of  the  Union,  and  you 

3.  Indian  corn,    have  already  learned  how 
important    it    is    in    the 
South.       It    is    in    the 
Central  States,  however, 
that    we    find    the 
greatest  amount.     The  corn  belt  of 
the    country    (Fig.    219)    extends 
from   Ohio  to  central  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  with  smaller  quan- 
tities raised  to  the  north,  south, 
east,   and    west    of    it. 
Farmers  within   this    belt 
usually   expect  to   devote 
from    one    third    to    one 
half    of     their    land     to 
corn  ;    therefore,  in 
traveling       across 
these   states  in  sum- 
mer, one  sees  corn- 
fields in  every  direc- 
tion. 

The  seed  is  planted  in  rows  in  the  springtime. 
Soon  the  little  stalks  appear  above  ground,  growing 
rapidly  during  the  hot  summer  mouths,  until  they 


reach  a  height  of  from  seven  to  ten  feet  (Fig.  132). 
In  order  to  keep  the  soil  loose,  and  kill  the  weeds, 
the    ground    between    the   rows   is 


plowed  when  the  corn  is  young ; 
but  as  it  grows  higher,  the  shade  of 
its  leaves 
soil  from 
A  corn- 


(2)  How  it  is 
cultivated  and 
harvested 


protects      the 

both  drought  and  weeds. 

field  usually  presents  the  most 
beautiful  appearance  in 
July,  when  the  corn  "  tas- 
sels out "  (Fig.  132).  The 
plants  then  entirely  hide 
the  ground  from  view, 
and  the  rich  green  stalks, 
with  their  long,  slender 
leaves,  bend  to  the  breezes 
in  the  most  graceful 
manner. 

If  the  stalk  is  to  be 
used  as  fodder  for  cattle 
in  winter,  it  is  cut  before 
frost,  when  the  kernels  on 
the  cob  are  still  some- 
what soft  and  milky.  If 
left  until  after  frost,  the 
grain  hardens,  and  then 
the  harvest  season  begins. 
Men  drive  into  the  fields 
in  wagons  and  tear  the 
husks  from  the  ear,  spend- 
ing day  after  day  at  that 
kind  of  work. 


Fig.  131.  —  Two  ears  of  corn,  the  one  on  the  left  with  the 
husk  turned  down  to  show  the  kernels  of  corn  on  the  coh. 


Corn    is   put   to 
many    uses.      Much 


that     is 


(3)  Its  uses 


raised    is    fed    to    cattle    and 

hogs,  as   already   stated.      Some   is   made 

into  hominy   and  breakfast  foods,  or  into 


96 


NORTH  AMERICA 


corn  meal.  Starch  is  another  product,  and 
a  very  extensive  use  of  the  grain  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  whisky  in  distilleries.  There 
are  many  distilleries  in  St.  Louis,  Louis- 
ville, and  other  cities  within  the  corn  belt. 
Peoria,  in  central  Illinois,  is 
another  great  center  for  dis- 
tilleries. 

Wheat,  like  corn,  is  produced 
in  all  the  Central  States,  as  well 
4.  Wheat  as   in    other  parts 

(1)  Extent  of      of      the      country 

its  production        (Fig.    251).       It   is 

an  especially  important  product 
in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Indi- 
ana ;  but  the  section  which  at 
present  is  most  noted  for  wheat 
is  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of 
the  North  (Fig.  133).  In  this 
valley  there  is  a  broad,  level 
plain,  including  western  Min- 
nesota, eastern  North  and  South 
Dakota,  and  a  portion  of  Mani- 
toba, which  is  one  of  the  finest  fig.  132 
wheat  regions  in  the  world. 


■which  was  larger  thau  all  the  Great  Lakes  put  to- 
gether. When  the  ice  melted  away  entirely  from 
the  valley,  the  Red  River  was  once  more  able  to  flow 
northward,  and  then  the  great  lake  disappeared. 
The  soil  of  the  wheat  region  is  the  sediment  that 
was  deposited  on  the  bottom  of  this  ancient  lake. 


-  View  in  a  cornfield  in  Nebraska.    Notice  how  very  tall  the 
corn  grows  in  this  fertile  soil. 


One  of  the  reasons  for  the  fertility  of  this  section 

dates  back  to  the  time  when  the  Great  Glacier  was 

melting      away.       The     ice      then 

(2)  Why  exten-     stretched  across   the  valley   of   the 

te'ltedmver1     Red  Rive1''  'vhioh  fl°WS  northward 
yallev  into  the  Arctic.     This  ice  dam  pre- 

vented the  river  from  flowing  in 
that  direction,  and  forced  it  to  seek  an  outlet 
southward.     A    broad     lake    was     thus     formed, 


The  land  here  is  almost  as  level  as  the  surface  of 
the  sea ;  it  is  so  level,  in  fact,  that  after  a  rain  the 
water  stands  in  sheets  on  the  fields.  It  is  necessary 
to  elevate  the  roads  a  foot  or  more  above  the  sur- 
rounding land  and  to  make  ditches  on  either  side; 
otherwise  the  roads  would  be  muddy  much  of  the 
time.  In  every  direction  there  is  nothing  to  break 
the  view  except  a  farmhouse  every  half  mile  or  so, 
with  a  few  trees  around  it.     Over  this  open  plain 


Fig.  133.  —  Harvesting  wheat  on  a  large  farm  on  the  plains  of  the  fertile  Red  River  Valley  of  the  North. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


97 


the  wind  sweeps  with  terrific  force,  somewhat  as 
upon  the  ocean  :  and  in  winter  fierce,  blinding  snow 
squalls,  or  blizzards,  are  not  uncommon. 

Upon  this  plain  one  may  ride  on  the 
train  northward  toward  Winnipeg  all  day 

(3)  Mow  mm-  loilg'  and  see  scarcely  a  single 
vated  on  a  large  crop  besides  wheat.  Most  of 
farm  the  farms  are  of  moderate  size, 
but  some  are  enormous.  For  example,  one 
farm  in  North  Dakota  contains  over  thirty 
thousand  acres.  How  many  square  miles 
is  that? 

This  farm  is  divided  into  six  parts,  with  farm 
buildings  upon  each.  To  prepare  the  ground,  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  men  at  a  time  plow  and  sow  the 
seed  on  each  division.  One  takes  the  lead,  another 
follows  behind ;  then  comes  a  third,  fourth,  and 
so  on.  The  grain  is  harvested  on  a  similar  plan 
(Fig.  133).  One  hundred  and  twenty  men,  and 
three  hundred  horses,  are  employed  in  the  planting 
season,  and  three  hundred  men  during  the  harvest. 
Since  one  acre  usually  produces  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  bushels  of  wheat,  an  immense  amount  of 
grain  is  obtained  from  this  single  farm. 

The  great  quantity  of  wheat  produced  in 
the  Red  River  Valley  and  the  neighboring 

(4)  influence  of  region  has  helped  in  the  growth 
wheat  on  of  the  cities  of  Minneapolis, 

growth  of  cities    gT#    pAUL)   Rnd    DuLUTH>      jt 

has  also  caused  the  growth  of  cities  in  the 
midst  of  the  wheat  fields,  like  Fargo  in 
-  North  Dakota  and  Sioux  Falls  in  South 
Dakota.  Since  most  of  the  grain  is  shipped 
to  the  East  or  South,  it  has  influenced  the 
growth  of  scores  of  other  cities  along  the 
Great  Lakes,  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
even  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  State  how  this 
can  be. 

While  each  farm  in  the  Central  States 
usually  has  a  small  orchard,  like  that  on  the 
Ohio  farm,  fruit  raising  is  a  special  industry 
5.  Fruits  and  in  those  sections  where  the  cli- 
vegetabies  mate  and  soil  are  favorable,  as 

Q.)  Fruits  in   the    neighborhood   of    the 

Great  Lakes.  You  have  already  learned 
that  the  immense  area  of  water  in  these 
lakes,  which  do  not  freeze  over  in  winter, 
renders  the  summers  cooler,  and  the  winters 
warmer,    than    they    would    otherwise    be. 


(2)   Vegetables 


This  is  why  the  grape  belt  of  western  New 
York  (p.  53)  extends  westward  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Erie  far  into  Ohio. 

The  Michigan  peninsula,  which  has  Lake 
Michigan  on  the  west,  and  Lakes  Huron 
and  Erie  on  the  east,  is  also  a  noted  fruit- 
raising  region.  Here  great  quantities  of 
peaches,  apples,  and  other  fruits  are  pro- 
duced. With  what  part  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  can  this  fruit  region  be  best  compared 
(p.  53)? 

While  these  regions  are  especially  noted, 
the  raising  of  fruits  is  common  in  all  the 
Central  States.  Among  the  kinds  raised 
are  peaches,  grapes,  apples,  cherries,  plums, 
and  berries. 

Vegetables  of  many  kinds,  such  as  sweet 
corn,  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  cabbages, 
tomatoes,  peas,  beans,  lettuce, 
pumpkins,  squashes,  and  celery 
are  also  raised  in  all  of  the  Central  States. 
Some  of  these  are  grown  for  use  at  home, 
some  for  canneries,  and  some  for  sale  in  the 
cities.  The  fact  that  there  are  so  many 
cities  makes  truck  farming  profitable  in 
their  neighborhood,  as  is  the  case  in  New 
England. 

Tobacco  is  another  valuable  farm  product 
in  the  Central  States  (Fig.  256).  While 
it  is  raised  in  many  sections, 
the  greatest  quantity  comes 
from  Kentucky  and  Ohio,  which  rank  with 
Virginia  (p.  52),  North  Carolina,  and  Ten- 
nessee (p.  77)  as  leading  tobacco  states. 
Both  Louisville  and  St.  Louis  are  impor- 
tant tobacco  markets.  What  other  cities 
have  the  same  industry  (pp.  52  and  77)  ? 

Some  domestic  animals  are  raised  on  al- 
most every  farm.  Among  these  the  most 
important   are    horses,   cattle,   „ 

,  ,  ,  i.i  7.   Domestic 

sheep,  hogs,  hens,  and  turkeys,    animals 
Some      farms,     however,     are   (i)  Principal 
mainly  devoted  to  one  or  a  few  kinds,and  their 

i  •    j      sT*-        -ioi\        tt>  distribution 

kinds  (Fig.  134).     i  or  exam- 
ple, in  the  more  hilly  sections,  where  it  is  not 
easy  to  cultivate  grain,  cattle  and  sheep  are 
numerous,  and  dairying  is  important.     Ohio 
is  one  of  the  foremost  sheep  raising  states. 


6.   Tobacco 


98 


NORTH  AMERICA 


(2)   The  Blue 
Grass  Region 
of  Kentucky ; 
its  fine  stock 
and  its  caverns 


More  horses  are  raised  in  Iowa  than  in  any- 
other  state  in  the  Union,  more  hogs  in  Iowa 
than  in  any  other  state,  and  more  milch  cows 
than  in  any  other  state  except  New  York. 

Kentucky  is  famous  for  its  fine  stock, 
especially    horses     and    mules, 

raised  in  the  "  Blue 

Grass    Region" 

about    Lexington. 

The     grass     here 

has  a  bluish  color, 
and  is  very  nourishing,  mak- 
ing possible  the  raising  of  fine 
stock. 

The  reason  why  this  grass  is  so 
nourishing  is  that  the  soil  in  this 
section  is  made  of  bits  of  decayed 
limestone  in  which  there  is  lime 
phosphate,  an  excellent  plant  food 
(p.  80).  This  phosphate  comes 
from  the  shells  of  small  animals 
which  lived  in  the  sea  that  covered 
this  region  millions  of  years  ago 
(p.  6).  On  dying,  they  helped  to 
make  a  deposit  of  sediment  on  the  sea 
bottom;  and  this  sediment  has  since 
changed  to  limestone  rock,  which  is 
now  raised  above  the  sea.  As  the 
limestone  decays,  the  phosphate  mixes 
with  other  rock  bits,  and  thus  fertilizes 
the  soil. 

The  abundance  of  limestone  in  this 
part  of  Kentucky  is  the  reason  for 
the  numerous  caves  that  exist  there 
(Fig.  135).  These  caves  are  long 
tunnels  that  have  been  slowly  eaten 
out  by  water  that  percolates  through 
the  rock,  dissolving  the  limestone. 
The  largest  of  all  is  the  Mammoth  Cave,  which  is 
said  to  have  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
of  tunnels,  or  galleries.  They  wind  about  in  an 
irregular  manner,  some  being  many  feet  below 
others,  and  all  together  forming  a  network,  or 
labyrinth,  into  which  a  stranger  dares  not  venture 
without  a  guide. 

Great  quantities  of  oats  and  barley  are 
raised  in  the  Central  States.  The  former 
8.  Other  farm  is  a  common  food  for  horses, 
products  but  the  latter  is  largely  used 

in  the  manufacture  of  beer.  The  great 
breweries,  found  in  every  large  city,  con- 
sume immense  quantities  of  barley  in  order  to 


obtain  the  malt  which  is  needed  in  making 
beer.  In  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and 
Milwaukee,  beer  making  is  one  of  the 
important  industries. 

Another   farm   crop  in  some   sections  is 


Fig.  134. 


.  scene  on  a  chicken  farm  in  Southern  Missouri.    There  are 
hundreds  of  chickens  on  this  farm. 

flax.  From  the  bark  of  the  flax  stem  a 
fiber  is  obtained  which  is  used  in  making 
linen,  while  linseed  oil  is  made  from  the 
flax  seed.  Hops,  used  with  barley  in  mak- 
ing beer,  are  also  raised ;  and  rye  and 
buckwheat  are  produced  on  many  farms. 
Sugar  beets  are  now  cultivated  in  many 
states,  and  they  supply  a  part  of  the  sugar 
consumed  in  the  country. 

Finally,  a  vast  amount  of  ha}'  is  grown  ; 
some  of  it  is  fed  to  farm  animals,  but  much 
is  sold  in  the  cities  for  the  use  of  the 
horses  there.  The  hay  crop  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  in  the  Central  States. 


TTTE   UNITED   STATES 


99 


Fig.  135. —  A  view  in  one  of  the  Kentucky  caves.  The 
icicle-like  points  hanging  from  the  roof  (stalac- 
tites) and  the  columns  extending  upward  from  the 
cave  floor  (stalagmites)  are  made  by  the  deposit 
of  limy  matter  that  the  water  brings  in  solution 
as  it  percolates  through  the  limestone  of  the  cave 
roof. 


Passing  westward  from  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  one  finds 
the  farmhouses  decreasing  in 
number,  and  the  country 
becoming  more  and  more 
arid,  until,  finally,  in  western 
North    Dakota,   there    is  very 


Agriculture  in 
the  arid  section 

1.    Meaning  and 
extent  of  the^ 
Great  Plains 


little  farming  without  irrigation.     At  the 

same  time,  the  plains  gradually  rise  higher 

and  higher,  until,  near  the  base 

of    the    Rocky   Mountains,   an 

elevation  of  fully  a  mile  above 

the  sea  is  reached.     This  arid 

plateau,  extending  from  Canada 

to  southwestern  Texas  (p.  72), 

is     commonly    known     as     the 

Great  Plains. 

The    soil    is    excellent,    and 
where    irrigation    is     possible, 

2.  irrigatedsec-  there  are  fine 
tions,  and  their  farms.  In  many 
products  p,aces  the  8trean]-8 

furnish  water  for  irrigation  ;  in 
others,  water  rises  to  the  sur- 
face when  wells  are  driven  into 
the  earth.  Such  wells,  from 
which  the  water  often  gushes 
forth  as  in  a  fountain,  are  called 
artesian  wells  (Fig.  136).     The 


water  comes  from  the  rock  layers  under- 
ground, and  by  its  help  much  land  is  now 
cultivated  which  a  few  years  ago  was  of 
little  use. 

Every  year  the  amount  of  land  cultivated  in  this 
section  is  increasing;  and  now  that  the  government 
is  building  reservoirs  to  store  the  waters  that 
otherwise  run  off  through  the  rivers  in  spring,  there 
will  be  still  more  land  under  irrigation.  These 
irrigated  farms  produce  the  same  crops  as  other 
parts  of  the  Central  States.  Crops  that  will  grow 
in  a  dry  climate  are  also  being  introduced  (called 
"dry  farming"),  and  this  is  another  reason  why 
farming  is  increasing  here. 

Still,  most  of  the  arid  region  of  the  Great 


For  that 

3.   Ranching 
(1)  Its  extent 

The    entire 


Plains    is   unsuited   to  farmin 

reason    there    are    few   towns 

and  no  large  cities,  as  you  can 

see    on  the    map   (Fig.   125). 

western  third  of  North  and  South  Dakota, 

Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  as  well  as  the  Great 

Plains  farther  west,  are  given  over  mainly 

to  ranching  (Fig.  137). 

This  industry  is  carried  on  in  much  the 
same  way  throughout  all  parts 
of  the  arid  West.     In  western    (2)  Location  of 

v      ii       n  l  c         •  the  ranchman' s 

^rth    Dakota,    for    instance,  house  and  cor. 
there    is    little    water    except   rals 


Fig.  136.- 


■  An  artesian  well  supplying  water  for  use  in  irrigation  in 
western  United  States. 


100 


NORTH  AMERICA 


in     the    widely     separated     streams,    and 

there    are    very    few   trees    except     along 

the    stream    banks.     Since    the    ranchman 

must  have  both  water  and  wood,  he  locates 

his  house,  sheds,  and  stockades, 

or    corrals    (Fig.    138),    within 

easy  reach  of  these  two  things. 

If  there  is  no  neighbor  within 

several  miles,  it  is  all  the  better, 

for    his    cattle    are    then    more 

certain  to  find  abundant  grass. 

Few  fences  are  built,  partly 
because  most  of  the  region  is 
(3)  Why  few  owned  by  the  gov- 
fences  eminent,    not    by 

ranchmen.  Very  often  they 
own  only  the  land  near  the 
water  ;  but  this  gives  them  con- 
trol of  the  surrounding  land, 
for  it  is  of  no  use  to  any  one 
else  if  his  cattle  cannot  reach 
the  water.  Another  reason 
why  fences  are  not  common  is 
that  it  is  necessary  for  the  cattle  to  roam 
far  and  wide  in  their  search  for  food. 
The  bunch  grass,  upon  which  they  feed, 
is  so  scattered  that  they  must  walk  a 
long  distance  each  day  to  find  enough 
to  eat. 

A  single   ranchman  may  own  from   ten 
to  twenty  thousand  head  of  cattle,  and  yet 


sometimes  they  stray  one  or  two  hundred 
miles  away. 

Twice  a  year  there  is  a  general  collection, 
or   round-up    (Fig.    139),    of    cattle,  —  the 


Fig.  138.  —  Cattle  in  a  corral  on  a  western  cattle  ranch. 


they  may  all  be  allowed  to  wander  about 
upon  public  land,  called  "  the  range  "  (Fig. 
137).  Usually  they  keep  within  a  distance 
of    thirty   miles   of   the   ranch-house;    but 


Fig.  137.  —  Cowboys  and  cattle  on  a  ranch  in  western  United  States. 


first  round-up  occurring  in  May  or  June, 
and    the    other    early    in    the 
fall.     One  object  of  the  first  is   jrst  round-up, 
to  brand  the  calves  that  have   and  how  accom- 
been  born  during  the  winter.     p  " 

Since  there  are  few  fences,  cattle  belonging  to 
ranches  which  are  even  a  hundred  miles  apart  be- 
come mixed  during  the  winter ;  and  those  in  a  large 
herd  may  belong  to  a  score  of  dif- 
ferent ranchmen.  Each  cattle 
owner  has  a  certain  mark,  or' 
brand  (Fig.  140),  in  the  form  of 
a  letter,  a  cross,  a  horseshoe,  etc., 
which  is  burnt  into  the  side  of 
every  calf. 

A  round-up,  which  lasts  several 
weeks,  is  planned  by  a  number  of 
ranchmen  together.  A  squad  of 
perhaps  twenty  cowboys,  with  a 
wagon  and  provisions,  a  large  num- 
ber of  riding  horses,  or  "  ponies," 
and  a  cook,  go  in  one  direction ; 
and  other  wagons,  with  similar 
"  outfits,"  set  out  in  other  direc- 
tions. Before  separating  in  the  morning,  the 
members  of  a  squad  agree  upon  a  certain  camping 
place  for  the  night,  and  they  then  scour  the  country 
to  bring  the  cattle  together,  riding  perhaps  sixty  or 
eighty  miles  during  the  day. 


THE   CXITED   STATES 


101 


Fig.  139.  —  A  round-up  on  the  Great  Plains.    All  the  cattle  in  the  distance  belong  to  one  ranchman ; 
those  in  the  front  of  the  picture  to  another. 


Each  ranchman  knows  his  own  cattle  by  the  brand 
they  bear;  and  since  the  calves  follow  their  mothers 
(Fig.  140).  there  is  no  difficulty  in  telling  what  brand 
shall  be  placed  on  them.  After  branding  the  calves, 
each  ranchman  drives  his  cattle  homeward,  to  feed 
during  the  summer  within  a  few  dozen  miles  of  their 
owner's  home. 

The  second  large  round-up  is  similar  to 
the  first,  except  that  its  object  is  to  bring 
(5)  Second  together  the  steers,  or  male 
round-up,  and  cattle,  and  ship  them  away  to 
bhat/oUows       market .  it  is  therefore  called 

the  beef  roundup.     A  ranchman  who  owns 


Fig-  140.  —  This  animal  bears  the  brand  of  the  owner.    The  cowboy  is  trying  to  catch  the 
calf  that  is  following  its  mother;  and  when  he  does  he  will  place  the  same  brand  on  it. 


twenty  thousand  cattle  may  sell  nearly  half 
that  number  in  a  season.     As  the  steers  are 


collected,  they  are  loaded  upon  trains  and 
shipped  to  distant  cities  to  be  slaughtered 
(P.  109). 

Tery  often  the  cattle  have  found  so  little  -water, 
and  such  poor  pasturage,  that  they  have  failed  to 
fatten  properly,  and  must  be  fed  for  a  time  before 
being  slaughtered.  This  may  be  done  upon  the  irri- 
gated fields  near  the  rivers  in  the  ranch  country ; 
or  the  cattle  may  be  sent  for  this  purpose  to  the 
farms  farther  east,  as  in  Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  and 
Nebraska. 

The  lives  of  ranchmen  and  cowboys 

are  interesting  and   often   exciting,    '  '    f^e  °^     e 

c         u  j       i    ■  4.  ■     *.i       ranchman 

most  of  each  day  being  spent  in  the 

saddle  (Fig.  141). 
They  are  so  far  sepa- 
rated from  other 
people  that  they  must 
depend  upon  them- 
selves far  more  than 
most  people  do.  For 
instance,  a  ranchman 
must  build  his  house, 
kill  his  beef  and  dress 
it,  put  up  his  ice.  raise 
his  vegetables,  do  liis 
blacksmithing,  find 
his  fuel, and evenkeep 
school  for  his  children 
if  they  are  to  receive 
an  education.  He  af- 
fords a  good  example 
of  the  pioneer  life 
which  was  so  com- 
mon in  early  days. 

Although  so  much  of  the  land  is  under 
cultivation,  or  given  over  to  ranching,  forests 


102 


NORTH  AMERICA 


are  found  in  many  sections.  In  Wisconsin, 
for  instance,  in  traveling  northward  from 
Lumberinz  ^le    we^-cu^ivated    southern 

l  Extent  of  portion,  one  comes  to  a  section 
forest,  and  where   farmers  are    beginning 

kinds  of  trees  to  take  the  piace  0f  lumber- 
men. Many  log  huts  stand  here  in  small 
clearings,  with  the  green  fields  still  dotted 
by  tree  stumps.  But  beyond,  little  else 
than  woods  can  be  seen. 

In  these  forests  are  many  kinds  of  trees 
belonging  to  the  north,  especially  the  ever- 
greens, such  as  hemlock,  spruce,  white  pine, 
and  cedar.  There  are  also  some  hard  woods, 
such  as  oak,  birch,  and  maple. 

Lumbering  is  still  an  important  industry 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
It  is  carried  on  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  in  Maine 
(Fig.  142),  although  a  great 
deal  of  the  timber  is  brought  to 
the  sawmills  by  wagons  or  rail,  instead  of 
being  floated  a  long  distance  downstream. 

The  excellent  water  power  in  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  at  Minneapolis  (Fig.  158), 
early  led  to  the  building  of  sawmills  there, 
and   made    that    city    famous    for   lumber. 


2    Method  of 
lumbering,  and 
centers  for 
lumber 


Fig. 


141.  —  A  cowboy  and  his  pony.    The  rope  in  his  hand 
is  his  lariat,  with  which  he  lassoes  the  cattle. 


Fig.  142.  —  Floating  logs  downstream  to  a  sawmill  in  Wisconsin 


Other  mills  are  situated  farther  down  the 
Mississippi,  as  at  Winona.  They  are  also 
numerous  at  Dtjltjth,  in  Minnesota,  and 
at  Superior,  which  is  just  across  the  state 
line  in  Wisconsin. 


Since  the  Central  States  have  no  seacoast,  all  the 
oysters,  cod,  and  other  sea  fish  consumed  in  this  sec- 
tion must  be  broughtfrom  the  Pacific  _.  ,. 
coast,  or  from  the  Atlantic,  or  Gulf 
coasts.  Thus,  while  the  people  of  these  states  supply 
meat  and  grain  for  those  living  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  they,  in  turn,  depend  upon  others  for  some 
of  their  food. 

The  Central  States,  however,  are  not  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  sea  for 
their  fish.  In  the  rivers  there 
are  some  excellent  fish,  quite 
different  from  those  in  the 
ocean ;  and  in  the  lakes  there 
are  still  other  kinds.  There 
is,  therefore,  considerable 
fishing  here,  especially  on 
the  Great  Lakes;  but  the 
fishing  industry  is  by  no 
means  so  important  as  in 
the  groups  of  states  already 
studied. 


Coal  is  mined  in  al- 
most all  the  Central 
States.  II-  Mining 
linois  pro-  i.  coal 
duces  most,  ranking  next  to  (i)  its  wide 
West  Virginia  among  the  states  distribution 
of  the  country.  Ohio  produces  almost 
much,  however,  and  large  quantities. come 
from    Indiana,   Iowa,    Kansas,    Kentucky, 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


103 


Missouri,  and  Michigan.  There  is  so 
much  coal  in  this  section,  and  it  is  found 
throughout  so  large  an  area,  that  it  is  easy 
to  obtain  fuel  for  manufacturing  in  almost 
every  part. 

While  Pennsylvania  produces  two  kinds 
of  coal,  anthracite  and  bituminous,  the  Cen- 

(2)  Khidqfcoal,    tral  States  haye  only  the  latter 

and  method  of  kind.  But  it  is  bituminous 
mining  it  CQal    that    is   used  jn    niakjng 

coke,  and  because  there  is  so  much  of  this 


Fig,  H3. 


A  view  in  the  oil  fields  of  Kansas, 
each  derrick. 


kind  of  coal,  it  is  of  great  value  for  iron 
manufacturing.  In  some  places  the  coal 
beds  lie  near  the  surface,  like  rock  in 
quarries,  and  then  the  mining  is  very  sim- 
ple; in  others  it  is  buried  so  deep  that  long 
shafts  must  be  sunk  to  reach  it. 

When  oil  and  natural  gas  were  first  dis- 
2.  Oil  and  gas  covered  in  New  York  and 
(1)  Where/ound  Pennsylvania,  it  was  supposed 
that  they  did  not  exist  elsewhere;  but  they 


have  since  been  found  in  many  places. 
Name  some  of  them  (pp.  56-79).  Both  oil 
and  gas  are  found  in  several  of  the  Central 
States,  especially  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Indi- 
ana. Many  farmers,  whose  soil  is  no  better 
than  that  of  their  neighbors,  have  suddenly 
become  rich  by  the  discovery  of  oil  or 
natural  gas  in  the  rocks  far  beneath  the 
surface  (Fig.  143).  In  fact,  these  sub- 
stances are  so  abundant  in  some  places  that 
towns,  like  Findlay  in  western  Ohio,  have 
sprung  up  like  mushrooms. 

The  way  in  which  gas 
and  oil  are  formed,  and  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  put, 
have  already  been  described 
(p.  56). 

In  many  places  in  the 
Central  States  natural  gas  is 
in  common  use,    (2)  cheapness 

furnishing  both     ofgasasafuel 

light  and  heat  in  the  houses, 
and  fuel  in  the  factories.  It 
is  a  very  cheap  fuel,  for,  after 
the  hole  is  bored  into  the 
earth,  it  costs  almost  nothing 
to  produce  the  gas.  The 
main  expense  is  the  cost  of 
the  pipes  through  which  it 
passes. 

Formerly  Pennsylvania  was 
the  chief  iron-producing  state, 
having  both  coal 
and  iron  ore : 
but  some  years 
ago  explorers 
discovered  enormous  beds  of 
iron  ore  near  the  western  end 
of  Lake  Superior.  In  some  places  the  ore 
is  so  soft  that,  like  gravel,  it  can  be  dug  out 
with  steam  shovels,  and  very  often  it  is  so 
near  the  surface  that  the  mines  are  open 
pits.  In  other  places  the  mining  is  done 
underground.  That  is  the  case,  for  exam- 
ple, at  Ishpejiesig,  in  northern  ■  Michigan 
(Fig.  144). 

This  Lake  Superior  district  is    now  the 
leading  iron-producing  center  of  the  world. 


There  is  an  oil  well  under 


3.  Iron  ore 

(1)  The  Lake 

Superior 

district 


104 


NORTH  AMERICA 


It  includes  parts  of  three  states  —  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  —  the  most  impor- 
tant being  Minnesota,  —  (Fig.  270),  and 
the  least  important  Wisconsin.  These 
three  states  together  produce  _  sixty  -two 
times  as  much  iron  ore  as 
Pennsylvania,  and  four-fifths 
of  all  the  iron  ore  of  the  coun- 
try. The  enormous  develop- 
ment of  mining  in  this  region 
has  caused  numerous  towns 
and  cities  to  grow  up  here. 
It    is   a    very    unfortunate 

(2)  why  the  ore  fact   that   there 

must  be  trans-      is  n0  coal  jn  this 

iron    district. 
For  in  order  that 
the    ore  may  be  reduced  to 
the    metal,  either  coal   must 
be  carried  to  the  iron  mines, 
or  else  the  ore  must  be  moved 
to    the    coal    regions.       The 
latter  has  proved  the  cheaper. 
Accordingly,     hundreds      of 
boats  sail  every  year  from  the  lake  ports  of 
Duluth,  Superior,  Ashland,  and  Mar- 
quette,   loaded    with    ore    for   the    manu- 
facturing centers  along  the  lakes. 

Fortunately  the  iron  deposits  are  located 

(3)  How  u  is  near  waterways.  If  it  were 
loaded,  and  necessary  to  haul  the  heavy 
where  sent  ore  a   \ong    distance   by  rail, 


the  expense  might  be  so  great  as  seriously 
to  check  its  production.  As  it  is,  however, 
the  ore  is  mined,  loaded  upon  cars,  and 
sent  over  short  lines  of  railway  to  the  lake 
shore. 


ported,  and 
from  what 
ports 


Fig.  144.  —  An  electric  motor  in  an  iron  mine  at  lshpeming,  Michigan. 


Great  ore  docks  (Fig.  145),  or  piers,  reaching 
out  into  deep  water,  have  been  built  to  hold  the  ore. 
Railway  tracks  are  laid  upon  the  docks,  and  the 
trains  run  out  upon  them  to  dump  their  contents 
quickly  into  bins.  On  a  single  pier  there  are  scores 
of  bins,  which  together  hold  enough  ore  to  fill 
several  large  vessels.  When  a  vessel  is  to  be  loaded, 
it  comes  up  to  the  pier;  then  a  door  at  the  bottom 
of  a  bin  is  opened,  allowing  hundreds  of  tons  of  ore 


FlG.  145.  —  The  great  ore  docks  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.    Trains  loaded  with  ore  run  out  onto  these  docks 
and  dump  their  ore  into  large  hins  up  to  which  vessels  come  to  be  loaded. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


105 


to  slide  out.     After  this,  the  next  bin  is  emptied, 
and  in  tliis  way  the  vessel  is  rilled  in  a  few  hours. 

As  the  ore  must  reach  a  point  where  coal 
is  easily  obtained,  it  is  taken  to  such  lake 
ports  as  Chicago,  Detroit,  Toledo, 
Cleveland,  and  Buffalo.  Notice  how- 
close  to  these  cities  the  coal  beds  extend 
(Fig.  2G8).  From  the  lake  ports  the  ore  is 
also  carried  by  rail  to  Pittsburgh,  as  well 


Fig.  146.  —  Bars  of  copper  on  the  dock  at  Houghton,  Michigan.    These  are 
to  be  carried  away  by  the  large  lake  steamer. 


as  to  many  other  places  in  the  midst  of  the 
coal  fields. 

Another  metal  found  in  the  Central 
States  is  copper,  which  is  valuable  in  many 
i.  Copper  ore  ways.  It  is  one  of  the  metals 
(l)  Uses  of  used  to  make  bronze,  and  also 
copper  brass  ;  but  of  late  years  a  new 

and  even  greater  demand  for  this  metal  has 
arisen.  Electricity  passes  through  copper 
more  easily  than  through  other  common 
metals ;  copper  is,  therefore,  the  best 
material  for  trolley  wires,  for  the  wire  of 
long-distance  telephones,  and  for  wire  used 


in  electric  lighting.  Since  the  use  of 
electricity  is  rapidly  increasing,  there  is  a 
growing  demand  for  copper. 

The  Indians  and  early  explorers  found 
pieces  of  copper  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
in  northern  Michigan.  Later  (2)  Where  the 
it  was  discovered  there  in  the  ore  is  found 
pores  of  a  lava  rock,  and  between  the  grains 
of  a  pebble  beach  which  was  formed  in  the 
ancient  sea,  and  has  since 
hardened  into  rock.  These 
copper-bearing  rocks  are 
found  on  the  small  peninsula 
that  extends  into  Lake 
Superior  near  Houghton'. 
Cojjper  mines  were  started 
there  long  ago,  and  for  many 
years  that  has  been  one  of 
the  leading  copper-mining 
regions  of  the  world. 

Some  of  these  mines  are 
very  deep,  one  of  the  shafts 
reaching    to    a   (3)  How  copper 

depth    of    about    is  obtained  from 

a  mile.  When 
the  ore  is  drawn 
to  the  surface,  it  is  found 
mixed  with  so  much  beach 
rock  and  lava,  that  it  must 
first  be  crushed  to  a  powder 
under  powerful  hammers,  or 
stamps.  Then  water  is  run 
over  it,  in  order  to  carry 
away  the  bits  of  rock  and 
leave  the  heavier  particles  of 
copper.  Even  after  this,  some  foreign 
substances  are  still  mixed  with  the  copper, 
and  these  must  be  removed  before  the 
metal  is  fit  for  use.  In  order  to  remove 
them,  the  copper  is  next  placed  in  a  large 
smelter  and  melted.  The  pure  copper  is 
allowed  to  run  out  of  the  furnace  and  cool 
in  bars  to  be  shipped  away  (Fig.  146). 
Among  the  foreign  substances  is  a  little 
silver,  which  is  carefully  saved. 

As  in  the  case  of  iron  ore,  the  copper  is  shipped 
to  points  along  the  lakes,  and  elsewhere,  by  water 
and  by  rail.     Much  of  it  goes  to  the  metal  manufac- 


the  ore,  and 
where  sent 


106 


NORTH  AMERICA 


tories  in  the  New  England  cities  (p.  43).  Name 
some  goods  that  must  be  shipped  into  this  section  in- 
stead of  away  from  it.     Why? 

The  largest  of  the  copper  mines  are  near  together, 
and  so  many  men  are  employed  in   obtaining   the 

ore,  and  in  getting  out  the  pure 
(4)  Population     meta,   that  ,  towns  haye  n 

dependent  on  .,  .  ,,..,,  .     °    , 

these  mines  UP  near  the  mines-     Within  a  few 

miles  of  the  most  important  mines 
are  several  towns,  the  largest  being  Calumet. 
Many  of  these  persons  are  miners  and  families  of 
miners  ;  but  there  must,  of  course,  be  storekeepers, 
physicians,  teachers,  ministers,  etc. ;  and  they  all 
depend  for  a  living  upon  the  precious  copper  buried 
far  beneath  the  surface. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  budding  stones   in    the 

Central    States.     Among   these   are 
5.  Other  mm-       sandstone  and  limestone,  which  are 
'     '''""'  shipped  in  all  directions  for  building 

(1)  Building  purposes.  Limestone  is  also  used 
stones,  sand,  ,,  •  ,     .  ,  . 

and  day  m    lron    smeltlng    and     ln     making 

Portland  cement.  In  addition,  there 
are  slates  and  granites  in  the  hilly  and  mountainous 
sections,  as  there  are  in  New  England  (p.  30). 

Several  states  produce  much  sand,  which  is 
melted  and  made  into  window  glass,  bottles,  and 
other  objects.  Clay  of  various  kinds,  used  in  making 
brick,  tiles,  or  pottery  is  abundant  in  all  the  states. 
Lead  and  zinc,  two  other  metals  found  in  the 
Central  States,  occur  in   pockets  and  little  veins  in 

layers   of   limestone.     The  ores  are 


(2)  Lead,  zinc, 
and  gold 


mined  in  many  places,  as  at  Joplin, 
Mo.,  and  then  sent  to  furnaces,  where 
the  pure  metals  are  separated  from  the  ore.  A 
large  part  of  our  supply  of  lead  and  zinc  is  obtained 
from  Missouri.  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  these 
metals  ?  Of  what  use  should  you  think  this  lead 
was  to  the  early  pioneers? 

Gold  and  lignite  are  mined  in  considerable  quan- 
tities in  the  Black  Hills  in  the  extreme  western  part 
of  South  Dakota. 

Much  salt  is  obtained  in  the  Central  States, 
especially  in  Michigan.  This  state  produces  more 
salt  than  any  other  in  the  Union, 
New  York  ranking  second,  Ohio 
third,  and  Kansas  fourth. 


(3)   Salt 


The  abundance  of  coal,  gas,  and  water 
power,    together    with    raw    materials,   has 
.       led  to    very   extensive    manu- 
facturing in  the  Central  States. 
Great  quantities  of  corn  are  consumed  in 
making    corn    meal,    hominy, 
1.  Manufac-        starch,    and   breakfast    foods; 

tures  from  i  i  i      • 

agricultural  :ln(l.    SOme     ls      als?      Used     m 

products  distilleries     (p.    96).       There 


are  many  flour  mills  where  wheat  is  made 
into  flour;  large  quantities  of  oats  are 
made  into  oatmeal;  and  much  barley  is 
consumed  in  the  breweries.  Canning  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  is  extensively  carried 
on  at  many  places,  and  the  making  of  sugar 
from  the  sugar  beet  has  come  to  be  of  great 
importance; 

The  ranches  in  the  arid  section,  as  well 
as  the  farms  in  general,  supply  animals 
from  which  meat,  lard,  soap,  and  various 
other  products  are  made  in  several  of  the 
large  cities.  The  hides  of  these  animals  are 
made  into  shoes,  gloves,  traveling  bags,  and 
other  articles,  while  the  wool  is  manufac- 
tured into  clothing.  Cotton  is  brought 
from  the  South  to  be  made  into  cotton 
goods.  Much  butter  and  cheese  is  made  in 
every  state. 

Near  the  forests,  both  along  the  streams 
and  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the 
manufacture  of  furniture  and 
other  articles  of  wood  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  On  many 
of  the  rivers  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and 
Michigan,  where  there  is  abundant  water 
power,  there  are  sawmills,  furniture  fac- 
tories, and  planing  mills.  Some  of  the  most 
important  are  located  in  Oshkosh  in  Wis- 
consin, and  Saginaw,  Bay  City,  and 
Grand  Rapids  in  Michigan.  School 
desks,  office  desks,  chairs,  tables,  and  other 
kinds  of  furniture  are  made  at  Grand 
Rapids,  which  city  is  especially  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  Chicago 
manufactures  furniture  to  a  considerable 
extent. 

The  crude  oil  is  made  into  many  prod- 
ucts, as  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States. 
Name  some  of  these  products 
(p.  56). 

The  manufacture  of  iron  ore 
into  iron  and  steel  goods  oc- 
cupies an  enormous  number  of 
men  in  hundreds  of  cities  and 
towns.  The  manufacture  of  copper  goods 
is    another    extensive    industry,  and    many 


2.   Manufac- 
tures from  for- 
est products 


3.   Manufac- 
tures from  min- 
eral products 

(1)  Manufac- 
tures from  oil 
and  ores 


products    are    made    from    lead    and    zinc. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


107 


Fig.  147.  —  Tile  employees  of  a  large  manufacturing  plant  in  Dayton,  Ohio 
at  luncheon. 


Metal  manufacturing  in  the  Central  States 
is  quite  as  important  as  in  the  states  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  industry  is 
rapidly  growing  (Fig.  147). 

Much  of  the  deep  soil  left  in  the  prairie 
states  by  the  glacier  is  a  clay  which  is  use- 

(2)  Manufae-        ^      ln     *ne     manufacture     of 

turesfrom  clay  bricks.  As  in  other  sections 
and  limestone       0f    the   count,ry    (p.  59),  there 

are   many   brickyards,    especially  near  the 

large  cities.     From  this  same 

kind     of     clay,     flowerpots, 

drainpipes,  and  other  articles 

are    made.       During    recent 

years,  when  drainage  of  farm 

land  has  become  common,  the 

manufacture  of  tile  for  that 

purpose    has   developed   into 

a  great    industry.       Many  a 

small  town  has  a  tile  factory. 


A  very  high  grade  of  pottery, 
known  as  Rookwood  ware,  is  man- 
ufactured in  Cincinnati.  The 
best  of  clay  is  needed  for  this,  and 
it  must  be  brought  from  a  distance. 
The  first  step  in  making  a  vase  is 
to  wet  a  lump  of  clay  so  that  it 
may  easily  be  molded.  Then  it  is 
placed  upon  a  potter's  wheel,  where 
it  is  whirled  rapidly  around  while 
a  man  molds  it  with   his   hands. 


Tn  a  very  few  minutes  he  changes 
the  shapeless  lump  into  a  delicately 
formed  vase.  It  must  then  be 
baked,  and  after  the  baking,  flowers 
or  other  ornaments  may  be  painted 
upon  it.  The  surface  is  finally 
covered  with  a  substance  which, 
when  baked,  produces  a  glaze.  One 
of  the  beauties  of  the  Rookwood 
ware  is  the  peculiar  color  of  the 
glaze,  which  is  a  dark  or  yellowish 
brown. 

In  Missouri,  Indiana,  Mich- 
igan, Ohio,  and  other  states 
of  this  section,  Portland  ce- 
ment is  made  from  limestone. 
Pennsylvania  produces  most 
cement,  but  several  of  the 
states  produce  large  amounts. 
The  handling  of  so  many  raw  materials 
and  manufactured  products  leads  to  exten- 
sive commerce.  The  transpor-  Transporta- 
tation  of  bulky  goods,  such  as  tion  of  goods 
ores,  coal,  and  wheat,  is  particularly  impor- 
tant where  the  coal  and  iron  ore  are  so 
widely  separated,  and  where  far  more  wheat 
is  raised  than  can  be  consumed. 

The  importance  of   the  Great   Lakes  in 
bringing  the  ores  to  the  coal  and  the  wheat 


Fig.  148.  —  The  "  Son  "  Canal.  Boats  going  west  pass  through  the  canal  on 
the  right ;  those  going  east  pass  through  the  canal  on  the  left.  In  the 
very  front  of  the  picture  is  the  gate  of  a  lock. 


108 


NORTH  AMERICA 


to  the  Eastern  markets  is  evident.  From 
Duluth  to  Buffalo  there  is  only  one  place 
where  navigation  is  interfered  with.  That 
is  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior  into  Lake 
Huron,  where  there  are  some  rapids.  Here 
a  broad  canal,  large  enough  for  the  great 
lake  vessels,  has  been  dug.  It  is  called  the 
Soo  Canal  (Fig.  148),  after  the  city  Sault 
Ste.  Maeie,  located  at  this  point. 

The  Mississippi,  Ohio,  and  Missouri  riv- 
ers, with  many  smaller  tributaries,  drain 
almost  the  entire  area  of  the  Central  States. 
Which  parts  are  not  in  the  Mississippi  River 
drainage  area?  The  three  rivers  named,  as 
well  as  many  smaller  ones,  are  navigable. 
Tims  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  rivers  to- 
gether afford  admirable  water  transporta- 
tion for  goods  in  all  directions. 

Railroads  have  been  very  easily  built  in 
this  level  country,  and  they  connect  these 
two  vast  water  ways  at  many  points.  Most 
of  the  great  railroad  systems  that  cross  the 
continent  from  east  to  west  pass  through 
either  Chicago  or  St.  Louis. 

Since  the  Central  States  have  no  ocean 
coast,  we  naturally  find  the  principal  cities 
Principal  cities  along  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
along  the  Great  three  great  rivers,  where  it  is 
Lake3  possible  to  ship  goods  by  water. 

Let  us  first  consider  those  along  the  Great 
Lakes. 

At  the  western  end  of '  Lake  Superior 
there  is  a  "fine  harbor,  one  side  being  in 
l.  Duluth  and  Minnesota,  the  other  in  Wis- 
Superior  consin.     Upon  this  harbor  are 

two  cities,  Duluth  and  Superior,  which 
together  have  a  population  of  over  one 
hundred  thousand.  The  chief  products  of 
this  vicinity  are  iron,  lumber,  and  wheat, 
which  are  shipped  eastward  in  immense 
quantities  from  these  two  ports.  Owing  to 
the  nearness  of  these  cities  to  the  Minnesota 
and  Dakota  wheat  fields,  there  are  enormous 
elevators  for  storing  grain,  and  flour  mills 
for  grinding  it  into  flour. 

Goods  are  shipped  to  this  point  as  well  as  from 
it,  for  the  people  in  this  section  must  depend  upon 
other  people  for  their  farming  implements,  clothing, 


various  kinds  of  food,  furniture,  and  coal.  These 
goods  are  brought  cheaply,  because  the  vessels  carry- 
ing ore,  wheat,  and  lumber  eastward  must  have  a 
cargo  to  bring  back.  Explain  how  the  products  of 
this  region  help  to  make  Buffalo,  Montreal,  and  New 
York  important,  and  tq  keep  the  mills  and  factories 
of  New  England  busy. 

Locate  Chicago.     At  this  point  the  small 
Chicago    River    empties    into  2.  Chicago 
Lake    Michigan    (Fig.    149),   (i)  History  0/ 
forming    a    small    harbor,    on   tnis  region 
which  a  fort  was  located  in  early  times. 

The  harbor  itself  was  formed  thousands  of  years 
ago,  while  the  Great  Glacier  wa,s  melting  away.  At 
that  time,  the  ice  sheet  lay  across  Lake  Michigan, 
forming  a  huge  dam  which  prevented  the  water  from 


Fig  149.  —  Shipping  on  the  Chicago  River.  This  was  the 
first  port  at  Chicago,  but  now  breakwaters  built  out 
into  the  lake  make  a  large  harbor. 

flowing  into  Lake  Huron,  and  through  the  St.  Law- 
rence River  to  the  sea,  as  it  now  does.  This  forced 
the  water  to  find  an  outlet  southward,  past  the  pres- 
ent site  of  Chicago,  into  the  Illinois  River,  and 
thence,  by  way  of  the  Mississippi,  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  was  the  wash  of  this  water  that  dug  out 
the  small  harbor. 

As  the  West  developed,  this  site  proved 
to  be  a  most  favorable  one  ;  for  whenever 
a  railway  was  built  from  the  (2)  Advantages 
East  to  the  Northwest,  it  was  0/ this  site 
necessary  for  it  to  pass  around  the  southern 
end  of  Lake  Michigan.  As  the  city  grew 
in  size,  other  railways  were  built  to  it  be- 
cause it  was  large  ;  and  now  they  approach 
it  from  the  east,  west,  north,  and  south 
(Fig.  150).  Thus  Chicago  has  become  a 
great  railway  center. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


109 


The  city  is  an  important  shipping  point 
for  grain,  because  it  lies  in  the  midst  of  the 
most  productive  grain  region  in  the  world. 


Fig.  150.  —  Map  showing  the  loeatiou  of  Chicago  aud  Milwaukee 


It  is  also  within  easy  reach  of  extensive 
coal  fields,  while  lumber  and  iron  ore  are 
readily  brought  to  it  by  boat.  These  facts 
have  caused  Chicago  to  have  a  wonderful 


growth.  In  the  year  1840,  there  were  but 
4470  inhabitants ;  in  1870,  300,000 ;  in 
1910,  2,185,283;  and  now  it  is  the  sec- 
ond city  in  size  in  the 
New  World.  It  has 
long  since  outgrown  its 
small  natural  harbor, 
and  a  much  larger  one 
has  been  made  by  build- 
ing long  breakwaters 
out  into  the  lake. 

Chicago  is  not  only  a 
great  grain  market,  but 
also     the    ... 

(3)  Meat  pack- 
m  O  S  t  1  m-  iny  aud  related 
portant    industries 

meat  market  in  the 
world.  All  the  grazing 
states  of  the  West  ship 
stock  to  this  point,  and 
in  the  city  itself  nearly 
a  square  mile  is  taken 
up  by  the  Union  Stock 
Yards  (Fig.  151).  In 
these  are  large  sheds  for 
the  various  kinds  of 
stock,  pens  with  high 
fences,  and  troughs  for 
food  and  water  (Fig. 
152).  Train  loads  of 
cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep 
are  unloaded  here  every 
day.  The  work  em- 
ploys about  thirty  thou- 
sand men. 

The  packing  houses 
send  out  a  number  of 
products.  By  far  the 
most  important  is  meat, 
for  most  of  the  cities  of 
the  East  are  furnished 
with  fresh  meat  from 
Chicago  and  other  West- 
ern cities.  Both  live 
cattle  and  fresh  meat  are  sent  in  large 
quantities  to  Europe  also.  It  may  be 
several  weeks  after  the  meat  is  prepared 
for  food  before  it  reaches  the  table  ;    yet 


110 


NORTH  AMERICA 


all  this  time  it  is  kept  fresh  by  the  use  of 
ice.  Special  refrigerator  cars  are  built  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  carrying  it. 

Besides  the  meat  that  is  sold  fresh,  a  great 
deal  is  canned.     The  fat  of  the  hog;  is  made 


There    are  many  companies  engaged  in 
the  making  of  iron  and  steel  goods  ;   one  of 
them  alone,  the  Illinois  Steel  (4)  other 
Company,  employs  ten   thou-  manufacturing 
sand   men.     An  enormous  amount  of  fur- 


III 

fsfil 

1^    if,* 

B.  1 0Tm      INT 



lb' 

?^w.  ^?st<  r^S&i'^'-^'feS'.Ufc. 

^  i.  * — ^^.  On-  JBSSbssd 

*4 

1*      "*■ 

"■*-"■'     Bp^^j!a^S!^Bfi*'^^w^tl'^^^^^^fe 

$1 

SU^ShHI 

«  f 

Vl 

...    $}  -<*^.-','flSS»^.-    ' 

,            ~               , 

jS****—          "^^^^S^S 

.  -                   /  ' 

Fig.  151.  —  A  general  view  of  the  stock  yards  at  Chicago. 


into  lard,  and  not  a  little  beef  fat  is  made 
into  imitation  butter,  called  oleomargarine. 
Many  of  the  bones  are  burned  and  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  sugar  (p.  76)  ;  and  the 
horns  and  hoofs  are  of  use  in 
making  gelatine  and  glue. 
The  hides  are  made  into  shoes, 
gloves,  harnesses,  and  other 
leather  goods.  Nothing  is 
wasted  in  the  packing  busi- 
ness ;  even  the  bristles  of  the 
hog  are  saved  and  made  into 
brushes ;  and  the  hair  from 
the  hides  of  cattle  is  valuable 
in  making  plaster. 

It  is  from  the  Western 
packing  houses  that  the  shoe 
factories  of  Lynn,  Haverhill, 
Brockton,  and  other  cities  are 
supplied  with  much  of  their 
leather.  The  hides,  however, 
must  first  be  sent  to  tanneries. 
One  of  the  principal  places  for 
tanneries  is  Milwaukee,  which  obtains 
tannic  acid  from  the  bark  of  the  hemlock 
tree  that  grows  in  the  forests  of  Wisconsin. 


niture  is  made,  and  the  manufacture  of 
farming  implements  is  also  very  extensive. 
Chicago  is  the  home  of  the  National  Har- 
vester Company,  which  controls  the  manu- 


Fig.  152.  —  A  view  of  a  small  part  of  the  stock  yards  (Fig.  151),  showing 
cattle  in  the  pens. 


facture  of  farming  implements  in  most 
parts  of  the  country.  A  single  one  of  its 
plants  sends  out  about  three  hundred  thou- 


THE  UNITED   STATES 


111 


sand  farm  machines  every  year.  The  Pull- 
man Car  Works  made  as  many  as  ten 
thousand  freight  cars  in  one  year,  besides 
several  hundred  Pullman  and  passenger 
cars.  As  in  New  York  (p.  63)  and  other 
great  cities,  the  making  of  clothing  is  one 
of  the  most  important  industries.  These 
are  but  a  few  of  the  kinds  of  manufactur- 
ing in  this  great  city  where  there  are  thou- 
sands of  factories. 

Like  other  very  large  cities,  Chicago  has 
much  difficulty  in  providing  transportation 
(5)  Transports  I01'  tlie  people  of  the  city. 
tion  and  sewage  Street  cars  are  one  important 
means,    and    many    steam    railways    carry 


Fig.  133. 


■  A  view  of  the  elevated  railway  in  Chicago  at  the  point  known  as 
the  Union  Loop. 


passengers  to  and  from  the  heart  of  the 
city.  There  are  elevated  railways  (Fig. 
153),  also,  as  in  New  York,  and  under- 
ground roads,  as  well.  But  unlike  New 
York,  the  underground  roads  are  used 
mainly  for  hauling  freight. 

Another  great  difficulty  has  been  the  proper  care 
of  the  sewage  of  the  city.  For  a  long  time  it  was 
poured  into  Lake  Michigan ;  but  as  the  drinking 
■water  was  taken  from  the  lake,  this  became  very 
dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  people.  In  order  to 
carry  it  away,  an  immense  drainage  canal  has  been 
dug  (Fig.  150),  connecting  Lake  Michigan  with  the 
Illinois  River,  and  thus  setting  the  current  toward 


the  Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  drain- 
age canal,  which  is  wide  and  deep  enough  for  boats, 
may  in  time  develop  into  a  ship  canal.  In  that 
case,  large  ships  may  reach  Chicago  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  as  they  now  do  from  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  What  effect  would  this  have  upon  the 
city? 

Chicago  has  an  excellent  system  of  edu- 
cation, from  the  lowest  grades  to  the  univer- 
sity, and  hundreds  of  buildings 

,,  •  i      (6)  Education 

are  given  up  to  this  work 
alone.  The  chief  educational  institution  is 
the  University  of  Chicago,  which,  although 
established  as  recently  as  1890,  now  has 
more  students  than  some  of  the  older  uni- 
versities of  the  East.  At  Evanston  is 
the  Northwestern  University ; 
and  at  Champaign  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois,  one  of  the 
most  progressive  and  rapidly 
growing  of  the  state  uni- 
versities. 

Other  large  cities  along  the 
lakes  are  engaged  in  many  of 
the   same    Indus-  3.  Milwaukee 

tries   as    Chicago,    and  Racine 

Milwaukee  (Fig.  150),  the 
largest  city  in  Wisconsin,  deals 
extensively  in  grain,  lumber, 
and  leather,  packs  much  pork, 
and  manufactures  a  great  quan- 
tity of  flour  and  machinery. 
Its  tanneries  and  immense 
breweries  have  already  been 
mentioned  (pp.  98  and  110). 
Locate  Racine,  a  smaller  but 
important  lake  port. 

Detroit  (Fig.  154),  the  largest  city  in 
Michigan,  is  also  on  tbe  Great  Lakes  water 
route.  The  name  is  a  French  4.  Detroit  and 
word  for  strait.  Why  is  that  Ann  Arbor 
name  suitable  here  ?  All  vessels  going  east 
or  west  must  pass  this  city,  and  some 
railroads  connecting  the  East  and  the  West 
either  cross  the  strait  at  Detroit  or  pass 
under  it  by  a  tunnel.  Being  at  the  crossing 
of  important  railway  and  steamship  lines, 
Detroit  has  become  a  great  shipping  and 
manufacturing  center.      It  deals  in  grain, 


112 


NORTH  AMERICA 


wool,  pork,  and  ores  from  the  West,  and 
makes  iron  and  steel  goods. 

Not  far  away,  at  Ann  Arbor,  is  the 
University  of  Michigan, 
one  of  the  largest  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  the  state.  In 
fact,  state  universities 
are  established  in  most  of 
the  Central,  Southern, 
and  Western  States. 
Some  are  located  at  the 
state  capitals :  for  in- 
stance, the  University  of 
Ohio  is  at  Columbus,  the 
University  of  Wisconsin 
at  Madison,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska  at 
Lincoln.  Others,  like 
the  universities  of  Il- 
linois, Missouri,  and 
Michigan,  are  located  at 
other  places  than  the 
capital.  If  there  is  one 
in  your  state,  where  is  it  ? 

On  the  lake  shore  in 
Ohio  the  chief  cities  are 

5.   Cleveland       TOLEDO  and 
and  Toledo  CLEVELAND 

(Fig.  154).  The  former 
has  extensive  flour  mills 
and  iron  manufactories; 
and  the  latter,  which  is  a 
much  larger  city,  heing 
even  larger  than  Cincin- 
nati, Detroit,  or  Buffalo, 
has  an  important  trade 
in  grain,  lumber,  and 
ore.  The  situation  of 
Cleveland  near  the  coal 
and  petroleum  fields  has 
led  to  extensive  manu- 
facturing of  machinery, 
furniture,  and  other 
goods.  Much  petroleum 
is  refined  here,  and  the  building  of  ships 
for  the  lake  commerce  is  an  important 
industry. 


The     largest     city    on    the   Principal 
rivers,   corresponding  to   Chi-   cities  along 
cago  on  the  lakes,  is  St.  Louis,  the  riYers 


Fig.  154. —  Map  showing  the  location  of  Detroit,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  and  Pitts- 
burgh, and  their  relation  to  the  trade  routes  of  the  Central  and  Middle  Atlantic 
States. 


the  fourth  in  size  among  our  cities  (Fig. 
157).     It  has  a  very  favorable  l.  st. Louis 
position   in  the  center  of  the   (l)  its  location 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


113 


Fig.  155.  —  Shipping  on  the  Great  Lakes.     The  peculiar  ship  in  the  foreground  is  called  a  whaleback. 


Mississippi  Valley,  on  the  Mississippi 
River,  near  the  mouths  of  its  two  largest 
tributaries.  Tiie  railway  bridges  across  the 
Mississippi  at  this  point  have  also  had  great 
influence  on  the  growth  of  the  city.  It  is 
an  important  shipping  point  both  by  water 
and  by  rail. 


Fig.  156.  —  A  railway  bridge  across  the  Missouri  River  above  St.  Louis. 

Like  Chicago,  St.  Louis  is  one  of  our 
leading  markets  for  grain  and  live  stock  ; 
(2)  its  indus-  but,  being  so  far  south,  it 
tries  handles  Southern  products  also, 

especially  cotton  and  tobacco.  Besides  this, 
it  is  a  great  manufacturing  center.  It  man- 
ufactures immense  quantities  of  tobacco, 
beer,  flour,  clothing,  iron,  steel  goods,  and 


is  the  greatest  manufacturing  center  of  boots 
and  shoes  in  the  United  States. 

At  one  time  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  were 
almost  the  only  noted  markets  for  grain 
and  live  stock  in  the  West ;  2.  St.  Paul  and 
but  in  later  years  several  other  Minneapolis 
cities  have  become  prominent.  Two  of  these 
are  the  "twin  cities," 
Minneapolis  and  St. 
Paul  (Fig.  157),  both 
on  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  latter,  the  capital 
of  Minnesota,  is  a  trade 
center.  From  it  the 
products  of  the  West 
are  sent  east  and  south, 
while  farm  implements, 
furniture,  clothing,  and 
other  articles  are  dis- 
tributed among  the 
smaller  towns  round 
about. 

Minneapolis,  only 
ten  miles  distant,  is 
situated  at  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony,  which  furnish  splendid 
water  power  (Fig.  158).  Its  location  in 
the  midst  of  the  wheat  region,  together 
with  its  water  power,  has  caused  Minne- 
apolis to  become  the  leading  flour-produc- 
ing center  of  America.  In  the  city  are 
many  sawmills,  grain  elevators,  and  flour 
mills. 


114 


NORTH  AMERICA 


One  of  these  flour  mills, 
belonging  to  the  Pillsbury- 
Washburn  Company,  is  one 
of  the  largest  in  the  world. 
Steam  shovels  scoop  the  grain 
from  the  trains  very  rapidly, 
emptying  a  oar  of  750  bushels 
in  eighteen  or  nineteen  min- 
utes. All  straw,  useless  seeds, 
sticks,  etc.,  are  first  separated 
from  the  grain;  then  it  passes 
through  different  machines 
until  the  pure  flour  is  pro- 
duced. During  this  process  it  is 
raised  to  the  top  of  the  build- 
ing twelve  different  times,  be- 
ing carried  up  by  rapidly  mov- 
ing belts  having  many  small 
buckets,  or  pockets,  attached. 

.Just  inside  the  husk  of  a 
wheat  grain  is  the  kernel,  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the 
wheat.  The  husk  is  removed 
by  machinery,  and  sold  for 
bran  and  shorts,  and  the  cen- 
ter, called  the  heart,  or  germ, 
is  made  into  breakfast  food. 
The  other  portion  is  ground 
into  flour,  poured  into  sacks 
and  barrels  by  machinery, 
and  then  sent  sliding  down 
a  chute  into  the  cars  which 
stand  near  by.  This  one  mill 
has  ground  as  much  as  61,000 
barrels  of  flour  in  one  day. 
One  year  the  daily  output  of 
five  mills  was  about  36,000 
barrels. 

Smaller  cities  on  the 
Mississippi  River  water- 

3.  Other  cities     wa7'     b  e  ~ 

on  the  Missis-    tween  Min- 
sippi  neapolis 

and  St.  Louis,  are  Wi- 
nona, in  Minnesota;  La 
Crosse,  in  Wisconsin; 
Dubuque  and  Davenport,  in  Iowa  ;  and 
Quincy,  in   Illinois.     Find  each.     Each  is 
important  either  for  lumber,  grain,  or  farm- 
ing implements,  or  for  all  three  combined. 
The  leading  cities  on  the  Missouri  River 

4.  Cities  on  are   KANSAS  ClTY  (Fig.  157), 

and  near  the        in      western      Missouri,      and 
Missouri  Omaha,  in  Nebraska.      Each 


Fig.  107.  —  Map  showing  the  location  of  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha, 
Minneapolis,  and  St.  Paul. 


is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  farming  country, 
which  produces  much  grain.  Each  is  also 
a  market  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses 
raised  near  by  and  in  the  arid  region  farther 
west.  Being  so  near  the  ranch  country,  the 
meat-packing  industries  in  both  of  these 
cities  are  gaining  rapidly  each  year.  Note 
that  there  is  also  a  Kansas  City  in  Kansas. 


777 J?   UNITED   STATES 


115 


Fig.  158.  —  The  St.  Anthony  Falls  at  Minneapolis — some  of  the  factories  are  seen 

in  the  distance. 


On  the  river  above  Kansas  City  is  St. 
Joseph,  in  Missouri ;  and  below  it  is  Jef- 
ferson City,  the  capital  of  that  state. 
Farther  west,  in  Kansas,  are  Topeka,  the 
capital,  and  Wichita.  Southwest  of  Omaha 
is  LINCOLN,  the  capital  of  Nebraska ;  and 
across  the  river,  in  Iowa,  is  Council 
Bluffs,  a  very  active  trading  center. 
Several  cities  northwest  of  this  point  are 
chiefly  important  as  trade  centers.  Find 
some  of  them  on  the  map. 
Locate  Des  Moines,  the 
capital  and  largest  city  of 
Iowa.  Of  what  advantage  is 
its  central  position  in  a  level 
farming  country. 

In  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  Pittsburgh,  and  Wheel- 
5.  Cities  in  the  ing,  on  the  upper 
Ohio  Valley  Ohio,  owe  their 
importance  largely  to  coal  and 
iron,  and  to  the  fact  that  river 
boats  can  reach  them.  Farther 
down  the  river  is  Cincinnati 
(Fig.  154),  the  largest  river 
port  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  and 
a  busy  shipping  and  manu- 
facturing center  (Fig.  159). 
Besides  pottery  (p.  107),  this 
city  manufactures  large  quan- 
tities of  iron,  machinery,  and 
clothing.  Across  the  river, 
in  Kentucky,  are  Covington 


and  Newport  (Fig. 
154),  both  almost  a  part 
of  Cincinnati,  as  Jersey 
City  is  almost  a  part  of 
New  York. 

Farther  north  and 
east,  in  Ohio,  are  Day- 
ton and  Springfield, 
both  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  farm 
machinery.  Dayton, 
like  Pullman  in  Chi- 
cago, makes  a  large 
number  of  cars,  and  is 
engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing of  many  kinds.  Colujibus,  the  capital 
of  Ohio,  is  an  important  trade  center,  and 
manufactures  many  carriages  and  wagons. 
Why  should  farm  machinery,  carriages,  and 
wagons  be  manufactured  in  so  many  of 
these  cities? 

Down  the  river,  below  Cincinnati,  is 
Louisville,  the  largest  city  in  Kentucky. 
There  are  rapids  in  the  Ohio  at  this  point, 
but  a   canal   leads    around  them.      Besides 


Fig.  159.  —  River  boats  on  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati. 


116 


NORTH  AMERICA 


being  a  center  for  tobacco,  like  Richmond 
and  St.  Louis,  Louisville  manufactures  iron 
goods,  farming  implements,  flour,  and 
leather  goods.     It  is  also  a  railway  center. 

Evansville,  the  largest  river  port  in 
Indiana,  is  principally  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  flour,  machinery,  and  leather 
goods.  Indianapolis,  the  capital  and  me- 
tropolis of  Indiana,  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
splendid  farming  district.  Like  Columbus, 
it  is  a  railway  and  trade  center,  and  handles 
much  grain,  lumber,  furniture,  and  many 
farming  implements. 

1.  To  what  extent  is  the  land  level  in  the  Central 
States?  2.  What  about  forests  and  bowlders  there? 
_     .  3.  Describe  the  temperature,  giving 

n      . .  reasons  for  the  extremes.     What  is 

meant  by  a  continental  climate  ?  By 
an  equable  climate?  4.  What  about  the  rainfall? 
5.  State  the  importance  of  agriculture.  Describe  the 
farm  in  central  Ohio,  and  the  farm  life.  6.  To  what 
extent  is  Indian  corn  raised  in  these  states  ?  7.  How 
is  it  cultivated  and  harvested  ?  8.  What  are  its 
uses?  9.  How  extensively  is  wheat  produced,  and 
in  what  sections  ?  10.  Describe  wheat  raising  on 
the  large  farm  mentioned.  11.  What  cities  have 
been  much  influenced  in  growth  by  the  wheat  raised 
in  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North?  Why? 
12.  What  fruits  are  grown,  and  where?  13.  What 
vegetables?  14.  Where  is  tobacco  raised?  15.  AVhat 
are  the  principal  domestic  animals  raised,  and  where? 
16.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  fine  stock  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  the  caverns  there  ?  17.  Name  other  im- 
portant farm  products  east  of  the  arid  lands.  18. 
What  is  meant  by  the  Great  Plains,  and  what  is 
their  extent  ?  19.  How  is  irrigation  carried  on,  and 
what  are  the  products  of  the  irrigated  farms? 
20.  Tell  about  ranching;  its  extent;  how  it  is  car- 
ried on  ;  and  a  ranchman's  life.  21.  What  is  the 
extent  of  forests  in  these  states,  and  what  kind  of 
trees  are  there  ?  22.  Describe  the  method  of  lumber- 
ing, and  name  the  centers  of  the  industry.  23.  What 
about  fishing  in  these  states?  24.  Where  are  the 
coal  mines,  and  what  is  the  kind  of  coal  ?  Where 
are  oil  and  gas  found  ?  25.  Why  is  gas  an  espe- 
cially cheap  fuel  ?  26.  Locate  the  Lake  Superior 
iron  ore  district,  and  tell  about  its  importance. 
27.  Why  must  the  ore  be  taken  elsewhere  to  be 
smelted,  and  from  what  ports  ?  28.  How  is  the  ore 
loaded  on  to  the  vessels,  and  where  is  it  taken? 
29.  What  are  the  uses  of  copper  ?  30.  Where  is  cop- 
per ore  found?  31.  How  is  the  copper  obtained 
from  the  ore,  and  where  is  it  sent?  32.  How 
have  the  copper  mines  influenced  settlement  ? 
33.  What    about    building  stones  in   these   states? 


34.  Name  other  mineral  products,  and  tell  where 
found.  35.  What  are  the  leading  kinds  of 
manufacturing  from  the  agricultural  products? 
36.  Name  the  principal  kinds  of  manufacturing 
from  forest  products,  and  the  chief  cities  en- 
gaged in  them.  37.  What  about  the  impor- 
tance of  the  manufactures  from  oil?  From  ores? 
38.  What  about  manufactures  from  clay  and  lime- 
stone? 39.  What  conditions  favor  the  transportation 
of  goods  ?  40.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities 
along  the  Great  Lakes.  41.  State  the  chief  facts 
about  Duluth  and  Superior.  42.  Outline  the  history 
of  the  region  about  Chicago.  State  the  advantages 
of  the  site  of  the  city.  43.  Give  an  account  of  meat 
packing  and  related  industries  there.  44.  What 
other  kinds  of  manufacturing  are  prominent  in  Chi- 
cago? 45.  What  means  of  transportation  are  pro- 
vided in  the  city?  46.  How  is  the  sewage  taken 
care  of?    47.  What  about  education  in  this  vicinity? 

48.  What  can  you  tell  about  Milwaukee  and  Racine? 

49.  Detroit  and  Ann  Arbor  ?  50.  Cleveland  and 
Toledo  ?  51.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities 
along  the  great  rivers.  52.  For  what  is  St.  Louis 
especially  important?  53.  St.  Paul  and  Minneapo- 
lis? 54.  Name  smaller  cities  on  the  Mississippi 
River  and  tell  of  their  importance.  55.  Locate  and 
tell  what  you  can  about  the  various  cities  along  and 
near  the  Missouri  River.  56.  State  the  principal 
facts  about  the  cities  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

Ohio(0.).    1.  Name  the  four  largest  cities  (Appen- 
dix, pp.  427-428).   State  the  advantages  of  each  loca- 
tion.    2.   What  other  cities  of  Ohio  . 
are  mentioned?     For  what  is  each   J:eTleT^ 
important  ?    3.    Why  is  there  much  y 
manufacturing  in  this  state  ?    4.  What  other  indus- 
tries are  mentioned  in  the  text?    5.  Examine   the 
maps  (Figs.  249-259)  in  order  to  see  what  crops  are 
especially  important  in  Ohio.     6.  In  what  ways  are 
the  cities  of  Ohio  dependent  upon  New  Orleans  and 
New  York?     How  are  the  latter  cities  dependent 
upon  those  in  Ohio  ?     7.  Of  what  service  to  Cleve^ 
land   and   Toledo   is   the  Erie   Canal  ?    8.  Draw  a 
sketch  map  of  Ohio  like  that  of  Maine  (p.  47).     As 
you  study  each  state,  do  the  same. 

Indiana  (Ind.).  9.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  249- 
259),  to  see  what  crops  are  produced  in  Indiana. 
10.  What  minerals  are  found  here  ?  11.  Which  is  the 
largest  city?  For  what  noted?  12.  What  other 
cities  are  mentioned  ?  13.  What  are  the  industries 
of  Indiana?  14.  Of  what  importance  was  the  fact 
that  a  large  part  of  this  section  was  treeless  when 
discovered  ? 

Kentucky  (Ivy.).  15.  Why  should  this  state  be 
better  adapted  to  tobacco  raising  than  Ohio?  16.  Of 
what   importance   is   the   limestone  of   Kentucky  ? 

17.  Where  are  most  of  the  cities  ?      Why   there  ? 

18.  What  products  are  mentioned  from  Ken- 
tucky?    19.    Which  is  the  largest  city?    For  what 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


117 


important?  20.  What  other  cities  are  men- 
tioned ? 

Illinois  (111.)-  21.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  249- 
259)  to  see  what  crops  are  especially  important. 
22.  Why  is  there  much  manufacturing  in  Illinois  ? 
What  kinds  are  carried  on  ?  23.  Of  what  value  is 
the  lake  to  manufacturing?  24.  State  the  reasons 
why  Chicago  has  developed  so  greatly.  25.  What 
other  cities  are  mentioned  in  this  state  ?  For  what 
is  each  important?  26.  Which  of  the  four  states  so 
far  reviewed  is  the  largest  ?  Which  smallest  (Ap- 
pendix, pp.  425-426)? 

Michigan  (Mich.).  27.  What  lakes  does  this  state 
border?  Of  what  advantage  is  this?  28.  What 
disadvantage  can  you  see  in  the  fact  that  water 
separates  the  lower  from  the  upper  peninsula  of 
Michigan?  29.  Ice  stops  canal  traffic  in  winter. 
What  effect  must  this  have?  30.  Into  what  waters 
does  this  state  drain  ?  Contrast  this  drainage  with 
that  of  the  other  states.  31.  Where  are  most  of  the 
large  cities?  Why  there?  32.  For  what  is  each 
important?  33.  Give  the  reasons  for  the  location  of 
Detroit?  34.  What  are  the  invportant  products  of 
Michigan  ? 

Wisconsin  (Wis.).  35.  Which  is  the  largest  city 
in  this  state?  For  what  important?  36.  What 
other  cities  are  mentioned  in  the  text  ?  What  is  done 
in  each?  37.  Compare  Wisconsin  with  Michigan 
in  relief;  in  mineral  products;  in  crops ;  in  the  size 
of  cities.  38.  What  effect  must  the  lakes  have  upon 
the  climate  ?  Would  this  influence  be  greater  or  less 
than  in  Michigan  ?  Why?  39.  If  there  were  coal 
beds  in  northern  Wisconsin,  what  effect  might  the 
coal  have  upon  Chicago,  Cleveland,  and  the  coal 
mining  of  Pennsylvania? 

Minnesota  (Mian.).  40.  Where  does  the  Missis- 
sippi River  rise?  41.  What  oceans  receive  the 
waters  that  fall  upon  Minnesota?  Give  proof. 
42.  What  manufacturing  industries  are  carried  on 
in  this  state  ?  43.  What  crops  are  raised  ?  44. 
Name  the  three  largest  cities,  and  tell  how  each  is 
important.  45.  How  does  the  largest  compare  in 
size  with  Boston?     With  Cincinnati? 

Iowa  (la).  46.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  249- 
259)    to   see   what    crops  are  raised   in  this   state. 

47.  What  other  important  industries  are  carried  on  ? 

48.  Name  the  largest  cities.  For  what  are  they 
noted?  49.  Much  corn  is  raised  here  ;  what  is  done 
with  it? 

Missouri  (Mo.).  50.  Examine  Figures  249-259 
to  see  how  the  crops  of  Missouri  differ  from  those  of 
Minnesota.  Why  this  difference?  51.  Why  are  so 
few  large  towns  found  in  the  southwestern  part? 
52.  Name  and  locate  the  two  largest  cities.  For 
what  is  each  important?  53.  What  other  cities  are 
mentioned?    54.   Find  the  population  of  St.  Louis; 


compare  it  with  that  of   Philadelphia  and  Boston. 
55.   Give  five  reasons  for  its  great  size. 

Kansas  (Kan.).  56.  Why  are  the  cities  in  the 
eastern  part?  57.  What  are  the  industries  of  the 
West?  Why?  58.  What  are  the  leading  crops  in 
Kansas  (Figs.  249-259)?  What  other  industries 
are  important?  59.  Name  the  principal  cities. 
For  what  is  each  noted? 

Nebraska  (Neb.).  60.  How  do  the  industries  of 
Nebraska  compare  with  those  of  Kansas?  Why? 
61.  How  are  these  states  alike  in  regard  to  location 
of  cities?  62.  What  cities  in  Nebraska  are  men- 
tioned ?     63.    For  what  is  Omaha  noted  ? 

North  and  South  Dakota  (N.D.  and  S.D.). 
64.  These  two  states  once  formed  the  territory  of 
Dakota.  Suggest  reasons  for  making  two  states  out 
of  the  one  territory.  65.  Compare  the  industries  of 
the  two  states  with  those  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 
66.  Look  at  the  corn  and  wheat  maps  (Figs.  249  and 
251)  to  see  where  most  wheat  and  corn  are  produced. 
Is  North  Dakota  more  or  less  important  than  Kansas 
as  a  corn-producing  state?  Answer  the  same  for 
wheat.  Why  is  this  so  ?  67.  Of  what  advantage 
would  it  be  to  Fargo  if  a  deep  river  extended  from 
that  city  to  Duluth  ?  68.  How  do  the  Black  Hills 
increase  the  wealth  of  South  Dakota? 

69.  Which  state  is  the  largest  in  this  group  (Ap- 
pendix, pp.  425-426)?  Which  smallest?  Compare 
each  of  these  in  area  with  Pennsvl- 
vania;  with  Texas.  70.  Which  of  the  Questions  ^ 
Central  States  has  most  inhabitants  " 
(Appendix,  p.  425)?  Which  fewest?  Compare  each 
of  these  in  population  with  New  York ;  with  Texas. 
71.  Find  the  largest  ten  cities  (Appendix,  p.  426). 

1.  Find  how  much  earlier  in  the  fall  frosts  come 
in  Minneapolis  than  in  Memphis.  2.  How  do  farms 
that  you  have  seen  differ  from  the    _  Hnnq 

Ohio  farm  described  in  the  text? 
3.  How  does  the  wind  often  help  ranch  cattle  to  ob- 
tain food  in  winter?  4.  What  are  some  of  the  ad- 
ventures that  cowboys  experience  ?  5.  Why  are 
coal  and  brick  especially  valuable  in  a  prairie  coun- 
try? 6.  Visit  a  brickyard,  and  write  a  description 
of  brickmaking.  7.  See  how  long  a  list  you  can 
make  of  articles  manufactured  partly  or  wholly  out 
of  copper.  8.  Do  the  same  with  regard  to  lead. 
9.  How  are  the  advantages  of  the  location  of  Chicago 
somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Atlanta?  10.  Make  a 
drawing  of  the  great  water  route  from  Duluth  to 
New  York  City,  and  put  in  the  leading  cities  located 
upon    it.      What    states    border    on    this    route? 

11.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
and  Ohio  rivers,  and  include  the  leading  cities. 
What   states    do    these    rivers    border    or    cross  ? 

12.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  the  Central  States,  in- 
cluding the  principal  lakes,  rivers,  and  cities. 


118 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


Fie.  161.  — Relief  map  of  the  Western  States. 


f&fel  NEBRASKA 

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Salt  Lake  CrtyR.(_/     .— 4    Coll.ns°T| 

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I    ISLANDS  X.      *     'r/?  U 

"»  USan  DieEi 


WESTERN  STATES 

Soak'  of  Miles 

0          50        100        150       ZOO       250       300 
CitU*  with  over  300,000 SAN  FRANCISCO 

C.(i«  with  200.000  to  300.000 Seattle 

CitiM  wiu  100.000  to  200.000 Oakland 

Cine*  with  25.000  to  100,000 Butte 

5ma"'i'  Pities . Tucson       h 

Capital*  with  leu  than  25,000 SANTA  EH  J} 

Capital*  ©  Other;  Citit*  O  ^ 

wniiuis  (ssBtvNS  cs  ,  m.v.      f 


ie/-f 
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120" 


Longituda  Vitn  from  Gfwowich  110* 


FIG.  160. 


THE   U SITED   STATES 


119 


6-    Western  States 

1.  Compare  this  group  with  each  of  the  other 
groups  in  relief  ( Fig.  4:2)  ;  in  area,  and  in  population 
w      ot  ^  (Appendix,  pp.  425-426)?    2.  Which 

Map  Study  ...  ^  ]argest  state?  Which  the  small- 

est? How  does  each  of  thess  compare  in  size  with 
Pennsylvania?  With  Texas?  3.  What  becomes 
of  the  water  of  the  Humboldt  River?  4.  Name 
the  five  largest  rivers.  Where  does  each  rise,  through 
what  states  does  it  flow,  and  where  does  it  empty? 
5.  Xame  the  principal  mountain  ranges ;  the  plateaus 
(Fig.  4:2).  6.  Where  are  the  largest  cities?  Why 
there?  7.  Find  the  Yosemite  and  Yellowstone 
parks.     8.   Name    the    states    having    a    seacoast. 


Fig.  Hi2. — These  powerful  streams  of  water  wash  the  gravel  away,  and  the 
gold  collects  in  the  bottom  of  troughs  or  sluices.  This  is  called  hy- 
draulic miniug. 


9.  Xame  those  states  whose  waters  drain  mainly  or 
entirely  into  the  Pacific  ;  into  the  Atlautic  ;  into  the 
Great  Basin. 

While  the  pioneers  were  settling  the 
prairies  of  the  Central  States,  almost  noth- 
ing  was  known  about  the  Far 
West.  The  Spanish  had  taken 
possession  of  the  southern  portion,  and 
many  of  their  names,  such  as  New  Mexico, 
Los  Angeles,  and  San  Francisco  are  still  to 
be  found  there.  The  northern  portion, 
called  Oregon,  was  claimed  by  English- 
speaking  people,  and  there  was  a  great 
immigration  to  the  Willamette  valley  in 
1843. 

In  1848  gold  was  discovered  in  the 
l.  Discovery  of  stream  gravels  of  California, 
gold  in  Caiifor-  For  ages  the  precious  metal 
"*  had    lain    scattered    through 


the  rocks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 
Then,  as  the  mountains  slowly  crumbled,  it 
had  been  washed  into  the  streams.  Being 
very  heavy,  it  dragged  along  at  the  bottom, 
lodging  here  and  there  in  the  stream  beds. 
It  was  such  gold  as  this  that  was  first  found. 
As  the  discovery  became  known,  tens  of 
thousands  of  persons  in  the  East  left  farms, 
factories,  and  homes  in  a  mad  2.  Effect  of  the 
rush  for  the  gold  fields.  Some  discovery 
sailed  all  the  way  around  South  America ; 
others  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  ;  but 
many  traveled  overland,  running  the  risk 
of  attack  from  Indians  and 
of  death  from  thirst.  There 
were  then  no  railways  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  the 
journey  was  long,  tedious,  and 
dangerous. 

The  discovery  of  gold 
quickly  drew  so  many  per- 
sons to  California  that  the 
territory  was  able  to  enter 
the  Union  as  a  state  in  1850  ; 
and,  as  the  search  for  the 
precious  metal  was  carried 
farther  and  farther,  the  entire 
West  soon  became  explored 
and  settled.  Railways  were 
built  across  the  mountains  (Fig.  280),  and 
many  industries,  such  as  farming,  lumber- 
ing, and  manufacturing,  have  followed 
mining.  Indeed,  in  many  sections  these 
industries  are  now  much  more  important 
than  the  mining. 

The  Western  States  are  made  up  almost 
entirely  of  plateaus  and  motin-   Surface  of  the 
tains.     Most  of  the  surface  is   country 
more    than    a    mile  above   sea   1.  The  three 
level,    while    some    mountain   principal  moun- 

,  .,  tain  systems 

peaks  are    two  miles  or  more 
in  height. 

The  extreme  eastern  portion  is  a  part  of 
the  Great  Plains  (p.  5),  which  reach  to 
the  very  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
These  mountains  (Fig.  42)  extend  entirely 
across  our  country,  into  Mexico  on  the 
south,   and    Canada   on   the    north.     They 


120 


NORTH  AMERICA 


consist  of  a  large  number  of  ranges  and 
ridges,  which  reach  their  greatest  height  in 
Colorado.  A  long  distance  farther  west, 
and  almost  parallel  with  the  Rockies,  is  an- 
other system  of  mountains,  called  the  Sierra 
Nevada  in  California  and  the  Cascade 
Ranges  in  Oregon  and  Washington.  Still 
farther  west,  and  close  to  the  coast,  is  a 
third  system  known  as  the  Coast  Ranges, 
some  portions  of  which  rise  directly  out 
of  the  ocean.  The  highest  peak  in  these 
mountains  is  Mount  Whitney,  in  Califor- 
nia, the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  United 
States  proper. 

Between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  ranges,  is  a  broad 
2.  The  valleys  valley  dotted  with  numerous 
between  short  mountain  ridges,  extend- 

ing north  and  south.  There  is  a  plateau  at 
each  end,  and  a  broad  basin  of  interior  drain- 
age between,  in  which  there  are  a  number 
of  salt  lakes.  It  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts  (Fig.  42)  :  (1)  The  great  Columbia 
Plateau  of  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington, 
on  the  north ;  (2)  the  Colorado  Plateau  of 
Arizona  and  Utah,  on  the  south ;  and  (3) 
the  Great  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada  be- 
tween the  two.  The  numerous  short  moun- 
tain ranges  in  the  Great  Basin  are  called 
the  Basin  Ranges. 

Between  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  sys- 
tem and  the  Coast  Ranges  there  is  an  area 
of  lowland  (Fig.  41).  In  California,  Ore- 
gon, and  Washington  this  forms  a  fertile 
valley;  in  Washington  it  is  partly  occu- 
pied by  Puget  Sound. 

Throughout  much  of  this  Western  coun- 
try volcanoes  were  once  very  active  (p.  4). 
3  Thovoica-  Indeed,  some  of  the  loftiest 
noes,  and  their  peaks  are  extinct  volcanoes, 
influence  Among  these  are  Mount  Rain- 

ier (also  called  Mount  Tacoma)  (Fig.  163), 
within  sight  of  Tacoma  and  Seattle, 
Wash. ;  Mount  Hood,  not  far  from  Port- 
land, Ore. ;  and  Mount  Shasta,  in  north- 
ern California.  Other  fine  volcanic  cones 
in  this  region  are  Mount  Baker,  Mount 
Adams,  and  Mount  St.  Helens. 


Lava  covers  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square 
miles  in  these  Western  States,  and  its  decay  has  pro- 
duced a  soil  which  is  very  fertile.  The  lava  has 
also  had  an  important  effect  upon  the  deposit  of 
valuable  minerals.  Veins  of  gold  and  silver  usually 
occupy  cracks  in  the  rock,  caused  by  the  breaking 


Copyright,  1906,  by  A.  H.  Barnes. 

Fig.  163.  —  Mount  Rainier  from  Tacoma.    This  beautiful, 
snow-capped  peak  is  60  miles  away. 

of  the  rock  layers  while  the  mountains  were  form- 
ing. Through  these  cracks  water  passes,  often 
heated  so  hot  by  the  buried  lava  that  it  is  able  to 
dissolve  mineral  matter  and  carry  it  along.  As  the 
water  cools,  on  n earing  the  surface,  it  cannot  hold 
all  of  this  mineral  in  solution,  and  therefore  deposits  a 
part  of  it  on  the  walls  of  the  cracks.  In  this  way  many 
valuable  veins  of  metal  have  been  slowly  formed, 
and  it  is  for  those  that  thousands  of  miners  are 
now  searching.  Hot  water  still  flows  from  the  earth 
in  many  parts  of  the  West,  the  section  most  noted 
for  this  being  the  Yellowstone  Park.  In  this  water 
there  is  much  mineral  matter  in  solution,  and  in 
some  cases  even  small  quantities  of  gold. 

In  the  East,  there  is  little  variety  in  the 
climate,  even  over  large  sections  ;    but  in 
the  West  the  variety  is  great.    The  climate 
Even  in  a  single  state  there  are  1.  Extent  of 
often  great  differences.   Nearly  arid  lands 
everywhere,  excepting  in  the  Northwest  and 
on  the  mountain  slopes  and  plateaus,  it  is 
so  dry  that  no  agriculture  is  possible  with- 
out  irrigation.      Almost   one    fifth   of  the 
United  States  is  unfit  for  agriculture  with- 
out irrigation,  and  most  of  this  arid  land  is 
in  these  Western  States. 

Parts    of   southern    California,    Nevada, 
Utah,  and  Arizona,  and  smaller  portions  of 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


121 


each  of  the  other  states,  are  true  desert. 
Near  the  western  shores  of  Great  Salt  Lake, 
for  example,  not  a  tree  nor  even  a  shrub  is 
to  be  seen  for  miles  and  miles  (Fig.  164). 
The  entire  surface  is  covered  by  a  glisten- 
ins  whitish  substance  called  alkali.  In 
other  regions  dreary  wastes  extend  for 
hundreds  of  miles,  broken  only  by  a  few 
cacti  and  other  arid  land  plants,  by  rocky 
ledges,  and  by  occasional  mountain  peaks. 

The  scarcity  of  streams  on  the  map  in  and 
near  Nevada  shows  clearly  the  lack  of  water 
there.  That  section  is  a  real  basin,  having 
a  rim  higher  than  the  center,  and  for  that 
reason  it  is  called  the  Great  Basin  (Fig.  42). 


Fig.  164.  —  The  desert  near  Great  Salt  Lake  in  Utah. 


Some  of  the  few  streams  flow  into  shallow 
salt  lakes,  which  are  growing  more  and  more 
salt  as  the  years  pass  ;  others  dry  up  and 
disappear  in  the  sand. 

Along  the  northwestern  coast  the  damp 
west  winds  from  the  ocean  bring  so  much 
„   _         ,         vapor  that  the  rainfall  is  heavy. 

2.   The  well- 

watered  sec-  Indeed,  along  the  coast  of  Wash- 
tions  ington  the  rainfall  is  heavier 

(l)  The  north-  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
f*"""  United  States  (Fig.  303),  the 
greatest  amount  falling  in  winter.  There 
is  also  plenty  of  rain  in  western  Oregon  and 
the  northern  half  of  California. 

Being  robbed  of  its  vapor  in  crossing  the 
mountains,  the  air  descends  on  the  eastern 
side  quite  dry ;  and  there  agriculture  with- 
out irrigation  is  possible  in  only  a  few  sec- 


tions, as  in  the  high  mountain  valleys  and 
in  the  wheat  district  of  central  and  eastern 
Washington  and  Oregon. 

Throughout  the  West  the  higher  moun- 
tains and  plateaus  receive  enough  rain  for 
crops.      That   this   is   true  is  (2)  Ke  higher 
proved  by  the  numerous  large  plateaus,  and 
rivers  which  have  their  sources  the  mountains 
there.     Name  and  locate  those  flowing  from 
the  Rocky  Mountains  into  the  Mississippi. 
Trace  the    Rio    Grande    and    its    principal 
tributary,   the  Pecos ;   also  the  rivers  that 
empty   into  the  Pacific  Ocean.     Although 
long,  many  of  these  rivers  are  shallow,  and 
during  the   summer  season  some,  like  the 

Rio  Grande,  al- 
most disappear  in 
the  middle  part 
of  their  course. 
Others,  like  the 
Columbia  and 
Sacramento,  are 
navigable  in  parts 
of  their  course. 

The  importance  of 
the  higher  plateaus 
in  condensing  vapor 
is  well  shown  by  the 
highlands  of  central 
Arizona.  A  person 
traveling  eastward  from  Los  Angeles,  on  the  Atchi- 
son, Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  Railway,  finds  himself, 
upon  reaching  the  Colorado  River  in  the  evening, 
in  the  midst  of  a  desert  about  five  hundred  feet 
above  sea  level.  If  it  is  summer,  the  thermometer 
may  register  from  110°  to  120°  in  the  shade,  for  this 
is  the  hottest  region  in  the  United  States;  indeed, 
it  is  even  hotter  than  many  parts  of  the  torrid  zone. 
After  leaving  the  river,  the  train  slowly  winds  its 
way  up  onto  the  Colorado  plateau,  seven  thousand 
feet  high,  and  the  next  morning  the  almost  unbear- 
able heat  of  the  previous  day  is  replaced  by  a  delight- 
fully cool  air.  As  if  by  magic  the  scene  is  changed; 
the  barren  wastes  of  sand  are  gone,  and  a  green  for- 
est is  on  all  sides.  This  change  is  due  to  the  simple 
fact  that  the  air  is  cooler  on  the  high  plateau,  and 
the  vapor  can  therefore  be  condensed  into  rain,  while 
there  is  less  evaporation  of  the'water  in  the  soil. 

Finally,  in   the   desert   itself   are   many 
oases  where  water  for  irriga-    ...  _ 

4.     U         1  T3  ■  1        *     (3)    Theoas™ 

tion    is   at    hand.     By   aid   ot 


122 


NORTH  AMERICA 


water,  even  the  most  barren  land  may  be 
transformed  to  a  beautiful  garden  (Fig.  165). 
Every  one    of    the  Western  States  con- 
tains mineral  deposits  of  some 
kind,    such    as    gold,     silver, 
copper,  lead,   mercury,  petro- 
leum, and   coal.     This  region 
is  now  one  of  the  most   im- 
portant mining  districts  in  the  world. 


Mining 

1.  Kinds  of 
minerals,  and 
ownership  of 
mining  lands 


to  get  the  gold  out  of  these  gravels,  but 
in  some  places  these  ancient  stream  beds 
have  been  covered  with  a  thick   2.  Methods  of 
layer  of  hard   lava.     Then   it  mining  gold 
is  necessary  for  the  miners  to  tunnel  under 
the  lava  in  order  to  obtain  the  gold. 

The  first  miners  obtained  the  gold  in  a  very  simple 
manner.  Placing  some  of  the  stream  (i>  "Panning" 
gravel  in  a  pan  of  water,  they  rocked    the  gold 


Fig.  165.  —  This  view,  near  Pasadena,  California,  shows  the  barren  arid  lands,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  extensive 
orange  groves,  irrigated  by  water  from  the  mountains. 


Much  of  the  land  is  still  owned  by  the  government, 
and  all  ore  that  is  discovered  upon  it  belongs  to  the 
finder.  Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  may  become 
the  owner  of  a  valuable  mine,  if  he  can  find  one  on 
government  land.  With  such  a  hope,  hundreds  of 
prospectors  are  digging  tunnels  into  the  earth  where- 
ever  they  believe  they  may  obtain  ore.  In  most  cases 
they  are  doomed  to  disappointment ;  but  they  keep 
trying,  moving  from  one  place  to  another,  always 
hoping  for  a  rich  reward.  Sometimes  valuable  ore 
is  found,  and  then  a*poor  prospector  suddenly  finds 
himself  a  rich  man. 

Much  gold  has  been  discovered  in  the 
river  gravels.     In  many  regions  it  is  easy 


it  back  and  forth  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the 
heavier  particles  of  gold  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pan,  while  the  lighter  minerals  on  top  were 
washed  out  and  thrown  away.  Most  of  the  gold  was 
in  very  small  flakes,  but  sometimes  the  miners  found 
large  lumps  of  gold,  called  nuggets,  worth  hundreds 
of  dollars.  This  method  of  washing  away  the  gravel 
in  pans  was  called  "  panning  "  the  gold. 

Very  soon  the  miners  tired  of  such  a  slow  pro- 
cess. They  then  invented  the  far  more  speedy  plan 
of  hydraulic  mining.  By  this  method  (2)  Hydraulic 
a  large,  powerful  stream  of  water,  mining 
from  the  nozzle  of  a  pipe,  is  turned  against  a  gravel 
bank,  washing  the  gravel  rapidly  away  (Fig.  162). 
The  water,  with  the  gravel  and  gold,  then  runs  into 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


123 


steeply  sloping  troughs,  or  sluices,  the  bottoms  of 
which  are  made  rough  by  many  cleats.  The  rush- 
ing water  carries  the  gravel  over  these  cleats  to 
the  end  of  the  sluice,  where  it  is  dropped ;  but  the 
gold,  being  so  heavy,  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
sluice  and  is  caught  behind  the  blocks.  Later  it  is 
removed  and  carried  away  to  be  sold. 

In  this  way  much  gold  has  been  obtained  from 
the  gravels  of  California  and  other  Western  States. 
For  example,  even  the  gravel  out  of  which  some  of 
the  streets  of  Helena,  Mont.,  are  built  has  been 
washed  for  gold  in  this  way. 

The  method  by  which  most  gold  is  now 
obtained,  is  to  dig  into  the  solid  rock,  as  in 
(3)  Thecommon  the  case  of  other  metals.  The 
method  mw  shafts  and  tunnels  follow  the 
veins  from  which  the  gold  in  the  gravels 
came.  In  the  veins,  the  metal  is  found 
mixed  with  other  minerals  which  are  of 
little  or  no  value.  This  mixture  forms 
gold  ore,  and  there  is  so  little  gold  in  such 
ore,  and  it  is  in  such  small  grains,  that  one 
may  spend  days  in  a  mine  looking  for  it 
without  seeing  any.  The  gold  ore,  like 
other  ores  already  studied,  must  be  crushed 
and  melted  before  the  gold  itself  can  be 
obtained. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  gold-min- 
ing districts  in  the  world  is  that  of  the  Com- 

3.  Noted  rain-        stock  Lode  at  VIRGINIA  ClTY, 

ing  districts  Nev.  The  vein  is  irregular 
(1)  In  Nevada  ln  richness,  some  parts,  called 
"bonanzas,"  containing  much  gold  and 
silver,  while  elsewhere  it  is  quite  barren. 
So  much  metal  has  been  obtained  from 
this  single  vein  that  Nevada  at  one  time 
produced  more  silver  than  all  the  other 
states  put  together,  and  more  gold  than 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  So  many 
people  moved  there  then  that  Nevada  terri- 
tory became  a  state  in  1864 ;  and  Virginia 
City,  though  in  the  midst  of  a  desert,  grew 
to  be  a  thriving  city. 

As  the  mines  went  deeper,  hot  water,  with  a  tem- 
perature of  170  °,  poured  in  and  caused  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  mines  to  be  almost  unbearable.  Ice-cold 
air  was  forced  in,  and  machinery  and  mules  were 
made  to  do  most  of  the  work  ;  but  even  then  men 
fainted  at  their  posts.  Partly  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  mining,  and  partly  because  of  the  failure  to 


discover  new  bonanzas,  some  of  the  mines  were 
abandoned  and  people  -drifted  away,  so  that  for  a 
while  the  population  of  Nevada  decreased. 

With  the  discovery  of  many  rich  new 
mining  fields,  and  the  re-opening  of  old 
mines,  new  towns  have  sprung  up,  and 
Nevada  is  again  the  center  of  great  min- 
ing activity  and  one  of  our  most  important 
mining  states.  It  is  one  of  the  leading 
states  in  the  production  of  gold  and  silver. 
Toxopah,  Goldfield,  and  Bullfrog  are 
important  and  rapidly  growing  mining 
towns.  These  and  other  cities  are  now 
more  important  than  Virginia  City. 

At  present  Colorado  produces  more  gold 
than  any  other  state  (Fig.  272),  and  it 
ranks  fourth  in  the  production 
of  silver.  In  addition  to  these 
metals,  Colorado  produces  much  copper, 
lead,  and  iron.  Among  the  mountains,  one 
sees  many  mines  (Fig.  166)  ;  but  one  of 
the  most  noted  mining  districts  is  near 
Leadville,  a  city  at  an  elevation  of  over 
ten  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Gold, 
silver,  and  lead  are  mined  in  this  locality. 

Another  well-known  mining  camp  in 
Colorado  is  Cripple  Creek.  A  few  years 
ago  there  was  no  town  here,  and  the  gold 
ore,  which  later  proved  so  valuable,  was 
not  recognized  as  ore  by  the  prospectors. 
Finally,  when  some  one  discovered  the 
gold,  thousands  of  people  rushed  in  from 
all  directions,  and  a  city  sprang  up  almost 
in  a  day.  This  has  been  true  in  many 
other  places.  Sometimes  the  cities  have 
continued  to  grow,  but  if  the  mines  have 
given  out,  the  mining  centers  have  been 
abandoned  almost  as  rapidly  as  they  grew. 

Iron  is  found  in  several  of  the  Western 
States,  but  as  yet  it  is  not  mined  to  a  great 
extent  except  west  of  Pueblo,  in  Colorado. 

The  western  half  of  Montana  is  another 
noted  mining  section,  and  this  state  is  now 
second  in  the  production  of 
silver  and  copper,  while  it  also 
supplies  much  lead,  gold,  coal,  and  other 
mineral  products,  including  precious  stones. 
Helena     has     already     been      mentioned 


(3)  In  Montana 


124 


NORTH  AMERICA 


(p.  123),  but  no  portion  of  the  state  is  now 

so  important  for  mining  as  the  region  in 

and  near  Butte   (Fig.   182).     There  the 

principal  metal  is    copper,   although    some 

gold    and    silver  are   mixed  with  the  ore. 

More  copper  has  been  produced 

at  the  Butte  mines  than  in  any 

other   mining    district   in    the 

world.     The   mines   are  very 

extensive,     reaching      several 

thousand  feet  into  the  earth, 

and    having    tunnels    through 

which  one  might  wander   for 

days  without  finding  his  way 

out. 

The  mining  industry  of 
Arizona  is  also  very  impor- 
(4)  in  other  tant,  much  COp- 
Western  States  per,  silver,  lead, 
and  gold  being  produced.  Ari- 
zona now  ranks  first  among 
the  states  of  the  Union  in  the 
production  of  copper.  One 
of  the  largest  cities  in  the  ter- 
ritory is  Tucson  (Fig.  167). 
Another  large  city  is  Bisbee,  the  center  of 
a  noted  copper  mining  region  and  rivaling 
Butte,  Montana.  There  is  much  smelting 
at  Douglas,  and  all  these  cities,  as  well  as 
Phcenix,  are  trade  centers  for  neighbor- 
ing mines  and  irrigated  farms. 

There  is  much  mining,  especially  of  gold, 
silver,    copper,   and  lead,    in    each    of    the 


other  Western  States.  California  ranks 
second  among  our  states  in  the  production 
of  gold,  Utah  third  in  silver  and  lead, 
and  Idaho  second  in  lead  and  fifth  in  sil- 
ver.    The    Coaur   d'Alene  mining   district 


Fig.  166.  —  A  view  in  the  mining  district  of  Victor,  Colorado.  There  are 
mines  beneath  these  buildings,  and  the  waste  rock  removed  from  the 
tunnels  form  huge  banks  near  them. 


of  northern  Idaho  is  the  most  important 
silver-lead  district  in  the  county.  Spo- 
kane, in  Washington,  is  the  trade  center 
for  this  noted  mining  region,  which  has 
had  much  to  do  with  the  remarkable  and  re- 
cent growth  of  this  city.  In  addition  to 
the  metals  mentioned,  these  states,  as  well 
as   Wyoming   and    New   Mexico,   produce 


Fig.  167.  —  Tucson,  Arizona,  which  owes  much  of  its  prosperity  to  the  rich  mines  in  the  neighboring  mountains. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


125 


large  quantities  of  other  valuable  miner- 
als. There  are  many  important  mining 
towns  and  mining  camps  in  each  of  these 
states. 

Coal,  some  of  it  of  excellent  quality, 
occurs  in  man}'  sections  of  the  West,  being 
4  Coal  petro-  mined  in  almost  all  these  states. 
leum,  and  other  Colorado  produces  more  than 
minerals  any  otner  Western  state,  rank- 

ing seventh  among  the  states  of  the  country 
in  this  production.  But  other  Western 
States  produce  considerable  amounts:  among 
these  Wyoming  and  Washington  are  next 
in  importance  to  Colorado.  Nearly  every 
one  of  the  Western  States  has  coal  beds 
which  are  bound  to  be  of  great  value  in  the 
future. 

Petroleum  is  another  valuable  product  in 
the  West.  Enormous  quantities  have  been 
found  in  California,  and  that  state  now 
produces  more  than  any  other  in  the 
Union.  So  much  is  produced,  in  fact,  that 
it  is  used  on  railway  engines,  in  place  of 
coal. 

There  are  many  other  mineral  products 
in  the  Western  States,  including  building 
stones  and  semi-precious  stones,  which  are 
obtained  in  California,  Arizona,  Colorado, 
Utah,  Nevada,  and  other  states. 

Mining  gives  rise  to  much  lumbering  in 
many  parts  of  the  West.  The  Butte  mines 
alone  consume  millions  of  feet 
of  lumber  per  year.  In  the 
ii  -I     i  mines  heavy,  upright  timbers 

are  placed  together,  on  each 
side  of  a  tunnel,  to  prevent  the  rock  from 
caving  in.  Because  of  the  great  pressure 
upon  them,  timbers  more  than  a  foot 
through  are  often  broken. 

While  a  great  portion  of  the  Western 
country  is  arid,  the  mountains  and  some 
2.  Where  it  is  °^  *ne  higher  plateaus  bear 
obtained;  also      extensive    forests.     Thus    the 

kinds  of  trees        mineS)       wh;ch       are       usually 

among  the  high  mountains,  are  generally 
supplied  with  little  difficulty  ;  for  the  logs 
are  easily  brought  down  to  them. 

The  most  noted  lumber  region,  however, 


Lumbering 

1.  The  special 

mand 
lumber 


is  on  and  near  the  western  coast  from  cen- 
tral California  northward.  Here,  in  the 
damp,  equable  climate,  the  giant  redwood, 
fir,  cedar,  and  spruce  trees  grow  to  great 
size,  the  redwood  being  confined  to  Cali- 
fornia, where  there  are  extensive  forests 
of  these  big  trees  (Fig.  198).  There  are 
immense  forests  of  giant  trees  all  the  way 
from  central  California  to  Canada.  While 
the  logs  in  Maine  and  Michigan  are  rarely 
more  than  two  or  three  feet  through,  many 
in  Washington  and  Oregon  are  from  six  to 
fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  some  in  Cali- 
fornia are  very  much  larger. 

A  visit  to  a  lumbering  camp  in  "western  Wash- 
ington will  show  that,  owing  to  the  size  of  the  trees, 
and  to  the  climate,  the  work  is  car- 


3.   Method  of 
lumbering 


ried  on  very  differently  from  lum- 
bering in  Maine  (p.  33).  The  men 
are  able  to  work  both  winter  and  summer.  They 
select  a  tree,  which  perhaps  towers  upward  for  two 
hundred  feet,  that  is,  higher  than  most  church 
steeples.  Two  men  saw  and  chop  at  this  tree  until 
the  giant  begins  to  quiver,  and  when  Anally  it  falls,  a 
wonderful  sight  may  be  seen.  The  tree  bends  slowly 
over,  quickens  its  movement,  then  falls  to  the  ground 
with  a  mighty  crash,  breaking  good-sized  trees  in  its 
way,  as  if  they  were  twigs. 

After  the  branches  are  cut  off,  the  tree  is  sawed 
into  sections  of  different  lengths  (Fig.  168),  as 
twenty-four,  thirty-two,  or  forty-eight  feet,  and  these 
are  dragged  to  a  railway  which  leads  up  into  the 
forest.  There  the  logs  are  piled  upon  flat  cars  and 
taken  to  the  mills,  a  single  section  sometimes  occu- 
pying an  entire  car  (Fig.  169).  From  five  to  fif- 
teen thousand  feet  of  lumber,  or  enough  to  build  a 
small  house,  may  be  obtained  from  a  single  large 
tree  (Fig.  170). 

Many  of  the  logs  go  to  Tacoma  and  Seat- 
tle, where  there  are  enormous  sawmills. 
There  is  such  an  abundance  4  what  is  done 
of  wood  that  in  some  places  with  the  logs 
thick  planks  are  used  for  pav-  and  lumber 
ing  the  streets  ;  and  wood  is  burned  as  a 
fuel  in  locomotives,  and  in  the  lumber  mills. 
Such  enormous  quantities  of  lumber  are 
obtained  from  these  forests,  and  so  cheaply, 
that  it  is  sent  even  as  far  as  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  Northwest  is  now  one  of  the 
greatest  lumbering  regions  in  the  country, 
and  all  the  cities  there  have  some  share  in 


126 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the  industry.  Much  lumber  is  sent  away 
by  boat  from  Portland  and  Astoria, 
but  even  more  goes  from  the  cities  of 
Puget  Sound.  Besides  Tacoma  and 
Seattle,  Everett  and  Bellingham  are 
noted  for  their  lumber  industry.     With  so 


of  timber  will  be  preserved  for  use  in  the 
future  ;  for  it  is  hardly  fair  that  we  should 
leave  no  timber  for  those  who  come  after  us. 
In  addition,  the  forests  are  of  value  in  pre- 
venting the  rapid  running  off  of  the  water 
in  streams ;   thus  they  help  to  regulate  the 


Fig.  16S.  —  Lumbermen  at  work  in  the  forest  of  Western  Washington. 

for  drawing  logs. 


Note  in  the  foreground  the  donkey  engine  used 


much  lumber  it  is  natural  that  there  should 
be  extensive  manufacture  of  shingles,  doors, 
and  other  wooden  articles. 

A  great  deal  of  the  forest  of  the  West  is 
on  government  land,  and  to  prevent  it  from 
5.  Forest  res-  being  wasted,  our  government 
ervations  has  set  apart  what  are  called 

forest  reserves  (Fig.  265).  That  is,  the  for- 
est is  kept,  or  reserved,  by  the  government, 
so  that  no  one  can  cut  down  the  trees 
without  permission.     In  this  way  a  supply 


supply  of  water  for  manufacturing,  irriga- 
tion, and  other  purposes. 

Although  there  are  few  fishing  banks 
along  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States, 
there  are  some  on  which  valua- 
blefood  fish  are  found.  Other 
kinds  of  fish  are  caught  along  the  coast,  or 
are  found  swimming  in  the  surface  waters; 
and  the  oyster  thrives  in  the  shallow  waters 
at  the  head  of  Puget  Sound. 

Lanje  numbers  of  cod  and   halibut  are 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


127 


iKIft 


js**zz~*^  '—^::r'^ 


Fig.  lbU. 


•  A  train  drawing  lumber  out  of  the  forest  of  western  Washington.    Each  section  of  a  log  occupies  an 
entire  car,  and  all  the  logs  in  the  picture  are  parts  of  a  single  tree. 


caught  on  the  hanks  and  along  the  shores  of 
British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  and  many  ves- 
sels go  there,  especially  from  Seattle.  Not 
all  the  fish  that  are  caught  are  eaten 
by  the  Western  people ;  some 
are  shipped  to  other  parts 
of  the  country,  even  to 
Eastern  cities.  Fresh  / 
halibut,  kept  on  ice  /^ 
in  refrigerator  cars,  &~ 
are  sent  from  ISt 
Seattle  to  many 
places  in  the 
East. 

The  most  im- 
portant fishing 
industry,    how- 
ever,   is    that 
salmon 

This  fish,  like  the 
shad     of     the     East 
(p.  51),   spends   most 
of  its  life  in  the  oeean, 
but  passes  up  the  rivers 
to  spawn,  or  lay  its  eggs, 
in  fresh  water.     As  they 
are  going  toward  and  up 
the  rivers,  the  salmon  are 
caught  in  great  numbers, 
and  some  are  shipped  away 
in  ice,  even  across  the  con- 
tinent.     Others  are  sent  to  the  numerous 
canning    factories   at    Astokia    and    other 


catching 


Agriculture 
1.  In  the  North- 
west  and  Cali- 
fornia 


regions 

United 

This    is 

wheat 


Fig.  170.  —  The  end  of  a  log  cut 
from  the  forest  of  western 
Washington.  You  can  see  how 
large  it  is  by  the  men  standing 
in  front  of  it. 


points  along  the  lower  Columbia,  and  to  Bel- 
LINGHAM  and  other  points  on  Puget  Sound, 
where  they  are  packed  in  cans  (Fig.  171). 
There  is  extensive  farming  in 
Washington  and  Oregon,  east 
„  of  the  Cascade 
Ranges,  one  of 
the  finest 
farming 

in     the 
States, 
a    noted 
country 
(Fig.  172),  like 
the     valley    of 
the  Red  River 
of    the    North, 
and   some   of  the 
farms    are    even 
larger   than   the   one 
described  on  page  97. 
Mile  after  mile,  in  Ore- 
gon  and    Washington,  are 
fields  of  waving  grain,  which, 
because  of  the  very  fertile  soil,  yield 
enormous  crops.     Hay,  barley,  corn, 
oats,    fruits,    vegetables,    and    farm 
animals    are    also    raised.       During 
the  harvest  season  the  air  in  most 
sections  is  so  dry  that   both  grain 
and  hay  may  be  left  out  of  doors! 
weeks    with    little    danger    of    being 


for 


spoiled  by  rain.     Walla  Walla,  Wash- 


128 


NORTH  AMERICA 


-Interior  of  a  salmon  cannery  on  the  Columbia  River.     A  salmon  hangs  from  the  roof  ; 
thousands  of  cans  of  salmon  piled  up  on  the  floor. 


and  there  are 


ington,  Lewistox,  Idaho,  and  Pendleton, 
Oregon,  are  situated  in  this  great  wheat 
region. 

Near  the  eastern  base  of  the  Cascade 
Ranges  the  climate  is  so  dry  that  irrigation 
is  necessary  and  there,  as  in  the  Yakima 
Valley,  is  found  a  wonderful  fruit  country. 
On  the  western  side  of  the  Cascade  Ranges 
there  is  abundant  rainfall  and  there  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  grains,  as  well  as  hops,  are 
extensively  produced.  The  entire  Pacific 
coast   region,   from    Canada  to  Mexico,  is 


famous  for  its  excellent  fruit.  In  the  north 
berries,  apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  grapes, 
and  other  fruits  are  produced  ;  but  in  the 
south,  in  the  Great  Valley  of  California 
(p.  120),  besides  these  fruits  there  are  groves 
of  oranges,  lemons,  olives,  and  figs,  as  well 
as  other  trees  which  thrive  only  in  warm 
climates.  Sacramento,  Stockton,  and 
Fresno  are  the  leading  cities  of  the  Great 
Valley,  which,  throughout  its  whole  length, 
is  occupied  by  a  succession  of  wheatfields, 
vine3rards,    orchards,    and    nut    and    fruit 


Fig.  172.  — Cutting  wheat  in  the  fertile  farming  district  of  central  Washington.     By  these  machines  the  wheat  is  cut, 

threshed,  aud  sacked  all  ready  for  shipping. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


129 


Fig.  173.  —  An  irrigating  ditch  near  Denver.    The  water  is  led  from  a  river,  and  by  it  the  land,  otherwise  useless  for 

agriculture,  is  made  to  yield  rich  harvests. 


groves;  but  in  the  central  and  southern 
portions,  where  the  rainfall  is  light,  irriga- 
tion is  provided  as  described  in  a  later  sec- 
tion. California  fresh  fruit  is  shipped  in 
enormous  quantities  to  Eastern  cities,  while 


Fig.  174.  —  A  farmer  irrigating  his  field.  The  water  from 
ditch  is  allowed  to  run  along  the  furrows  and  thus  wet 
have  just  been  planted. 

dried  and  canned  California  fruits  are  to  be 
found  in  most  of  our  grocery  stores. 

There  are  a  few  other,  smaller  sections 
where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  agricul- 


ture ;  but  the  only  way  in  which  farming 
is  possible  in  most  other  parts  of  the  West 
is  by  means  of  irrigation. 

The  influence  of  irrigation  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  region  near  Denver,  which 

lies   in   the   midst  of  an   arid 

plain.   This  plain 

is  crossed,  how-  "" 

ana  Wyoming, 
ever,        by        the    by  irrigation 

South     Fork     of    (1)  Hoioirriga- 

the  Platte  River,   tUm  isPl«^d 

near  Denver 

from  which  a 
ditch,  as  large  as  a  canal,  is 
led  out  upon  the  plain  (Fig. 
173).  The  river  itself  has  a 
rapid  fall,  but  just  enough 
slope  has  been  given  the  ditcli 
to  allow  the  water  to  flow. 
Thus  the  ditch  soon  runs  on  a 
higher  level  than  the  river, 
and  the  land  between  it  and 
the  river  is  lower  than  the 
ditch. 

Water  from  the  ditch  may 
then  be  led  out  over  these 
fields  to  irrigate  them.  For  this  purpose 
ditches  branch  off  from  the  main  canal, 
and  each  of  these  is  divided  and  subdivided 
to  supply  farms  along  its  course.      When 


the  irrigating 
the  seeds  that 


130 


NORTH  AMERICA 


a  field  needs  water,  one  of  the  smaller 
ditches  is  tapped  and  the  field  is  flooded ;  or 
else  the  water  is  led  into  little  furrows  a  few 
feet  apart  (Fig.  174).  The  method  followed 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop  that  is  under 
cultivation.  As  there  is  danger  that  the  sup- 
ply of  water  may  not  last  through  the  sum- 
mer, reservoirs  are  built  to  store  the  water 
of  the  spring  freshets  ;  >  and  when  needed, 
this  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the  ditches. 


alfalfa.  The  latter,  like  clover  and  hay,  is 
fed  to  stock.  It  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant crops  of  the  arid  regions,  where  there  is 
much  demand  for  fodder  for  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  and  horses. 

Without  irrigation,  crops  could  not  be 
grown  in  this  vicinity.  It  would  then  be 
necessary  to  bring  farm  products  from  Kan- 
sas, Nebraska,  and  other  states,  a  distance 
of  several  hundred   miles.     It   is   evident, 


Fig.  175.  —  An  orange  grove  in  southern  California  on  land  which  not  many  years  ago  supported  only  the  sparse 

vegetation  of  an  arid,  climate. 


Of  course  such  an  arrangement  is  expen- 
sive, and  each  farmer  must  pay  for  his  water 
_.  „  .    at  a  certain  rate,  as  each  tenant 

(2)  Expense  of        .        .  .  .,  - 

such  irrigation,  of  a  house  in  a  city  pays  tor 
and  its  advaiv-  his  water  or  gas.  That  a 
tages  farmer  can   afford  to  pay  for 

water,  however,  is  well  shown  in  this  case  ; 
for  on  the  upper  side  of  the  ditch,  which 
cannot  be  reached  by  the  water,  the  land  is 
fit  only  for  grazing,  while  on  the  lower  side 
there  are  rich  fields  of  grain,  vegetables,  and 


therefore,  that  irrigation  must  have  had  a 
great  influence  on  the  settlement  of  the 
West.  Without  it  Denver  and  Pueblo 
would  not  be  so  important  as  they  are  ;  and, 
because  of  the  expense  of  carrying  food  so 
far,  scores  of  mining  towns  would  not  exist. 
Wherever  the  waters  of  the  rivers  are  led 
out  over  the  fields,  people  form  settlements, 
and  even  towns  and  small  cities.  That 
is  the  case  at  Greeley,  in  Colorado 
Cheyenne   and    Laramie,   the  principal 


: 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


131 


cities  in  Wyoming ;  and  scores  of  other 
places. 

One  of  the  best  farming  districts  in  the 
arid  lands  is  in  Utah.  A  large  part  of  that 
3.  in  Utah,  by  state  was  once  a  desert.  But 
irrigation  extensive  areas  have  been  en- 

tirely changed  by  the  Mormons,  a  religious 
sect  founded  in  New  York,  in  1830,  by 
Joseph  Smith. 

Under  the  leadership  of  Brigham  Young 
these  people  migrated  into  the  then  un- 
known West  and  settled  a  few  miles  from 
Great  Salt  Lake.  Here  they  commenced  to 
build  Salt  Lake  City,  which  is  now  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  country. 
They  also  began  to  raise  crops  by  irriga- 
tion, and  to  plant  fruit  trees,  and  thus  con- 
verted portions  of  the  desert  waste  into 
beautiful  gardens. 

There  are  now  in  Utah  many  who  do 
not  accept  the  Mormon  religion.  Agri- 
culture is  no  longer  the  sole  industry. 
As  you  have  already  learned  (p.  124), 
many  rich  mines  have  been  opened  in  this 
stale.  There  are  numerous  busy  towns 
and  cities,  the  one  next  to  Salt  Lake  City 
in  size  being  Ogden,  which  lies  north  of 
the  capital. 

Central  and  southern  California  is  a  third 
section  noted  for  its  extensive  irrigation. 
The  region  is  far  south,  and 
its  shores  are  bathed  by  warm 
ocean  waters,  so  that  the  cli- 
mate is  delightful.  But  the 
land,  although  very  fertile,  is 
method  of  irri-  arid  by  nature,  and  in  places 
almost  a  desert  (Fig.  165). 
Vapor  condenses  on  the  mountains,  how- 
ever, and  forms  streams  whose  water  is 
stored  in  immense  reservoirs  and  led  into 
long  irrigating  ditches.  Other  irrigating 
ditches  are  supplied  with  water  from  wells. 
The  bringing  of  water  to  the  parched  soil 
has  changed  even  the  desert  parts  of  this 
region  into  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  the 
world.  The  rainfall  increases  toward  the 
north,  and  irrigation  becomes  less  and  less 
necessary  as   one   goes   northward.     Thus 


4.  In  central 
and  southern 
California,  by 
irrigation 

(1)   The  climate 
here,  and  the 


there  is  every  gradation  in  California, 
from  farms,  orchards,  and  vineyards  that 
could  not  exist  without  irrigation,  to 
those,  already  described,  which  require  no 
irrigation. 

Oranges,  lemons,  peaches,  pears,  grapes, 
figs,  olives,  walnuts,  almonds,  and  many 
other  kinds  of  fruits  and  nuts, 
now  grow  here  in  abundance. 
Among  the  fruits  the  most  common  is  the 
seedless  navel  orange.  In  these  beauti- 
ful valleys  nearly  every  home  has  its  orange 
trees,  and  in  many  cases  the  house  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  them  (Fig.  175). 

Thousands  of  persons  from  the  East  were 
first  attracted  to  California  by  the  mild  and 


(2j  The  products 


Fig.  170. —  An  orange  tree  in  southern  California.    Notice 
the  snow  on  the  mountain  only  a  few  niiles  away. 

healthful  climate  ;  then,  seeing  the  oppor- 
tunity for  fruit  raising,  they  planted  orchards 
and  orange  groves.  In  those  valleys  which 
are  too  cool  for  oranges,  thousands  of  acres 
are  devoted  to  other  fruits,  such  as  prunes, 
apricots,  grapes,  rjears,  and  apples.  Land 
that  a  few  years  ago  was  worth,  at  best, 
only  a  few  dollars  an  acre,  now  supports 
flourishing  groves  of  fruit. 

The    groves  of   all  kinds  are  planted  in 


132 


NORTEL  AMERICA 


straight  rows,  and  the  ground 
is  kept  so  clean  by  frequent 

(3)  Care  of  the  plowing  that 
fruit,  and  what  scarcely  a  weed  is 

is  done  with  it       tQ    be    geen>        jn 

this  respect  the  groves  present 
a  very  different  appearance 
from  the  orchards,  overgrown 
with  grass  and  weeds,  that  are 
often  seen  upon  farms  of  the 
East. 

The  winter  season  is  the  har- 
vest time  for  oranges,  which  are 
picked  from  about  the  middle 
of  November  until  February 
or  later  (Fig.  176).  They 
are  cut  from  the  trees,  sorted 
according  to  size,  then  packed 
in  boxes  and  shipped  away. 

Immense  quantities  of  peaches,  prunes, 
apricots,  grapes,  figs,  and  other  fruits  are 
dried,  usually  by  exposure  to  the  sun.  In 
the  Eastern  States  fruit  would  soon  decay 
if  left  out  of  doors,  but  in  the  sunny  cli- 
mate of  the  arid  lands  it  dries  quickly. 
Much  fruit  is  also  canned,  and  many  grapes 
are  made  into  wine.  California  wine  is  of 
such  high  quality  that  it  is  sent  not  only 
to  the  East,  but  even  to  Europe. 

The  value  of  irrigation  is  well  shown 
here.  Before  irrigation  was  introduced 
into  southern  California,  this  region  could 


Fig.  178.  —  Desert  land  in  the  Yakima  Valley  which  only  a  few  years  ago 
was  covered  with  sagebrush  like  that  in  Figure  177.  Now,  being  reached 
by  an  irrigation  ditch,  it  supports  a  flourishing  young  peach  and  apple 
orchard  and  is  worth  $1000  au  acre. 


Fig.  177. — Desert  land  in  the  Yakima  Valley,  covered  with  the  worthless 
sagebrush.  Such  land  without  irrigation  is  of  almost  no  value  ;  but 
compare  this  picture  with  Figure  178. 

support  very  few  people.  Now,  in  Los 
Angeles  and  vicinity,  there  is  a  population 
of  over  three  hundred  thousand. 

The  description  of  these  few  places  serves  to  show 

the  importance  of  irrigation  in  the  West.     It  is  not 

to  be  understood,  however,  that  these 

are  the  only  noted  irrigated  sections,      ' .  °  c 

tL  tvt     i     t    gated  sections 

lor  there  are  many  others.     Most  ol 

the  largest  and  best  known  are  along  the  large  riv- 
ers.    For  example,  irrigation  is  extensive  along  the 
Yellowstone  and  Missouri  rivers  and  their  tributa- 
ries in   Montana;    along  the  Snake  River  and   its 
tributaries  in  Idaho;  along  the  Yakima  River  (Figs. 
177  and  178),   and  other  streams  tributary  to  the 
Columbia     River     in     Washington, 
Oregon,  and  Idaho ;  along  the  Gila 
and   Salt  rivers  in   Arizona;    along 
the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  rivers  in 
New  Mexico ;  and  along  the  Sacra- 
mento, San  Joaquin  and  other  rivers 
in  California.     The  map  (Fig.  258) 
shows  that  there  are  many  irrigated 
sections. 

The  irrigation  of  Arizona  deserves  | 
especial  mention,  partly  because  of 
the  extensive  irrigation  works  that  . 
the  government  has  constructed 
there,  and  partly  because  of  the 
climate.  One  of  the  greatest  irriga- 
tion works  undertaken  is  the  Roose- 
velt dam  in  the  Salt  River,  which 
will  supply  water  for  a  large  area 
near    Phcenix.      The   climate   near 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


133 


this  city  and  Tucson  is  such  that  even  semi-tropical 
fruits  are  produced.  Here  are  raised  oranges, 
lemons,  grape  fruit,  figs,  olives,  pomegranates,  and 
even  dates.  The  warm,  dry  climate  also  makes  this 
region  an  important  health  resort. 

So  important  is  irrigation  that  it  is  being 
introduced    wherever    possible,    and    every 

6.  Government  yeai"  new  irrigation  systems 
work  in  irriga-  are  being  built,  some  of  them 
at  great  expense.  Since  much 
of  the  arid  region  is  public  land,  the 
United  States  government  is  aiding  in  this 
work.  There  is,  in  fact,  a  special  depart- 
ment of    the    government    in  charge  of  it, 


Fio.  170.  —  A  masonry  dam  built  by  the  United  States  government,  forming  a 
large  lake  in  which  water  is  stored  for  use  in  irrigation  during  the  summer. 


and   every    year    millions    of    dollars    are 
being  spent  in  this  way. 

Enormous  dams  are  built  (Fig.  179), 
forming  large  lakes  in  the  mountain  val- 
leys, and  these  are  filled  in  spring  when  the 
snow  melts.  Then,  in  summer,  when  the 
crops  need  water,  it  is  let  out  of  the  reser- 
voirs into  the  irrigation  canals.  In  this 
way  the  amount  of  farm  land  in  the  arid 
West  is  being  greatly  increased.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  important  works  in  which 
our  government  is  engaged. 


There    is   so   little    rainfall   in   the    arid 
portion  of  the  West  that  only  a  small  part 
of  the  land  can  be  irrigated.    7.  Ranching 
This  leaves  most  of  the  coun-   (i)  Kinds  of 
try  for  grazing;  and  wherever  animals  raised 
there    is    water  enough  for  tbe  animals  to 
drink,  cattle,  horse,  and  sheep  ranches  are 
found.       In   some    parts,    especially   where 
the    grass    is    scanty,    herds    of    goats    are 
raised. 

The  manner  in  which  cattle  ranching  is 
carried  on  in  Dakota  was  de-   (2)  1Iow  sheep 

scribed   On   pages    99-101,   and    ranching  is  car- 

much  the  same  plan  is  followed  ried  on 

for  cattle  and  horses  in  all  the 
Western  States.  Sheep  ranch- 
ing is  somewhat  different,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  ranches 
about  Billings,  Mont. 

A  good-sized  sheep  ranch  has 
from  twenty-five  thousand  to  forty 
thousand  head  of  sheep.  These, 
like  cattle,  may  feed  partly  upon 
government  land,  or  the  "  range," 
and  partly  on  land  fenced  in  and 
owned  by  the  ranchman.  During 
the  coldest  winter  weather,  when 
the  snow  may  be  so  deep  that  the 
sheep  cannot  obtain  food,  they  are 
often  driven  into  protected  corrals 
and  fed  on  alfalfa.  The  fierce 
winds  of  the  open  plains  help  them, 
however,  by  drifting  the  snow  and 
thus  leaving  open  patches  where 
they  can  find  grass. 

When  the  sheep  are  feeding  on 
the  range,  one  man,  with  a  dog 
(Fig.  180),  can  herd  twenty-five 
hundred ;  and  if  he  has  a  horse  to 
ride,  he  sometimes  takes  care  of  five  thousand. 
Selecting  a  spot  near  water  for  a  camp,  the  herder 
drives  his  sheep  out  each  morning,  and  back 
at  night,  going  each  day  a  distance  of  two  or 
three  miles  from  camp.  When  the  grass  is 
eaten  in  one  place,  the  camp  is  moved;  then, 
from,  the  new  point  as  a  center,  they  wander  out 
as  before. 

The  life  of  the  herder  is  extremely  lonely,  both 
day  and  night  being  spent  with  the  sheep.  Once  a 
week  a  man  brings  him  food;  and  for  weeks,  and 
even  months  at  a  time,  the  only  company  he  has, 
aside  from  his  sheep,  is  his  dog,  and  possibly  his 
horse. 


134 


NORTH  AMERICA 


After  the  winter  is  over,  the  first  income 
to  the  ranchman  comes  from  the  sale  of  the 
(3)  Sources  skins,  or  pelts,  of  sheep  which 
of  profit  have    died    during    the    cold 

weather.  He  expects  to  lose  about  one 
sheep  in  twenty  each  year  from  this  cause. 

The  next  harvest  comes  from  the  wool 
(Fig.  181).  Men  who  make  it  their  busi- 
ness to  shear  sheep  travel  in  squads  of 
about  twenty-five.     They  erect  sheds  and 


bales  and  shipped  to  various  markets  in  the 
East.  Where  should  you  think  it  might 
be  sent,  and  for  what  purposes  used? 

From  July  on,  many  sheep  are  sold  for 
mutton.  Those  that  are  from  three  to  five 
years  old,  and  that  have  already  borne  a 
quantity  of  wool,  are  usually  selected  for  this 
purpose.  The  hides  are  useful  for  leather 
and  the  bones  for  fertilizing  the  soil. 

A  newly  settled  country  has  little  manu- 


Fig.  180.  —  A  Montana  sheep  herder  with  his  dogs  and  his  flock. 


pens  near  some  sheep  center,  such  as  Bil- 
lings, and  shear  all  the  sheep  that  are 
brought  to  them.  Sometimes  sheep  are 
sheared  at  the  ranch,  but  many  ranchmen 
prefer  to  drive  them  near  to  a  market, 
before  they  are  sheared.  This  saves  the 
expense  of  hauling  the  wool  to  the  rail- 
way station,  and  besides,  the  sheep  graze 
on  the  way  to  and  from  the  market. 

In  the  Southwestern  States  sheep  are 
often  sheared  twice  a  year;  but  farther 
north  it  is  done  only  once,  and  then  as  near 
the  month  of  June  as  possible.  Can  you 
suggest  a  reason  for  choosing  that  time  ? 
After  the  wool   is  cut,  it   is   pressed   into 


facturing.  Consequently  many  manufac- 
tured articles  that  are  needed  Manufacturing 
in  the  West  must  still  be  i.  Extent  of  the 
brought  from  the  East.  As  manufacturing 
in  the  Southern  States,  however,  rapid 
changes  have  been  going  on,  and  the  West 
is  fast  becoming  an  important  manufactur- 
ing region.  Already  in  some  parts,  as  in 
Colorado  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  manufacturing. 

There  is  every  reason  for  believing  that 
this  progress  will  continue;  for  the  West 
has  great  resources,  including  immense  de- 
posits of  coal  and  petroleum  for  fuel,  as 
well  as   abundant  water  power.     Further 


THE   UNITE!)   STATES 


135 


more,  the  demand  for  manufactured  articles 
is  increasing,  because  many  people  are  set- 
tling in  this  section. 


Fig.  181.— Shearing  sheep  in  Montana.  The  men  hold  the 
Sheep  and  the  wool  is  clipped  oft  hy  machinery.  There 
is  a  great  pile  of  this  wool  along  the  middle  of  the 
shed. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing in  the  West  consists  in  separating 
2.  Principal  the  metal  from  the  ores.  After 
kinds  the  ore  is  taken 

from  the  mines,  it  must  usu- 
ally be  crushed,  the  worthless 
parts  must  be  washed  out, 
and  the  remainder  sent  to 
the  •  smelters  (Fig.  182), 
where  the  metal  is  extracted 
by  a  difficult  process.  The 
machinery  for  crushing  and 
smelting  is  so  expensive  that 
ores  from  many  mines  are 
sent  to  one  place,  and  must 
sometimes  be  carried  a  lone 
distance.  For  example,  the 
mines  near  Leadville  send 
their  ore  to  that  city,  but 
many  mines  in  Colorado  ship 
ore  to  the  smelters  at  Denver  and  Pueblo. 

All  the  ores  must  be  treated  in  some  such 
way.  Thus  the  crushing  and  smelting  of 
ore  is  an  important  industry  in  many  of  the 


Western  cities.  The  metals  thus  obtained 
are  also  manufactured  into  various  articles 
in  the  larger  cities. 

The  manufacture  of  lumber  and  articles 
made  of  wood,  such  as  paper,  furniture,  and 
farm  implements,  is  already  extensive  in 
some  places,  and  is  rajndly  increasing. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  West  is,  to  a  large 
extent,  a  fruit  and  wheat  region.  On  that 
account  the  canning  and  drying  of  fruits, 
and  the  making  of  flour  and  other  products 
from  wheat,  are  very  important  industries. 
The  abundance  of  fish  gives  rise  to  the 
canning  industry  in  certain  places,  and  the 
great  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  supply 
hides  and  wool  not  only  for  shipment  to 
Eastern  factories,  but  also  for  manufacture 
in  the  West. 

The  development  of  manufacturing  in  the 
West  has  been  made  possible  largely  by  the 
building  of  railroads  (Fig.  Transporta- 
183).  There  is  a  remarkably  tion  of  goods 
large  number  of  railroads  here,  considering 
the  difficulty  of  building  them  and  the  recent 
settlement  of  the  country.  On  Figure  280 
observe  that  each  of  the  great  cities  on  the 
coast  is  connected  by  rail,  not  only  with  the 


""J^^S*- 

.•^a^Hgrr, 

*■  ™ 

y~ 

-JL^^ 

sL^ *  * 

Fig.  182.  —  Mines  in  Butte,  Montana,  where  copper  is  obtained 
from  the  ore. 


others,  but  also  with  the  East  by  one  or  more 
transcontinental  railways.  Count  the  rail- 
roads that  cross  the  Western  States,  and  learn 
their  names.     When  the  Union  Pacific,  the 


136 


NORTH  AMERICA 


first  of  these,  was  completed,  in  1869,  it  was 
thought  to  be  a  wonderful  work,  and  of  enor- 
mous importance  ;  but  now  that  there  are  so 
many  railroads,  people  are  inclined  to  over- 
look their  great  value. 

Railroads  are  of  especial  value  in  the 
interior  of  the  West,  where  there  is  very- 
little  opportunity  for  transportation  by 
water.  The  scarcity  of  navigable  streams 
is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rivers  are 
few  and  shallow,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  them  descend  rapidly  to  the  sea, 
and  therefore  have  rapids  and  falls  that  pre- 
vent navigation.  Notable  exceptions  are  the 
lower  Sacramento  and  the  Columbia,  on  which 
rivers  boats  carry  an  extensive  commerce. 

Although  harbors  are  not  numerous, 
there  are  several  excellent  ones,  sufficient 
to  carry  on  traffic  with  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  importance  of  these  ports  has 
been  greatly  increased  since  the  opening 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  Can  you  explain 
why  ? 

Large  inland  cities  in  the  Western  States 
are  few  in  number,  partly  because  there 
Leading  cities  are  no  important  waterways, 
in  the  interior  There  are,  however,  so  many 
railways  that  some  large  cities  have  devel- 


Fig.  184.  —  Pike's  Peak  from  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  near  Colorado  Springs. 


Fig.  183.  —  A  railroad  in  one  of  the  canyons  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado. 

oped,  especially  at  the  junction  of  important 
trunk  lines. 

The  greatest  of  the  interior  cities  is 
Denver,  the  capital  of  Colorado.  This 
city  is  located  on  the  site  of  a  i.  Denver  ana 

Small     mining    camp,    but     its   Colorado  Springs 

growth  is  chiefly  due  to  two 
facts:  (1)  the  numerous  min- 
ing towns  among  the  moun- 
tains near  by;  and  (2)  the 
near  presence  of  water,  which 
has  made  irrigation  on  a  large 
scale  possible  (p.  129).  The 
first  fact  calls  for  an  impor- 
tant trade  and  manufactur- 
ing center  somewhere  in  that 
region,  and  the  second  makes 
it  possible  to  secure  food. 

Denver  has  now  become  a 
very  important  railway  and 
manufacturing  center,  where 
ore  is  smelted,  and  machin- 
ery, flour,  and  cloth  manu- 
factured. It  is  also  of  im- 
portance as  a  health  resort, 
for  the  altitude  of  over  five 


TEE   UNITED   STATES 


137 


thousand  feet  and  the  dry  climate  are 
especially  favorable  to  persons  suffering 
from  diseases  of  the  lungs.  Colorado 
Springs,  south  of  Denver,  at  the  base  of 


Pike's  Peak  (Fig.  181),  is  one  of  the  lead- 
ing health  resorts  in  the  country. 

Pueblo,    a    trade     and    manufacturing 
center,  is  situated  south  of  Denver,  where 
the  Santa   Fe  line   meets  the 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Rail- 


2.   Pueblo 


ated  on  the  Spokane  River  at  a  point  where 
there  is  a  large  waterfall  (Fig.  186).  This 
supplies  abundant  water  power, 
so  that  there  is  much  manu- 
facturing. Since  the  city  lies 
in  the  midst  of  the  fertile 
wheat  region  of  eastern  Wash- 
ington, flour  milling  is  of 
special  importance,  as  at  Min- 
neapolis. From  the  forests 
of  Idaho  it  receives  lumber, 
and,  as  already  mentioned,  it 
has  been  greatly  benefited  by 
the  rich  mines  of  the  near- 
by Cceur  d'Alene  district. 
Spokane  is  also  an  important 
railway  center  and  distribut- 
ing point  for  a  wide  area  of 
country.  It  has  grown  very 
rapidly,  and  is  now  second  in 
size  among  the  interior  cities. 
Two  other  cities  in  the  interior  of  Wash- 
ington are  Walla  Walla  in  the  southeast 
and  North  Yakima  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

Some  of  the   ore  mined    at 
Butte  (Fig.  182)  is  crushed   L£»d^t 
and      reduced      in      smelters   Falls 


Colorado. 


Fig.  lSti  — The  fall  iu  Spokane  River  at  Spokaue,  Washington. 


way.  Here  much  ore  is  smelted,  and  iron 
goods  are  manufactured  (Fig.  185).  It  is 
the  nearness  to  coal  and  iron  ore  which 
makes  the  latter  industry  possible. 

Spokane,  in  eastern  Washington,  is  situ- 


within  the  city  limits.  But  most  of  it 
is  sent  to  the  smelters  at  Anaconda, 
and  many  of  the  Montana  ores  go  to  the 
smelters  at  Great  Falls.  In  the  process 
of  smelting,  fumes  of  sulphur  pour  forth 


138 


NORTH  AMERICA 


from  the  tall  chimneys  and  settle  to  the 
ground,  killing  almost  all  vegetation,  and 
causing  the  country  round  about  to  appear 
barren  and  desolate.     In 
spite  of  their  appearance, 
however,  these  smelting 
centers  are  thriving  and 
rapidly  growing. 

Several  other  interior 
cities,  such  as  Salt  Lake 

5.  Other  cities  ClTY  and 
and  towns  in       OgDEN,  have 

the  interior  aiready  been 
mentioned  (page  131). 
Find  others  on  the  map. 
Most  of  these  owe  their 
importance  chiefly  to 
mining,  farming  by  irri- 
gation, and  grazing. 
Name  the  capitals  of  the 
Western  States.  Which 
of  these  have  been 
mentioned,  and  in  what 
connection?  Locate 
Boise,  the  capital  of 
Idaho,  a  city  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  irriga- 
tion district. 

The  largest  city  in  the 
Western    States  is   San 
Francisco 


and  the  center  of  large  manufacturing  and 
ship-building  industries.  Close  to  it  is 
Berkeley  (Fig.  187),  the  seat  of  the  Uni- 


Leading  cities 
on  the  coast 

1 .   San  Fran- 
cisco and  cities 
near  by 

(1)  Names  and 
locations  of 
these  cities 


(Fig.  187), 

located  on  a 

remarkably 

fine  harbor, 

at  the  tip  of 

the  penin- 
sula that  shuts  in  the 
waters  of  San  Francisco 
Bay.  This  harbor,  like 
that  of  New  York,  was 
formed  by  the  sinking  of 
the  coast.  There  are 
other  important  cities 
near  San  Francisco,  the  largest  being  Oak- 
land, Berkeley,  and  Alameda.  The  for- 
mer, which  is  much  the  larger,  is  the  land 
terminus  of  several  transcontinental  railways 


Fig. 


187.  —  Map  to  show  the  location  of  San  Francisco,  Portland,  Tacoroa, 
and  Seattle. 


versity  of  California;  and  farther  south  is 
Stanford  University.  These  are  two  of  the 
most  important  universities  in  the  West. 
There  are  others  of  note,  however,  for  each 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


139 


of  the  Western  States  supports  a  state  uni- 
versity. 

South  of  San  Francisco  is  San  Jose  ; 
northeast  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  Sacra- 
mento River,  is  Sacramento,  the  capital  of 
California;  and  east  of  San  Francisco  is 
Stockton,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
San  Joaquin  River.  Trace  these  rivers,  and 
observe  the  extent  of  the  fertile  Great 
Valley  through  which  they  flow. 


leura  is  still  another  important  industry, 
and  brewing,  distilling,  and  the  manufacture 
of  boots,  shoes,  and  clothing  are  others. 
San  Francisco,  being  by  far  the  largest  of 
the  cities  in  this  vicinity,  leads  in  these 
industries. 

Not  much  coal  is  mined  in  California, 
but,  since  this  state  produces  more  petroleum 
than  any  other  in  the  Union,  .there  is  an 
abundance  of   oil  for  fuel.     Coal  is  easily 


Fig.  188.  — The  Golden  Gate,  as  the  entrance  to  San  Francisco  Bay  is  called.    Outside  is  the  open  ocean,  while  within  is 
a  broad,  deep  bay,  protected  from  winds  and  waves  and  making  a  port  where  the  largest  ships  may  safely  anchor. 


The  enormous  crops  of  wheat,  fruit,  and 
wool  in  the  Great  Valley  of  California 
(2)  Their  suggest  some  of   the  occupa- 

manufactures  tions  in  these  cities.  Among 
them  are  the  canning  of  fruit,  the  milling 
of  flour,  and  making  of  wine,  and  also  of 
cloth. 

The  mineral  products  in  this  region  have 
led  to  much  smelting,  and  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  metal  goods  of  various  kinds.  In 
and  near  San  Francisco  foundries  and 
machine  shops  are  numerous,  and  ship- 
building is  a  great  industry.  One  of  our 
best-known  battleships,  the  Oregon,  was 
built  here. 

Sugar  refining  is  another  prominent  indus- 
try, the  raw  sugar  being  brought  from  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.     The  refining  of  petro- 


brought  by  train  and  boat  from  the  Wash- 
ington coal  fields,  and  in  the  mountains 
there  is  an  abundance  of  water  power  that 
can  be  used  in  generating  electricity. 

San  Francisco  Bay  (Fig.  188)  is  the  only 
gap  in  the  Coast  Ranges  for  hundreds  of 
miles,  either  to  the  north  or  (3)  Their 
the  south;  and  since  it  is  one  shipping 
of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world,  it  is  very 
important  as  the  outlet  to  the  Great  Val- 
ley and  the  mining  regions  round  about  it. 
The  principal  products  shipped  from  here 
are  gold,  silver,  wine,  fruit,  wool,  grain, 
and  the  various  manufactured  goods  just 
named.  Some  go  East  by  rail,  but  many 
go  by  boat  to  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Several  transcontinental  railways  terminate 
on  the  shores  of  San  Francisco  Bay.     For 


140 


NORTH  AMERICA 


all  these  reasons  this  is  a  great  shipping 
point,  and,  as  our  trade  increases  with  the 
Philippines,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Japan, 
China,  and  other  countries  bordering  the 
Pacific,  the  amount  of  shipping  will  in- 
crease. 

Many  goods  are  sent  from  Stockton,  Oak- 
land, and  other  points  on  or  near  the  bay ; 
but  San  Francisco  is  the  leading  center  for 
the  shipping,  as  for  the  manufacturing. 


has  had  such  a  rapid  growth  that  it  is  now 
the  second  city  in  size  in  the  Western  States. 
The  first  large  city  north  of  San  Francisco 
is  Portland  (Fig.  187)  on  the  Willamette 
River,  a  tributary  of  the  Co- 
lumbia. Like  New  Orleans,  it 
situated   about    a    hundred 


is 


3 .   Coast  cities 
north  of  San 
Francisco 

(1)  Portland 
and  vicinity 


miles  from  the  ocean,  near  the 
head  of  deep-water  navigation. 

Since  good   harbors   having  connections 


Fig.  189.  —  A  street  in  Los  Angeles  bordered  by  palms  and  other  warm-climate  trees. 


The  next  important  harbor  south  of  San 
Francisco  is  the  port  of  Los  Angeles,  twenty 

2.  Coast  cities  mileS  fr0In  L°S  ANGELES  it- 
south  of  San  self,  where  a  fine  artificial  har- 
Francisco  fo0J.    ]lag     Deeil    macle    at    great 

expense.  Still  farther  south  is  the  fine 
natural  harbor  of  San  Diego.  Estimate 
the  distance  of  these  points  from  San  Fran- 
cisco (Fig.  187). 

Los  Angeles  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  in  the  country  (Fig.  189).  It  lies  in 
the  midst  of  the  rich  orange  country  (Fig. 
175),  and  there  are  scores  of  small  villages, 
towns,  and  cities  round  about  it.  Among 
the  larger  of  these  are  Pasadena,  Pomona, 
Riverside,  Redlands,  and  San  Bernar- 
dino. Los  Angeles  is  the  chief  distribu- 
ting center  for  this  productive  region.     It 


with  the  interior  are  lacking,  most  of  the 
other  important  towns  of  Oregon  are  inland, 
and  Portland  has  grown  to  be  the  chief  ship- 
ping point  by  water,  and  therefore  the  largest 
city  in  the  state.  From  this  point  wheat, 
flour,  fruits,  wool,  and  lumber  (Fig.  190),  the 
leading  products  of  Oregon,  are  shipped  in 
great  quantities. 

Portland  has  extensive  manufactories  of 
woolen  goods,  flour,  and  furniture;  and 
Salem,  the  capital,  situated  in  the  fertile 
Willamette  Valley,  also  has  large  woolen 
and  flour  mills.  Farther  down  the  Colum- 
bia is  Astoria,  where,  as  elsewhere  along 
the  river,  the  salmon  industry  is  developed. 
It  is  also  an  important  shipping  point. 

Portland,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities 
in  the  West,  is  growing  rapidly  in  industry, 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


141 


commerce,  and  population,  its  recent  growth 
being  most  remarkable.  It  has  an  exten- 
sive and  increasing  trade  with  the  Orient, 
and  there  is  also  important  commerce  with 
Alaska.  Portland  is  one 
of  the  great  lumber  ports 
in  the  world,  and  one  of 
the  leading  wheat  and 
flour  shipping  points  on 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Washington,  unlike 
Oregon,  has  many  fine 
(2)  Cities  on       harbors. 

Paget  Sound         On   two   of 

these    Seattle   and 
Tacoma  (Fig.  187)  are 
situated.       Coal,     lum- 
ber, grain,  and  hops  are 
the    principal    exports. 
There  is  also  extensive 
manufacture  of  lumber,  furniture,  and  other 
goods  along  the   shores  of    Puget    Sound, 
especially  at  Seattle   (Fig.  191),  and  Ta- 
coma.     These    goods   are  shipped   to   the 
Eastern  cities,  to  China,  Japan,  the  Philip- 
pines, Alaska,  and  other  countries.     Bel- 
lingham  and  Everett  on  Puget  Sound, 


is  an  important  ship  building  yard  at 
Seattle,  in  which  the  battleship)  Nebraska 
was  built ;  the  largest  salmon  cannery  in 
the  world   is   located   at   Bellingham ;    and 


Fig.  190.  - 


A  raft  of  lugs  Boating  down  the  Willamette  River  to  the  sawmills  at 
Portland,  which  is  seen  in  the  distance. 

there  is  much  other  manufacturing.  In- 
deed, the  rapid  development  of  manufac- 
turing in  the  cities  of  Puget  Sound  has 
been  one  cause  for  their  great  growth  and 
prosperity. 

The   cities   of   Puget    Sound,    especially 
Seattle,   have  the  bulk  of   the  trade    with 


Fig.  191.—  A  view  of  a  part  of  Seattle  from  the  harbor. 


though  smaller,  have  important  lumber  and 
other  industries.  There  is  a  large  smelter 
at  Tacoma,  to  which  ores  are  sent  from 
even  as   distant  a  point  as  Alaska ;    there 


Alaska,  as  well  as  much  commerce  with  the 
Orient,  to  which  steamers  ply  regularly 
from  Seattle.  To  these  Puget  Sound  jjorts 
most  of  the  gold,  salmon,  and  other  Alaskan 


142 


NORTH  AMERICA 


products  come,  and  from  them  the  regular 
Alaskan  steamers  sail,  carrying  many  miners 
and  other  passengers,  and  large  cargoes  of 
goods  for  use  in  that  Northern  territory. 
Seattle  is  the  place  of  outfitting  for  most  of 
the  people  who  go  to  Alaska ;  and  the  rapid 
development  of  that  territory  has  brought 
much  business  to  this  city,  whose  recent 
growth  has  been  remarkable.  Both  Tacoma 
and  Seattle  are  beautifully  situated  on  the 
shores  of  Puget  Sound,  and  from  both  the 
extinct  volcano,  Mount  Rainier,  is  plainly 
visible.  There  are  many  fine  public  build- 
ings  in   each   city,    and   in   Seattle  is  the 


Fig.  192.  —  A  street  in  a  small  town  in  New  Mexico,  with  adobe  houses  belongiu. 
to  the  Mexican  inhabitants. 


University  of  Washington,  one  of  the  most 
rapidly  growing  and  progressive  state  uni- 
versities of  the  West. 

Another  Pacific  coast  port  is  Gray  Harbor,  at 
the  mouth  of  Chehalis  River  in  Washington,  west 
of  the  capital  Olympia.  Transcontinental  rail- 
roads have  extended  their  lines  to  it,  and  there  is 
already  trade  in  lumber  and  grains  with  the  Orien- 
tal ports. 

When  this  Western  country  was  first 
settled,  it  was  divided  into  territories,  but 
Our  newest  as   tne    population    increased, 

states  these  territories  have  one  by 

one  been  admitted  into  the  Union  as  states. 
The  last  to  be  admitted  are  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  in  1912. 

There  are  many  fertile  valleys  in  these 
new  states  where  there  is  irrigation  ;  and,  in 


this  warm  climate,  wheat,  corn,  vegetables, 
alfalfa,  apples,  peaches,  grapes,  and  many 
other  crops  are  raised.  While  i.  Their  re- 
some  of  the  farming  is  carried  sources 
on  by  Mexicans  and  Indians,  best  results 
are  gained  by  Americans  who  own  a  large 
part  of  the  irrigated  land.  The  United 
States  government  is  spending  large  sums 
of  money  in  building  storage  reservoirs, 
and  in  improving  the  irrigation  systems  in 
other  ways,  so  that  many  settlers  are  find- 
ing valuable  farm  lands  here. 

The  plateaus  and  mountain  valleys  are 
the  seats  of  extensive  cattle  and  sheep 
ranching,  and,  as  we  have 
already  learned,  mining 
is  of  great  importance. 
Arizona,  besides  being 
second  in  the  production 
of  copper,  also  produces 
large  amounts  of  gold 
and  silver,  while  New 
Mexico  supplies  much 
gold,  silver,  and  coal. 

The  cities,  though  not 
of  great  size,  are  impor- 
tant   distrib-    „ 

2.   Their  cities 

utmg  centers 
for  the  surrounding 
country,  and  also  centers 
for  smelting  the  ores.  Among  the  most 
important  are  Tucson,  Prescott,  Bisbee, 
and  Phoenix  in  Arizona,  and  Albuquer- 
que, which  is  the  largest  city  in  New 
Mexico. 

Among  the  early  Spanish  settlements  is  Santa 
Fk,  the  capital  of  New  Mexico.  Here,  as  elsewhere, 
in  the  state,  the  houses  are  mostly  low,  one-story 
buildings  (Fig.  192)  made  of  sun-dried  bricks,  or 
adohe.  The  Spanish  language  is  most  commonly 
heard,  and  in  some  parts  one  still  sees  the  primitive 
customs  of  a  century  ago.  For  instance,  on  the 
small  Mexican  farms  near  by,  wheat,  instead  of 
being  threshed  out  by  machines,  is  in  some  cases 
spread  upon  the  ground  and  trampled  by  goats  until 
the  grain  is  separated  from  the  hull.  The  grain  is 
then  tossed  into  the  air  in  order  that  the  wind  may 
carry  away  the  chaff.  These  customs  form  a  very 
striking  contrast  to  those  introduced  into  most  parts 
of  the  region  by  progressive  Americans,  who  use  the 


THE    UNITED   STATES 


143 


3.   Their  Indian 
inhabitants 


most  approved  methods  of  farming  and  the  best  of 
farming  implements. 

This  is  the  region  in  which  some  of  the  most  civ- 
ilized Indiaus  once  lived  (p.  22)  ;  and  here  some 
of  their  descendants  still  occupy  In- 
dian reservations,  or  land  reserved 
for  them  by  the  government.  The 
Pueblo  Indians,  for  instance,  still  live  here  after  the 
manner  of  their  ancestors.  Their  homes,  called 
puelilos,  are  built  of  adobe,  and  in  some  cases  are 
entered  from  the  roof  by  means  of  a  ladder  (Fig.  37). 

The  pueblos  were  intended  as  strongholds  for 
the  storing  of  grain  and  for  protection  against 
wandering  tribes,  which  might  attack 
them  at  any  time.  Other  Indian 
houses,  the  cliff  dwellings,  were  built 
on  the  sides  of  cliffs  beneath  over- 
hanging ledges :  and  still  others, 
care  dwellings,  were  in  caves  dug 
out  of  the  rocks  bv  the  Indians  (Fig. 
193). 

Some  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  carry 
on  farming  by  irrigation,  as  their 
ancestors  did  before  the  white  men 
came ;  and  many  of  them  are  pros- 
perous farmers.  Other  Indians  on 
reservations  are  more  shiftless,  and 
the  government  has  to  help  them  to 
make  a  living.  The  same  is  true  of 
Indians  in  other  parts  of  the  West, 
for  there  are  Indian  reservations  in 
all  the  Western  States.  The  red 
men  are  no  longer  allowed  to  roam 
at  will,  but  must  live  on  the  land 
allotted  to  them  by  the  United 
States  government. 


the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  the  Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River,  and  the 
Yosemite  Park. 

The  Yellowstone  Park,  chiefly  in  Wyo- 
ming, is  a  tract  of  land,  larger  than  Connect- 
icut, which  the  government 
has  set  aside  as  a  national  park. 
It  is  often  called  the  "  Won- 
derland of  America."  A  stage 
road  leads  from  the  Northern 
Pacific    Railway    to    the     Mammoth 


2.   The  Yellow- 
stone Park 

(1)  Its  hot 
springs  and 
geysers 


Hot 


Scenery  in  the 
West 

1.   The  most 
noted  places 

formed  cliff 


In  many  places  among  the 
Western  mountains  are  scenes 
that  compare 
favorably  with  those  of  the 
Alps,  which  attract  so  many 
Americans  abroad.  Strangely 
i  deep  canyons,  and  imposing 
waterfalls  are  present  without  number. 
There  are  also  beautiful  snow-capped  vol- 
canic cones  and  glaciers.  Many  of  these 
grand  scenes  may  be  viewed  from  the  rail- 
way, as,  for  instance,  the  wonderful  gorges 
and  canyons  through  which  the  Denver  and 
Rio  Grande  Railway  winds  its  way  across 
Colorado.  Among  all  the  interesting  places 
in  the  West,  however,  are  three  that  easily 
surpass  the  others  in  grandeur.     These  are 


193.  —  The  cave  dwellings  of  the  southwest.    The  Indians  dug  these 
caves  out  of  the  solid  rock  and  lived  in  them. 


Springs  on  the  northern  side  of  the  park. 
There  is  also  a  stage  route  from  the  Oregon 
Short  Line  on  the  western  side.  At  the 
Hot  Springs  from  openings  in  the  hillside, 
heated  water  flows  down  over  beautifully 
colored  terraces,  which  have  been  built  by 
a  deposit  of  mineral  matter  carried  in  solu- 
tion in  the  hot  water.  Farther  on  are  boil- 
ing springs ;  also  boiling  mud  springs  of 
different  colors;  and  here  and  there  is  a 
spring,  called  a  geyser,  from  which  hot  water 
and  steam  now  and  then  burst  forth  with 
great  violence,  even  to  a  height  of  one  hun- 
dred or  two  hundred  feet  (Fig.  194). 


144 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  194 


Old  Faithful  "  geyser  in  eruption. 


"  Old  Faithful,"  one  of  the  most  regular  of  these 
geysers,  "plays"  at  intervals  of  sixty-five  minutes. 
Then  a  column  of  steam  and  hot  water  shoots  up- 
ward from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  thirty 
feet.  Other  geysers  discharge  at  much  longer  peri- 
ods, as  two  to  three  hours,  or  several  days ;  and  in 
some  of  the  geysers  the  roar  of  escaping  steam  lasts 
for  hours  after  the  water  has  all  been  expelled.  The 
outbursts  are  really  explosions  of  steam,  the  heat 
being  supplied  from  the  depths  of  the  earth.  Some 
of  the  springs  are  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  so 
that  a  visitor  must  be  on  the  lookout  lest  he  step 
into  one ;  others  are  surrounded  by  a  rim  several 
feet  high. 

Beyond   the    geyser   basins   the   Yellow- 
stone Lake  is  reached,  a  beauti- 
ful sheet  of  water,  nestled  in 
the    mountains,    nearly    eight 
thousand   feet  above    the   sea.     Its  waters 


(2)  lis  laic, 
falls,  and 
canyon 


flow    northward,   forming  the  Yellowstone 
River,  a  tributary  of  the  Missouri. 

To  many  persons,  the  falls  and  canyon  of  this 
river  are  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  park.  Soon 
after  leaving  the  lake,  the  stream  narrows  and 
quickens,  and  the  water  leaps  one  hundred  and  nine 
feet  directly  downward.  A  short  distance  farther 
on  it  tumbles  three  hundred  and  eight  feet,  or  almost 
twice  the  height  of  Niagara  (Fig.  195).  The  river 
then  runs  between  steep  walls,  which  rise  one  thou- 
sand feet  above  it.  This  canyon  is  somewhat  wind- 
ing, with  numerous  bold  cliffs  jutting  far  out  into 
the  abyss;  and  from  these  cliffs  grand  views  maybe 
obtained.  Far  below,  one  sees  the  silvery  stream, 
too  distant  to  be  heard  as  it  dashes  along.  Across 
the  chasm,  a  half  mile  awa}7,  dark  green  pines  fringe 
the  bank,  and  between  the  water  and  these  woods 
are  gorgeously  colored  rock  walls,  having  all  the  tints 
of  the  rainbow. 

In  this  park  hunting  is  prohibited,  and  for  that 

reason   wild  animals  are  numerous    ,„,   _  ,    1 

,  ..  A,r,  j  ■    ■         (3)  Its  animals 

and    quite    tame.       W  hen    driving 

through  the  park  one  can  sometimes  see  elk  by  the 


Fig.  195. 


-The  great  falls  of  the  Yellowstone,  three 
hundred  and  eight  feet  high. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


145 


roadside;  and  bears,  both  grizzly  and  black,  come 
close  to  camps  and  hotels  for  food.  There  are  many 
other  animals  here,  among  them  some  bison,  or 
buffalo  (Fig.  196). 

One  portion  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the 
Colorado,  in  Arizona,  maybe  reached  on  the 
3  The  Canyon  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
of  the  Colorado  Fe  Railway.  The  wonderful 
River  Yellowstone  Canyon,  just  de- 

scribed, and  the  canyons  on  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  in  Colorado  are  pygmies 
compared  with  this. 

As  one  first  looks  out  into  the  canyon,  he 
sees  nothing  but  rock  towers,  pinnacles, 
many  colored  layers  of  rock, 
and  apparently  bottomless 
depths.  When  he  finally 
reaches  a  point  from  which 
the  threadlike  stream  may  be 
spied  at  the  bottom  of  the 
abyss,  a  mile  below,  it  seems 
almost  impossible  that  so  little 
water  could  have  wrought 
such  mighty  havoc.  Yet 
this  river  has  been  slowly 
cutting  its  way  into  the  rocks 
for  thousands  of  centuries, 
and  this  great  gash,  or  can- 
yon, is  the  result. 


The  remarkable  Yosemite  Valley,  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains, in  California,  presents  4.  The  Yosemite 
very  different  views  from  those  Park 
just  described.  This  is  the  region  of  the 
High  Sierras,  a  region  of  deep  canyons  and 
granite  peaks,  one  of  which,  Mount  Whit- 
ney, 14,502  feet  high,  is  the  highest,  point 
in  the  United  States,  not  including  Alaska. 
Some  of  the  most  magnificent  views  in  the 
High  Sierras  are  formed  by  waterfalls  of 
the  Yosemite  Creek  and  Merced  River,  in 
Yosemite  Park.  In  one  mighty  leap  the 
water  descends  fifteen  hundred  feet,  form- 
ing the  Yosemite  Falls  (Fig.   197),  which 


The  difficult  path  which  leads 
to  the  bottom  of  the  canyon  is 
seven  miles  long,  and  the  trip 
down  and  back  is  a  full  day's 
journey;  but  without  making  it,  one  fails  to  ap- 
preciate fully  the  marvelous  carving,  sculpturing, 
and  coloring  of  the  canyon  walls.  At  the  bottom 
the  scene  is  entirely  changed;  and,  as  one  looks 
upward,  to  see  himself  shut  in  by  walls  which  seem 
to  extend  to  the  very  heavens,  his  own  littleness 
and  the  immensity  of  the  works  of  Nature,  are 
wonderfully  impressed  upon  him. 

For  three  hundred  miles  the  Colorado  River  flows 
at  the  bottom  of  this  deeply  cut  canyon,  which  forms 
a  very  complete  barrier  to  travelers.  A  person  living 
on  one  side,  where  he  could  see  across  to  the  other 
side,  ten  miles  away,  would  need  to  travel  hundreds 
of  miles  to  reach  that  side  ;  for  there  are  no  railways, 
roads,  or  paths  leading  across.  The  government  has 
set  aside  this  wonderland  also  as  a  national  park  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  people. 


Fig.  196.  —  Bison  feeding  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 


are  famed  the  world  over.  Below  this  are 
some  cascades,  then  another  fall  of  four 
hundred  feet. 

Only  a  few  miles  from  the  falls  are  the  giant 
trees  of  the  world,  the  largest  of  which  is  35  feet 
in  diameter  (Fig.  198)  and  300  feet  high.  The 
Yosemite  region,  like  the  Yellowstone,  is  a  public 
park,  and  is  visited  every  year  by  thousands  of 
people,  including  many  Europeans. 

It  would  require  a  great  many  pages  to  describe 

all  the  wonderful  scenes  in  Western  United  States, 

or  even  to  make  a  list  of  them.     But 

.  v.  j      t  iv.» j    5.  Other  scenic 

mention  must  be  made  ot  the  grand 

Shoshone  Falls  in  Idaho,  Lake  Che- 
lan in  Washington,  Lake  Tahoe  in  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vadas,  and  Crater  Lake  in  Oregon  —  the  great  crater 


146 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  197.  —  The  Yosemite  Valley,  bordered  by  lofty  granite  precipices,  over  one  portion  of  which  the  water  leaps 

to  form  the  far-famed  Yosemite  Falls. 


of  an  extinct  volcano  in 
now  situated.  Also  the 
the  slopes  of  Mount 
Rainier  with  its  beauti- 
ful valleys,  large  glaciers, 
and  grand  mountain 
scenery. 

1.  Tell  about  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  Cali- 
_     .  f  o  r  n  i  a. 

*e™w  2.    What 

Questions  ,, 

x  were  the 

effects  of  this  discovery? 

3.  Name  and  locate  the 
three  principal  moun- 
tain systems  in  the  West. 

4.  Describe  the  valleys 
between.  5.  Where  are 
volcanoes  found  ?  Of  > 
what  importance  is  the 
lava?  6.  What  about 
the  extent  of  the  arid 
lands?  7.  Where  are 
the  well-watered  •  sec- 
tions? State  some  facts. 
about   them.      8.   What 


which  a  beautiful  lake  is 
Rainier  National  Park  on 


Fig.  108.  —  One  of  the  "Big  Trees"  of  California  —  so 
large  that  a  wagon  road  passes  through  a  tunnel  cut 
in  its  trunk. 


minerals  are  found  here,  and  what  about  the  owner- 
ship of  the  mineral  lands?  9.  Describe  the  three 
methods  of  gold  mining. 
10.  What  can  you  tell 
about  noted  mining  dis- 
tricts in  Nevada?  11.  In 
Colorado?  12.  In  Mon- 
tana ?  13.  In  other  West- 
ern States?  14.  Where 
are  coal  and  petroleum 
found?  15.  What  use 
is  made  of  timber  in  the 
mines  ?  16.  Where  is 
the  timber  obtained,  and 
what  are  the  principal 
kinds  of  trees?  17.  De- 
scribe the  method  of 
lumbering  in  Washing- 
ton. 18.  What  is  done 
with  the  logs  and  with 
the  lumber  from  them? 
19.  Of  what  importano 
are  the  forest  reserva 
tions?  20.  AVhat  kind 
of  fish  are  caught,  and 
where?  21.  What  do 
you  know  about  agricul- 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


147 


ture  in  the  well-watered  Northwest  ?  22.  How  is 
irrigation  planned  near  Denver?  2:5.  What  about 
the  expense  of  such  irrigation,  and  its  advantages? 
21.  What  do  yon  know  about  agriculture  by  irriga- 
tion in  Utah?  25.  In  southern  California  ?  26.  In 
other  sections?  27.  How  is  the  United  States 
government   assisting   in   irrigation    in    the   West? 

28.  How     is    sheep     ranching     carried     on     here  ? 

29.  What  are  the  different  sources  of  profit  in  that 
business?  30.  What  is  the  extent  of  manufacturing 
in  the  West?  31.  Name  the  principal  kinds  of 
manufacturing.  32.  What  are  the  conveniences  for 
transportation  of  goods  ?  33.  State  the  principal 
facts  about  Denver  and  vicinity.  34.  Pueblo. 
35.  Spokane.  36.  Butte,  Anaconda,  and  Great  Falls. 
37.  Other  cities  and  towns  in  the  interior.  38.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  cities  about  San  Francisco 
Bay.  39.  AY  hat  goods  are  manufactured  in  them? 
40.  What  about  the  shipping  at  this  point  ?  41.  State 
the  important  facts  about  the  coast  cities  south  of 
San  Francisco.  42.  About  Portland  and  vicinity. 
43.  About  the  cities  on  Puget  Sound.  44.  Name 
our  two  newest  states,  and  tell  about  their  re- 
sources. 45.  Name  and  locate  their  principal  cities. 
46.  What  can  you  tell  about  their  Indian  inhab- 
itants? 47.  Name  and  locate  the  places  in  the 
West  most  noted  for  scenery.  48.  Describe  Yellow- 
stone Park.  49.  The  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River. 
50.   The  Yosemite  Park. 

Montana  (Mont.).  1.  What  industries  are  car- 
ried  on   in    the   eastern   part?     Why?     2.    In   the 

f      .       „  western    part  ?     3.    Name   the  chief 

Review  Ques-        ...      .     i,     .  ,  ,   ,,  ,  , 

,     \.  cities  in  Montana,  and  tell  how  each 

tions  by  States    .     .  .     ,,r.     ,  , 

is   important.     4.    \\  hat   two   large 

rivers  drain  this  section  ?  5.  Through  what  states 
do  they  flow  before  reaching  the  Gulf?  6.  Draw 
an  outline  map  of  the  state  and,  as  each  of  the  other 
states  is  studied,  do  the  same  for  that. 

Wyoming  (Wv.).  7.  What  industries  are  carried 
on  in  this  state?  8.  What  cities  are  mentioned? 
In  what  connection?  9.  Find  the  Yellowstone  Park, 
and  tell  for  what  it  is  noted.  10.  This  state  is  rep- 
resented as  having  little  grain,  on  the  maps  show- 
ing the  principal  grain-producing  regions  (Figs.  249 
and  251).     Why? 

Colorado  (Col.  or  Colo.).  11.  Examine  Figures 
249  to  274  to  see  what  are  the  industries  of  Colorado. 
12.  Why  is  there  more  water  for  irrigation  in  this 
state  than  in  some  of  the  others?  13.  Trace  the 
divide  between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  drainage, 
as  it  crosses  Colorado.  Trace  it  northward  to  Can- 
ada and  southward  to  Mexico.  14.  Name  the  cities 
in  Colorado  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  tell  how  each, 
is  important.  15.  Find  the  population  of  Denver 
(Appendix,  p.  427).  Compare  it  with  that  of  other 
large  cities  in  the  Western  States ;  also  with  that  of 
New  Orleans  and  of  Buffalo. 

New  Mexico  (N.M.).     16.    What  about  the   in- 


habitants?    17.   What  is  said  about  the  industries? 

18.  How  large  is  the  largest  city  (Appendix,  p.  427)  ? 

19.  Compare  it  as  to  population  with  the  largest 
city  in  Massachusetts  ;  in  Nevada. 

Arizona  (Ariz.).  20.  What  can  you  tell  about 
the  large  river  that  crosses  Arizona?  21.  What 
cities  and  industries  are  mentioned?  22.  What 
minerals  are  obtained  here?  23.  How  does  the 
largest  city  compare  in  size  with  the  largest  in  New 
Mexico?  In  Colorado?  24.  Find  the  population 
of  Arizona.     Of  New  Mexico. 

Nevada  (Nev.).  25.  For  what  mines  was  Nevada 
famous?  26.  Find  its  present  population  (Appen- 
dix^. 425).  Whyare  there  so  few  people?  27.  What 
about  its  present  industries?  28.  How  may  the 
government  irrigation  work  be  of  special  value  to  this 
state  ? 

Utah.  29.  Why  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake  salt? 
30.  What  are  the  industries  of  this  state  ?  31.  What 
cities  are  mentioned?  Tell  about  each.  32.  Exam- 
ine the  maps,  Figures  249  to  274,  to  see  what  prod- 
ucts come  from  Utah. 

Idaho  (Ida.).  33.  What  metals  are  obtained? 
(See  Figs.  263  to  273.)  34.  What  great  river  drains 
Idaho  ?  35.  What  mountain  range  forms  the  east- 
ern boundary  ? 

Washington  (Wash.).  36.  Compare  the  coast  line 
with  that  of  Oregon ;  of  Maine.  37.  What  about 
the  rainfall  of  this  state?  Compare  it  with  that  of 
Montana  (Fig.  303).  Why  this  difference?  38.  What 
effect  has  the  rainfall  upon  the  industries?  What 
are  the  principal  industries?  39.  What  cities  are 
mentioned  in  the  text?  What  can  you  tell  about 
each  ? 

Oregon  (Ore.).  40.  AA'hat  advantage  do  you  see 
in  the  location  of  the  largest  city  ?  41.  Compare  it 
in  size  with  Denver;  New  Orleans.  42.  Examine 
the  maps  (Figs.  249  to  274)  to  see  what  is  produced 
in  Oregon.  43.  AVhat  industries  are  mentioned  in 
the  text?  44.  AAThat  cities  are  mentioned,  and  in 
what  connection  ? 

California  (Cal.).     45.    AA'hat  about  the  rainfall  ? 

46.  AA'hat   two   rivers    drain    most  of   this  state? 

47.  Describe  the  relief.  48.  Name  the  cities  men- 
tioned ;  for  what  is  each  important?  49.  AA'hat 
industries  are  found  in  this  state?  50.  AVhat 
advantage  do  you  see  in  the  location  of  San  Fran- 
cisco? 51.  Compare  its  population  with  that  of 
Boston;  Denver.  52.  AA'hat  caused  the  early 
growth  of  California?  AA'hat  effect  has  that  had  on 
other  AYestern  States  ? 

53.  AYhich  state  has  the  largest  population  (Ap- 
pendix, p.  425)  ?  The  smallest?  54.  Compare  each  of 
these  two  with  Massachusetts  and 
New  York  in  population.  55.  Name  General  Review 
and  locate  the  eight  largest  cities  "  l  ns 
(Appendix,  p.  427).  56.  AA'hich  of  the  five  groups 
of   states  has  the  densest  population    (Fig.   246)  ? 


148 


NOltTII  AMERICA 


Which   the   least    dense?     What  reasons   can    yon 
give  ? 


Suggestions 


1.  Read  about  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark 
from  St.  Louis  to  the  Pacific  coast  in  1803-1806. 
2.  Find  out  about  the  early  settle- 
ment and  dispute  about  the  owner- 
ship of  Oregon.  3.  What  is  the  origin  of  the 
expression  "  to  pan  out  "  ?  4.  Why  do  the  heavier 
rains  on  the  northern  Pacific  coast  come  in  win- 
ter? 5.  Mention  several  of  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  having  no  rain  for  several  months 
at  a  time,  as  in  southern  California.  6.  Make  a 
collection  of  minerals  for  the  school.  7.  Hydraulic 
mining  has  been  largely  prohibited  in  many  parts 


Flo.  200.  —  Scene  after  a  winter  snowstorm  on  the  Alaskan  coast. 


of  the  West.  Why?  8.  Should  the  ditch  that  is 
to  irrigate  a  certain  field  skirt  its  upper  or  lower 
edge?  Why?  9.  Which  is  the  more  easily  irri- 
gated, nearly  level  land,  or  land  that  is  rough  and 
hilly?  Why?  10.  Is  southern  California  as  liable 
to  cold  snaps  as  Florida?  Why?  11.  Make  a  list 
of  articles  made  of  wool.  12.  In  what  year  were 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  admitted  into  our  Union 
as  states?  13.  Write  a  story  describing  an  imagi- 
nary visit  to  southern  California.  14.  Make  a 
drawing  of  the  Western  States,  putting  in  the  prin- 
cipal mountain  ranges,  rivers,  and  cities. 

1.   Name  the  principal  crops  of  the  United  States, 

and   tell   in   which   section  each  is 

General  Review  raised.       (Consult    figures    249    to 

Questions  for       050.)     o.    Do  the  same  for  mjne,.al 

United  States      products.     3.   For   other  raw  prod- 


ucts. 4.  For  manufactured  articles.  5.  Name  the 
ten  largest  cities  in  their  order  (Appendix,  p.  426). 
For  what  is  each  important?  6.  State  some  ways 
in  which  the  rainfall  influences  the  occupations  of 
the  people.  7.  The  temperature.  8.  State  clearly 
the  influence  of  the  sinking  of  the  coast.  9.  Of  the 
glacial  period.  10.  Of  the  coal  period.  11.  Of  the 
absence  of  forests  on  the  prairies.  12.  Of  the  rich 
mineral  deposits  in  the  West.  13.  In  what  ways 
have  the  Great  Lakes  been  of  value?  14.  Name 
some  of  the  cities  that  have  been  benefited  by  them. 
15.  In  what  ways  have  the  Mississippi  River  and  its 
two  largest  tributaries  been  of  value?  16.  State 
some  of  the  natural  advantages  that  have  aided  the 
growth  of  Boston  ;  New  York ;  Buffalo  ;  Philadel- 
phia ;  Baltimore;  New  Orleans; 
Cleveland  ;  Pittsburgh  ;  Detroit ; 
Chicago ;  St.  Louis ;  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. 17.  Can  you  name  some 
other  cities  that  have  also  been 
influenced  by  their  surroundings? 
18.  Which  is  the  largest  state 
(Appendix,  pp.  425-426)?  The 
second  in  size?  The  smallest?  The 
next  to  the  smallest?  19.  Which 
state  has  the  largest  population 
(Appendix,  p.  425)  ?  The  second 
largest?  The  smallest?  Next  to 
the  smallest?  20.  What  states 
border  Mexico  ?  Canada?  Draw  a 
map  of  the  United  States. 


IV.  Territories  and 
Dependencies  of  the 
United  States 

At  the  close  of  the  Kevo- 
lutionary  War  the  United 
States  consisted  of  thirteen 
small  colonies,  extending  along  Our  increase 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  of  territory 
to  Georgia.  Our  new  nation  laid  claim 
also  to  the  land  far  into  the  wilderness, 
even  to  the  distant  Mississippi.  Beyond 
this  was  French  and  Spanish  territory, 
while  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  was  oc- 
cupied by  Indians. 

By  purchase,  by  war,  and  by  treaty,  we 
have  gained  possession  of  all  the  other  land 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  which 
has  thus  far  been  described  ;  but  our  con- 
trol does  not  end  with  the  boundaries  of 
the  United  States  proper.     In  1867  we  ob- 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


149 


How  obtained 
and  how  the 
purchase  was 
regarded 


tained  Alaska.  In  1808  Hawaii  was  an- 
nexed as  a  territory  and  a  number  of  other 
islands  came  into  our  possession.  Since 
these  lands  form  a  part  of  the  territory  con- 
trolled by  our  government,  a  study  of  them 
may  come  at  this  point. 

i.  Alaska 

For  a  long  time  Alaska,  which  is  more 
than  twice  as  large  as  Texas,  belonged  to 
Russia.  In  1867  that  nation 
sold  the  territory  to  us  for 
67,200,000.  At  the  time  many 
people  thought  it  very  unwise 
to  pa}'  so  large  a  sum  for  so  distant  and  des- 
olate a  land.  However, 
it  lias  already  proved  of 
great  value,  and  has 
paid  for  itself  many 
times  over. 

Since  the  Arctic  Circle 
crosses  the  northern  part 
of  Alaska, 
it  will  be 
seen  that  the  climate  of 
much  of  the  territory 
must  be  severe.  The 
winters  are  long  and 
cold,  and  the  summers 
short  and  cool. 

A  strip  of  coast  land 
extends  southeastward  from  the  main  penin- 
sula of  Alaska,  and  to  this  the  west  winds 
bring  an  abundance  of  rain  and  snow  (Fig. 
200).  Since  these  winds  blow  from  the 
ocean,  they  make  the  winters  much  warmer 
than  in  the  northern  part  of  the  territory. 

A  large  part  of  Alaska  is  mountainous, 
for  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  United  States 
and  western  Canada  extend 
northward  into  this  territory. 
Among  these  mountains  are 
the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  con- 
tinent, the  highest  yet  discovered  being 
Mount  McKinley,  which  is  20,46-1  feet  high. 

The  long  peninsula  and  the  chain  of  Aleutian  Is- 
lands, which  form  the  southern  boundary  of   Ber- 


ing Sea,  are  really  a  growing  mountain  chain  1600 
miles  in  length.  Altogether  there  are  57  volcanoes 
in  this  chain,  some  of  them  still  active  ;  and  all  along 
the  Alaskan  coast  earthquakes  are  frequent,  because 
the  mountains  are  still  rising. 

The  snows  are  so  heavy  that  most  of  the 
mountains  are  snow-covered  throughout 
the  year  (Fig.  201)  ;  and  hun- 
dreds of  glaciers  descend 
through  the  mountain  valleys,  some  even 
entering  the  sea  and  breaking  off  to  form 
icebergs.  The  largest  glaciers  on  the  con- 
tinent are  found  iu  this  section.  One  of 
the  best  known  of  these,  the  Muir  Glacier, 
is  located  not  far  north  of  Sitka. 

There  are  so  many  islands  along  the  coast 


£.   The  scenery 


The  climate 


Surface  of 
the  land 

1.  Extent  of 
the  mountains 


Fig.  201.  —  The  suuw-capped  mountains  near  Mount  Saint  Elias,  Alaska.  In  the 
middle  of  the  picture  is  a  glacier  which  descends  to  the  sea,  discharging  icebergs 
from  a  cliff  over  a  mile  and  a  half  long  and  250  feet  high. 


that,  for  a  thousand  miles,  the  steamers 
sail  between  lofty,  forest-covered  mountain 
walls,  with  snow-capped  peaks  in  the  back- 
ground, and  upon  waters  whose  surface  is 
as  quiet  as  a  lake.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  ocean  voyages  in  the  world,  and 
the  reason  for  it  is  that  the  sinking  of  the 
land  has  allowed  the  sea  to  enter  the 
branching  mountain  valleys,  changing  them 
to  long,  narrow,  arms  of  the  sea,  or  fiords, 
almost  cut  off  from  the  ocean. 

Among     the     resources     of  _        .  „  . 

Present  tnriV" 
Alaska,  as  in  the  case  of  other  ^    industries 

far   Northern   lands,  those   of  j    Fishing 

the  sea  are    especially  impor-   (1)  Catching  of 

tant.      On  the  shallow  banks,   foodfish 


150 


NORTH  AMERICA 


and  along  the  coast,  are  many  cod  and 
halibut,  for  which  vessels  now  go  from 
Seattle  and  ports  further  south.  These 
fish  are  caught  in  large  quantities,  some 
being  sold  even  in  the  Eastern  States. 


Every  year  steamers,  specially  built  for  the  pur- 
pose, venture  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  through  Bering 
Strait  in  search  of  the  whale.  Few  ships  are  now 
engaged  in  this  dangerous  occupation,  for  the  whale 
is  much  less  common  than  formerly.  The  ships  are 
obliged  to  push  their  way  into  they?oe  ice,  in  which 
they  are  in  danger  of  being  crushed 
by  the  pressure  of  the  ice,  as  it  is 
moved  about  by  the  current. 

Men  take  all  these  risks  in  order 
to  secure  the  valuable  whalebone 
that  grows  in  the  whale's  mouth. 
This  bone  has  a  coarse,  haiiiike 
fringe  on  its  margin  which  serves 
to  strain  out  of  the  water  the  small 
sea  animals  on  which  the  huge 
monster  feeds.  Another  product  is 
the  blubber,  or  layer  of  fat,  that  lies 
beneath  the  skin  and  keeps  the 
whale  warm  even  in  the  waters  of 
the  frozen  Arctic.  This  blubber  is 
made  into  oil ;  and  before  kerosene 
was  made,  whale  oil  was  much  used 
for  lights. 


Fig.  202.  —  Picture  of  a  whale,  the  largest  of  auinials. 


i  ..Still  more  important,  at  present,  is  sal- 
mon fishing.  Here,  as  in  the  Columbia  River 
(p.  127),  the  salmon  run  up  the  streams 
every  summer.  Sometimes  the  streams  are 
almost  full  of  these  fish,  all  struggling  to 
get  up  to  the  place  where  the  eggs  are  laid. 
It  is  a  wonderful  sight  to  see 
such  a  salmon  "run,"  as  it  is 
called.  Immense  quantities  of 
Alaskan  salmon  are  canned  at 
canneries  scattered  along  the 
coast.  The  Alaskan  steamers 
are  loaded  with  canned  salmon 
every  fall,  taking  them  to 
Seattle  or  other  ports,  for  ship- 
ment to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Another   ocean   animal   found   in 

Alaskan  waters  is  the  whale.     This 

,„,  „.,    ,.  animal    (Fig.    202"), 

(2)  Whaling  ...     .  v     °     ,.     '' 

which   is    sometimes 

over  a  hundred  feet  long,  is  really 

a  land  animal  that  has  taken  up  life  in  the  sea,  as 

seals  and   walruses   have  done.     Therefore,  unlike 

the  true  fishes,  which   secure   air   from  the  water 

by  means  of  their  gills,  the  whale  must  now  and 

then  rise  to  the  surface  for  air.     It  is  when  rising  to 

breathe,  or  "  blow,"  that  the  huge  creatures  are  killed. 


(3)  Sealing 


Many  different  kinds  of  seals 
are  found  along  the  Alaskan  coast.  One 
of  these,  the  fur  seal,  which 
lives  in  Bering  Sea,  is  of  great 
value  because  of  its  soft  fur,  which  is  much 
used  for  winter  coats.  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  the  fur  seals  swim  about  in 


Fig.  203.  —  A  group  of  fur  seals  on  the  shore  of  the  Pribilof  Islands. 

search  of  food ;  but  in  the  spring,  during 
the  breeding  season,  they  resort  to  the 
Pribilof  Islands  (Fig.   203). 

The  United  States  government  prohibits  all  per- 
sons from  killing  the  fur  seal,  except  one  company, 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


151 


which  pays  a  special  tax  for  the  privilege  of  securing 
a  certain  number  each  year.  At  the  proper  season 
the  men  select  a  number  of  seals  and  drive  them  off 
for  slaughter,  much  as  sheep  would  be  driven.  There 
are  so  few  of  these  seals,  and  they  are  so  easily  killed, 
that  if  the  government  did  not  protect  them,  all 
would  soon  be  destroyed. 

At  present  the  fisheries  are  by  far  the 
most  important  of  Alaskan  industries. 
Thus  far  their  products 
have  amounted  in  value  to 
over  $150,000,000,  nearly 
one  half  of  which  has  been 
received  for  the  salmon. 

Valuable  as  the  fisheries 
are,  it  is  the  minerals,  espe- 
„   „.  .  cially  gold,  that 

2.   Mining  ,         J  °,      '         , 

have  attracted 
most  attention  to  Alaska. 
In  1896  rich  gold  deposits 
were  discovered  in  the 
gravels  of  a  small  stream, 
the  Klondike,  a  tributary  to 
the  Yukon  River  in  Canada, 
just  across  the  Alaskan 
boundary.  In  a  single  year 
fifty  thousand  men  rushed 
to  this  new  gold  field  (Fig. 
204),  as  people  did  to  Cali- 
fornia in  1849. 

Since  then  gold  has  been 
found  in  many  parts  of 
Alaska,  as  at  Nome,  in  the 
Tanana  Valley,  and  else- 
where ;  and  every  year 
thousands  of  men  go  there.  But  most  of 
them  return  in  the  fall,  partly  to  escape 
the  cold  winter,  and  partly  because  the 
gravels  cannot  be  washed  when  the  ground 
is  frozen.  In  some  places,  where  the  ground 
is  frozen  even  in  summer,  it  has  been  neces- 
sary to  thaw  it  out  by  means  of  fires  before 
the  gravel  could  be  washed.  In  1910,  Alaska 
ranked  fourth  in  the  production  of  gold  in 
the  Union,  the  value  of  the  output  being 
over  816,000,000  (Fig.  272). 

One  great  difficulty  has  been  to  reach  the  gold 
fields  and   to  carry  supplies  to   them.     The   early 


miners  were  exposed  to  great  hardships  on  their 
journey  to  the  Klondike  region.  Now,  however,  by 
the  help  of  a  short  railway  across  the  mountains, 
one  can  go  into  the  interior  of  Alaska  much  more 
easily.  In  summer  many  go  up  the  Yukon  River 
in  boats ;  but  this  is  impossible  in  winter  when  the 
river  is  frozen.  Trace  this  course.  How  does  the 
Yukon  River  compare  in  size  with  the  Ohio  (Ap- 
pendix, p.  431)? 

Partly  because  of  the  difficulty  of  taking  in  sup- 


Fig.  204.  —  Miners  fording  the  icy  waters  of  an  Alaskan  river  on  the  way  to 
Klondike.  Two  of  them  are  harnessed  in  a  wagon  containing  their 
supplies. 


plies  and  machinery,  there  has,  as  yet,  been  little 
gold  mining  in  the  solid  rock.  There  are,  however, 
some  such  mines  already  opened,  the  largest  being 
on  Douglas  Island  near  Juneau,  where  there  is 
the  largest  stamp  mill  in  the  world.  Nor  has  there 
been  much  mining  of  other  minerals,  although  enor- 
mous deposits  of  copper  and  coal  are  known  to  exist 
in  Alaska. 


No    doubt  the   salmon   industry  will  in- 
crease   in    importance    in    the 
future. 
the    minino;.       When,    as    at 

°     ,.         ,  ,        1.   In  connection 

present,   supplies   have   to    be  with  fishing  and 
drawn  in  by  dogs,  or  on  the  mining 


c   Prospects  for 
Tins   is    true  also  of  the  fFuture 


152 


NORTH  AMERICA 


backs  of  men  or  of  horses,  even  across 
glaciers  and  lofty  mountains,  the  expense 
of  transportation  is  ver}'  great.  However, 
railroads  are  now  being  built  to  the  richest 
gold  and  copper  regions  ;  and  when  these 
are  finished,  the  amount  of  metal  mined 
will  be  greatly  increased. 

There  are  other  valuable  resources  in 
Alaska.  Among  them  are  the  extensive  for- 
2.  in  connection  ests'  especially  along  the  south- 
with  other  eastern  coast,  and  in  some  of  the 

resources  warmer  valleys  of  the  interior. 

Although  the  country  is  very  mountainous,  there  is 
much  good  soil;  and  in  some  places  the  climate  is 
suitable  to  farming.  Besides,  even  where  the  sum- 
mers are  too  short  for  crops,  grass  often  grows 
luxuriantly.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  raise  sheep 
and  cattle  here,  and  no  doubt  this  will  some  day  be 
one  of  the  industries  of  Alaska. 

Reindeer  also  thrive  in  this  country.  On  the 
tundras  in  northern  Asia  the  reindeer  is  a  domestic 
animal,  supplying  the  people  with  meat,  milk,  and 
hides,  besides  serving  as  a  draft  animal.  The  rein- 
deer has  already  been  introduced  into  the  tundras 
of  Alaska,  and  will  make  it  possible  for  people  to 
live  there  much  more  comfortably. 

There  is  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  Alaska 
will  prove  much  more  valuable  to  us  in  the 
future  than  it  has  thus  far  been. 

In  such  a  new  country  there  are,  of 
course,  no  large  cities.  The  oldest  and 
Principal  best  known  is  the  quaint  town 

towns  of  Sitka,  the  former  capital. 

Juneau,  which  was  made  the  capital  a  few 
years  ago,  besides  being  near  valuable  gold 
mines,  is  on  the  route  to  the  Klondike.  It 
is,  therefore,  an  important  center.  Not  far 
north  is  Skagway,  where  miners  leave  the 
steamer  to  take  the  White,  Pass  Railway  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Yukon. 

There  are  also  many  mining  towns,  such  as 
Dawson,  in  the  Klondike  region  of  Canada,  and 
Nome,  on  Bering  Sea.  In  1898,  the  beach  sands  at 
Nome  were  found  to  contain  gold,  and  in  a  single 
season  a  good-sized  city  had  grown  on  the  beach. 
Large  numbers  of  men  lived  in  tents,  and  others  in 
rough  wooden  shanties.  In  1900,  there  were  over 
twelve  thousand  people  here ;  but  ten  years  later, 
there  were  only  about  one  sixth  as  many.  In  such 
a  mining  district  a  town  may  grow  up  in  a  year  and 
become  deserted  in  a  single  season. 


2.    Porto  Rico  and  Cuba 

We  have  just  seen  that  the  United  States 

has  secured  possession  of  distant  Northern 

lands  ;  it  has  still  more  recently 

.    .  .       r  J    Their  history 

come     into     control    of    some 

tropical  islands.     As    a   result  of  our  war 

with  Spain,  in  1898,  Porto  Rico  was  ceded 

to  the  United  States  and  Cuba  was  given 

its  independence,  under  the  general  guidance 

of  the  United  States. 

Since  that  time,  Porto  Rico  has  made 
great  advance ;  but  Cuba  has  not  done  so 
well.  After  the  war,  our  government 
occupied  Cuba  for  a  while,  then  handed 
over  the  control  to  the  Cuban  people,  who 
established  a  republican  form  of  government. 
But  soon  trouble  arose,  and  in  1906  the 
United  States  had  to  interfere  again.  In 
1909  the  Cubans  were  again  given  control. 
Cuba  is  not  a  dependency  of  our  country, 
as  Porto  Rico  is,  but  the  United  States  has 
a  right  to  interfere  there  when  it  seems 
necessary  in  order  to  preserve  peace.  Since 
it  is  thus  under  our  jDrotection,  we  are  more 
interested  in  Cuba  than  in  other  islands 
of  the  West  Indies,  with  the  exception  of 
Porto  Rico  ;  and  it  seems  better  to  describe 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  together  than  to  class 
Cuba  with  the  other  West  Indian  Islands 
in  which  we  have  no  special  interest. 

Cuba  is  the  largest  island  in  the  West 
Indies,  being  nearly  as  large  as  Pennsyl- 
vania, although  much  longer  Area  and  sur- 
and  narrower.  Porto  Rico  is  face  features 
somewhat  smaller  than  Connecticut.  Each 
of  these  islands  is  quite  mountainous,  the 
peaks  in  Cuba  ranging  from  2000  to  4000 
feet  above  sea  level,  while  one  of  them 
reaches  an  altitude  of  8600  feet. 

Both  islands  lie  entirely  within  the  trop- 
ical zone,  and  on  the  lowlands  neither  snow 
nor  frost  are  known.  Ou  ac- 
count of  the  warm  climate 
many  people  from  the  United  States  go  to 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  to  spend  the  winter. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  rain  in  most 
parts  of   the  islands  ;    but   the  rainfall   is 


Climate 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


153 


especially  heavy  on  the  northeastern,  or 
windward,  slopes,  where  the  damp  winds, 
which  blow  from  the  northeast,  first  reach 
the  land.  The  summer  is  the  rainiest  sea- 
son, for  then  the  winds  blow  with  greatest 
strength  and  steadiness. 

While  there  are  mountain  ranges  in  each 
of  the  islands,  a  large  portion  of  Porto 
Rico  and  Cuba  lias  been  cleared 
and  cultivated.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  Porto  Rico,  which  is  really 
an  island  of  farms.  Crops  grow  luxuriantly 
partly  because  of  the  excellent  soil,  and 
partly  because  of  the  favorable  climate. 
Indeed,  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry  on 
both  islands. 

As  in  all  the  West  Indies,  the  principal 
crop  is  sugar  cane  (Fig.  207),  and  the 
1.  The  f ann  industry  is  carried  on  much  as 
products  it   is    in    Louisiana   (p.    75). 

A  second  important  crop  is  tobacco,  for 
which  Cuba  is  especially  noted.  Tobacco 
is  also  raised  extensively  in  Porto  Rico. 
At  Havana,  and  other  places,  it  is  manu- 
factured   into    cigars,    which    bring    high 


allspice.  Such  fruits  as  bananas,  oranges, 
limes,  pineapples  (Fig.  208),  and  cocoanuts 
are  grown  in  great  quantities ;    and  there 


,■;- 

Bob  .-.. 

**-  ^^Tzfor* 

^~>0^| 

WSi'-^mBS 

.  \  am 

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1 

^sPwSjj&v 

X3£3 

Fig.  20f>.  — A  native  hut  in  Cuba. 

are  also  many  vegetables.     There  is  much 
pasture,  too,  and  man)'  cattle  are  raised. 

Our  soil  and  climate  have  enabled  us  to 
raise  almost  all  the  farm  products  that  we 
have  needed,  except  such  as  2  Theirspeciai 
may  be  produced  within  these  value  to  the 

islands.         They    United  States 

can  send  us  tea,  coffee,  sugar, 
spices,  and  tropical  fruits. 
They  can  also  send  us  fruits 
and  vegetables  in  midwinter. 
Thus  it  is  of  great  value  to 
us  that  we  have  such  close 
relations  with  these  islands. 

When    first    settled,   the    West 
Indies   were    covered    by   a   dense 


tropical  forest,  and 


Other  raw 


Fio.  207. 


-A  train  on  a  sugar  plantation  in  Porto  Rico  drawing  the  sugar 
cane  to  the  sugar  mill. 


prices, — the   Havana    cigar  being    consid- 
ered the  best  that  is  made. 

Upon  the  hillslopes  much  coffee  is  pro- 
duced, and  some  tea  and  cocoa.  Spices, 
including  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and  ginger, 
are  products  of  the  West  Indies ;  also  pep- 
per,   cardamom,    vanilla,    and    pimento    or 


some  of  the  woods 

...  .  products 

still  remain,  espe- 
cially among  the  higher  mountains. 
In  Cuba,  for  instance,  there  is  still 
much  valuable  timber,  such  as  ma- 
hogany, ebony,  and  fustic,  which 
produces  a  valuable  yellow  dye. 

Besides  the  raw  products  of  the  soil,  there  is  some 
mineral  wealth  in  Cuba.  Copper  is  found  here,  and 
also  iron,  the  latter  having  been  mined  for  a  long 
time  in  the  neighborhood  of  Santiago. 

Railways  connect  some  of  the  cities,  and 
also  reach  out  into  the  agricultural  districts, 


154 


NORTH  AMERICA 


thus  serving  to  bring  the  crops  to  the  chief 
ports  for  shipment.  However,  many  of  the 
Conveniences  towns  are  not  connected  by 
for  transpor-  rail  ;  and  since  there  are  few 
tation  good  wagon  roads,  they  have 

almost  no  communication  with  the  outside 
world,  except  by  boat. 

During  its  occupation  of  Cuba,  the  United  States 
has  had  one  good  macadam  road  built  from  the  east- 
ern to  the  western  end  of  the  island.  Steamboat 
lines  now  run  from  American  ports  to  Havana  and 


0 

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h'^> 

-O** 

m 

■rP 

B^L^i 

g^^*-^  JmW^^^l 

/^ 

£*j£ 

.     ^..  .    ^H :                 

Fig.  208.  —  Pineapples  growing  in  Porto  Rico 

other  West  Indian  ports.  Thus  the  United  States  has 
done  much  to  improve  the  conveniences  for  the  trans- 
portation of  goods;  and  by  that  means  a  much  better 
market  is  secured  for  the  products  of  these  islands. 

Owing  partly  to  lack  of  coal,  and  partly 
to  the  bad  government  of  the  Spaniards, 
Principal  there  has  been  very  little  inanu- 

cities  facturing.       There   are,   how- 

ever, several  important  cities  along  the 
coast.  The  largest  of  these  is  Havana, 
in  Cuba,  for  a  long  time  the  center  of  the 
Spanish  rule  in  America.  Another  Cuban 
city  is  Santiago,  where  the  Spanish  ships 
were  sunk  in  the  war  of  1898 ;  and  a  third 
is  Matanzas. 

The  two  principal  cities  of  Porto  Rico 
are  San  Juan,  on  the  northern  coast,  and 
Ponce,  on  the  southern.  The  former  is  the 
largest  city  and  capital  of  the  island. 

Portions  of  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  are 
densely  populated,  although  in  Cuba's  wars 


with  Spain  thousands  upon  thousands  were 
killed  in  battle  or  starved  to  death.     Much 
property    was    destroyed,   and  inhabitants 
altogether  the    island    was   so  of  the  Islands 
badly  governed  that  it  will  be  many  years 
before  a  full  tide  of  prosperity  returns. 

Many  of  the  natives  are  of  mixed  blood. 
The  Indians  did  not  prove  good  slaves  to 
their  Spanish  conquerors,  and  negro  slaves 
were  brought  from  Africa.  Therefore, 
while  pure-blooded  Spaniards  are  numer- 
ous, many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  are 
negroes,  either  full  blooded  or 
half-breeds.  Under  Spanish 
rule  these  natives  were  very 
poor  and  densely  ignorant ; 
but  they  are  capable  of  ad- 
vance under  proper  guidance. 

3.    Panama  Canal  Zone 
(Fig.  209) 

One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing regions  controlled  by  the 
United  States  its  location 
is  the  Panama  and  extent 
Canal  Zone,  a  strip  of  land  and  water  about 
fifty  miles  long  and  ten  miles  wide.  This 
zone  extends  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  across 
the  isthmus  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  in- 
cludes some  other  land  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
canal  and  the  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Panama. 
According  to  a  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Republic  of  Panama,  the 
government  of  this  zone  is  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  United  States  for  an  unlimited 
time. 

At  the  entrance  to  the  Canal,  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  is  located  the  city  of  Colon, 
formerly  called  Aspinwall.  It  its  cities  and 
is  a  city  with  large  shipping  ports, 
docks  and  well-paved  streets.  The  shipping 
business  is  very  important.  French,  Ger- 
man, English  and  American  passenger  boats 
call  here  regularly,  and  freight  vessels  from 
many  nations  are  daily  seen  at  Cristobal, 
the  port  just  at  the  entrance  to  the  Canal. 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 


155 


1 

6} 


TABOQUILLA^J 

un»V' 
TABOG*X^r 


WiUIaml  EmcmlDiCo..  H*w  Tork 


Fig.  209.  —  Jlap  of  Panama  Canal  Zone. 


Panama,  across  the  isthmus,  at  the  south 
end  of  the  Canal  Zone,  but  only  two  hours 
away,  is  a  splendid  city  of  old  fortifications, 
monuments,  and  churches.  It  is  the  central 
market  for  most  of  the  native  products  and 
the  distributing  point  for  the  entire  isthmus. 
Near  the  city,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Canal, 
is  Port  Ancox,  where  the  large  ocean- 
going vessels  and  other  ships  engaged  in 
foreign  commerce  are  accustomed  to  call  as 
they  enter  the  Canal. 

The  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  are  under 
the  government  of  Panama,  but  the  United 
States  government  has  the  right  in  both 
cities,  as  well  as  in  the  Canal  Zone,  to  make 
provision  for  the  health  of  the  inhabitants. 

These  two  cities  are  also  connected  by  the 
Panama  Railroad,  a  work  which  was  begun 
about  1850,  and,  after  much  hardship,  com- 
pleted nearly  five  years  later.  When  the 
canal  was  built  it  was  necessary  to  remove 
this  railroad  and  rebuild  it. 

The  Canal  itself  is  a  magnificent  public 
work.  Its  channel  is  broad  and  deep,  and 
from  300  to  500  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 
It  has  huge  locks  110  feet  wide  and  1000 
feet  long,  arranged  in  pairs  so  as  to  provide 
for  vessels  going  in  either  direction.  The 
Canal  also  passes  through  two  large  artificial 
lakes,  one  of  them  over  thirty  miles  long, 


made  by  a  dam  across  the  Chagres  River  ; 
and  through  a  tremendous  cut  in  the  hills 
at  Culebra. 

4.     The  Hawaiian  Islands  (Fig.  214) 

Far  out  in  the  mid-Pacific,  not  quite  a  third 
of  the  distance  from  our  western  coast  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  is  a  moun-  Their  location 
tain  chain  fifteen  hundred  miles  and  mountain- 
long,  most  of  which  lies  be-  ous  cnaracter 
neath  the  ocean.  Several  large  volcanic 
peaks  rise  above  the  water,  forming  a  chain 
of  Islands,  known  as  the  Sandwich,  or  Ha- 
waiian, Islands.  The  largest  of  these  islands 
is  Hawaii,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  Con- 
necticut. Each  of  the  islands  is  made  chiefly 
of  melted  rock,  or  lava,  which  has  risen 
from  within  the  eartli  (Fig.  210).  Two  of 
the  Hawaiian  volcanoes  are  still  active,  and 
the  fiery  hot  lava  flows  out  from  them  every 
few  years.  The  larger,  Mauna  Loa,  rises 
nearly  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  latitude  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
(Fig.  2)  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico.  Being  in  the 
midst  of  the  broad  Pacific,  and 
therefore  surrounded  by  warm  ocean  water, 
the  climate  is  warm  and  equable.  From 
day  to  night,  and  even  from  summer  to 
winter,  the  thermometer  varies  only  a  few 


Their  climate 


156 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  210.  —  The 


'  Lake  of  Fire  "  in  the  crater  of  one  of  the  Hawaiian  volcanoes.    This  is  red  hot  lava, 
or  melted  rock,  that  rises  from  within- the  earth. 


degrees.  As  in  the  West  Indies,  the  north- 
east winds  blow  steadily  and  bring  an 
abundance  of  rain  to  the  windward  slopes. 
The  southwestern,  or  leeward,  slopes  are 
much  drier,  and  in  some  places  even  arid. 


P"3 

f 

■  ~2T/ ^■h 

' 

ml 

Lt/lg' 

SBHHTJ 

■■  J! 

- 

■ 

■ , 

fovjw 

Fig.  211.  —The  grass  hut  of  a  native  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

The  Hawaiian  natives,  who  are  Malayans, 
are   an   intelligent   race,  resembling   those 


of    other    Pacific    islands.      The    Chinese 
form  a  large  part  of  the  foreign  popula- 
tion ;  but  there  are  also  many  peopie  in. 
Japanese,      Portuguese,      and  dustries,  and 
Americans.  chief  cities 

In  1893,  the  ruler,  a  native  queen,  was  de- 
posed, and  the  white  population  set  up  an 
independent  government  and  offered  the 
islands  to  the  United  States,  as  a  territory. 
After  some  delay  the  offer  was  accepted, 


Fig.  212.  —  Natives  planting  rice  in  a  flooded  field  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands. 

and  the  islands  have  been  under  our  control 
since  1898. 


TERRITORIES   AND   DEPENDENCIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


157 


Man}'  years  ago  white  men  introduced 
the  crops  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  larger 
islands  have  become  quite  productive,  the 
principal  crop  being  sugar  (Fig.  213). 
Coffee,  tropical  fruits,  and  rice  (Fig.  212) 
are  other  products,  the  last  being  culti- 
vated especially  by  the  Chinese. 

The  two  leading  cities  are  Honolulu, 
on  the  island  of  Oahu,  and  Hilo,  on  Hawaii. 


would  last  less  than  two  weeks,  while  the  voyage 
requires  move  than  three  weeks.  Therefore  the  gov- 
ernment needs  to  have  a  place  along  the  route  where 
it  can  store  large  quantities  of  coal. 

Coaling  stations  are  also  wanted  for  passenger 
and  freight  steamers;  and  there  is  need  of  a  place 
where  all  kinds  of  ships  can  stop  for  repairs.  All 
large  naval  powers  have  such  stations  in  various 
parts  of  the  ocean.  Great  Britain,  the  greatest 
power  upon  the  sea,  has  them  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 


Fig.  213.  —  Natives  cutting  sugar  cane  on  a  plantation  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 


The  Hawaiian  Islands  were  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  food  for  the  early  Cali- 
Value  of  the  fornian  miners  ;  and  great 
islands  to  the  quantities  of  rav7  sugar  are 
United  States  now  brought  from  the  islands 
to  be  refined  on  the  Pacific  coast  (p.  139). 
San  Francisco  has  long  been  the  chief 
market  place  for  the  products  of  these 
islands. 

The  territory  has  another  and  still  greater  value. 
During  our  war  with  Spain  the  islands  were  used  as 
a  coaling  station  for  our  war  ships  bound  to  the 
Philippine  Islands,  which  then  belonged  to  Spain. 
The  distance  from  San  Francisco  to  the  Philippines 
is  more  than  seven  thousand  miles.  If  we  wish  to 
send  a  war  ship  there  from  the  Pacific  coast,  it  is  im- 
portant that  it  find  a  place,  on  the  way,  at  which  it 
can  obtain  coal.  Such  a  ship  might  carry,  perhaps, 
eight  hundred  tons  of  coal ;  but  as  from  sixty  to 
seventy  tons  may  be  burned  each  day,  this  supply 


Samoa 


5.   Other  Small  Island  Possessions 

For  a  number  of  years  the  United  States, 
German}',  and  England  had  control  over 
the  Samoan  Islands,  far  to  the 
southwest  of  the  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands (Fig.  211).  This  arrangement  did 
not  prove  satisfactory,  and  now  Tutuila, 
one  of  the  islands,  is  owned  by  the  United 
States.  It  is  of  little  value  to  us  except 
for  the  coaling  station  at  the  harbor  of  Pago 
Pago.  Apia,  the  chief  city  in  the  Samoan 
Islands,  is  on  the  island  of  Upola,  which 
belongs  to  Germany. 

As  one  of  the  results  of  the   war  with  Spain,  we 
obtained  the  island  of  Guam  (Figs.  417  and  214), 
one   of    the    Ladrones,  or  Robbers'    _ 
Islands,  some  distance   east   of   the 
Philippines.     Like  Tutuila,  Guam  is  of  little  service 
to  us  except  as  a  coaling  station  for  vessels. 


158 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Our  country  has  obtained  possession  of  several 
other  small  islands  in  the  Pacific.  Among  these  are 
„         .  Marcus  Island,  northeast  of  Guam ; 

Wake  Island,  between  Guam  and  the 
Hawaiian  Islands ;  Midway  Islands,  northwest  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands;  and  two  small  islands,  Baker  and 
Howland,  nearly  on  the  equator  south  of  the  Midway 
Islands.     None  of  these  are  of  special  importance. 


6.   The  Philippine  Islands  (Fig.  214) 

During  the  Spanish  War,  Admiral  Dewey 
destroyed    the    Spanish    war    ships    in    the 

„  .    .     harbor  of  Manila,  and  took  pos- 

How  acquired  .  .    ,.        _,  ...      .      AT 

session  01   the    Philippine    Is- 
lands for  the  United  States.     At  the  close 


Fig.  215.  —  A  family  of  Filipinos,  or  natives  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
belonging  to  the  Malay  race. 


of  the  war  we  paid  Spain  $20,000,000  to 
give  up  all  claim  to  them,  and  since  then 
they  have  formed  a  part  of  our  territory. 

This  group  of  islands,  or  archipelago, 
consists  of  more  than  three  thousand  is- 
Surface  lands,  many  of  which  are  very 

features  small.     The  largest,  Luzon,  is 

about  the  size  of  Kentucky;  and  the  second, 
Mindanao,  is  almost  as  large. 

Like  the  West  Indies  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
the  Philippines  are  portions  of  mountain  ranges  in 
the  sea.     This  mountain  chain  is  still  growing,  and 


as  the  rocks  slowly  move  and  break,  earthquake 
shocks  are  caused.  Some  of  them  have  been  very 
destructive;  for  instance,  the  earthquake  of  1863 
destroyed  a  large  part  of  Manila.  Volcanoes,  some  of 
which  rise  to  a  height  of  eight  thousand  to  ten  thou- 
sand feet,  are  numerous  here,  and  some  of  them  are 
very  active. 

While  parts  of  the  islands  are  mountain- 
ous, there  are  many  valleys'  in  which  the 
soil  is  deep  and  fertile,  being  formed  by  the 
decay  of  lava,  limestone,  and  other  rocks  rich 
in  plant  food. 

Since  none  of  the  islands  are  very  large, 
there  can  be  no  great  rivers.  Still,  there 
are  some  with  deep  mouths,  making  good 
harbors ;  and  steamboats  are 
able  to  navigate  the  lower  por- 
tions of  all  the  larger  rivers. 

As  in  the  West  Indies,  the 
climate  of  the  Philippines  is 

tropical  —  always 

r  ,  J      Climate 

warm,  and  some- 
times very  hot,  especially  at  a 
distance  from  the  sea. 

The  year  is  divided  into  the  dry 
and  rainy  seasons,  the  former  coming 
during  the  winter  months,  the  latter 
in  the  summer.  The  dr}'  period 
lasts  as  long  as  the  winds  blow  from 
the  northeast,  and  then  the  fields 
often  become  parched  and  cracked, 
and  the  roads  very  dusty.  In  the 
summer,  howrever,  the  winds  change 
to  the  southeast.  They  are  then  so 
damp  that  there  is  a  deluge  of  rain 
which  changes  much  of  the  country 
to  a  swamp,  making  travel  almost 
impossible. 

The  climate,  on  the  whole,  is  so  damp  that  there 
can  be  no  cellars  under  the  houses,  for  they  would 
be  too  wet  to  be  healthful  (Fig.  216).  Indeed,  the 
houses  themselves  are  usually  raised  above  the 
ground,  and  the  family  lives  in  the  second  story. 
The  lower  part  is  often  used  for  storage,  as  a  cellar 
is  in  our  country. 

Forests  cover  a  large  part  of  the  archipel- 
ago, for  trees  thrive  here,  often  forming  a 
tropical  jungle.      Among  the  vegetation 
valuable  woods  are  ebony,  the  and  animal 
rubber  tree,  from  which  gutta  ™ 
percha  is  obtained,  and  a  palm  from  whose 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


159 


lppines 
Inhabitants 


sap  alcohol  may  be  made.  Cinnamon,  cloves, 
and  pepper  grow  in  these  islands,  and  cocoa- 
nut  and  banana  trees  are  also  very  common! 

As  in  other  tropical  forests,  there  are  im- 
mense numbers  of  animals,  especially  insects, 
serpents,  and  beautiful  birds.  Among  the 
serpents  are  the  huge  python  and  the  deadly 
cobra  de  capello.  There  are  also  deer,  apes, 
wild  hogs,  wild  buffaloes,  huge 
bats,  and  man-eating  croco- 
diles. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Phil- 
number  over  eight 
millions,  about  six- 
sevenths  of  whom 
are  civilized.  Two  very  differ- 
ent races  occupy  the  islands, — 
(1)  the  aborigines,  or  original 
Inhabitants;  and  (2)  the 
Malays  (Fig.  215).  The 
former,  a  race  of  small,  dark- 
skinned  savages,  are  called 
Negritos,  a  Spanish  word  mean- 
ing little  negroes.  They  have 
been  forced  to  retreat  to  the 
forests  by  the  more  powerful 
and  intelligent  Malays.  Be- 
sides the  Negritos,  the  Malays, 
and  the  half-breeds,  many 
Chinese  traders  and  Spaniards 
live  on  the  islands  ;  and  now 
there  are  also  many  Americans. 

Under  the  rule  of  the  Spaniards,  the  more 
civilized  tribes  cleared  the  land  and  engaged 
Principal  in  farming.      Their  wants  are 

products  few,  however,  and  very  little 

work  supplies  them  with  what  they  need. 
Cocoanuts  and  bananas  are  easily  obtained, 
and  rice,  yams,  and  other  food  plants  may  be 
easily  raised.  There  is,  therefore,  no  special 
reason  for  working  hard ;  and,  in  fact,  in 
that  warm,  humid  climate  hard  work  is  al- 
most impossible.  Many  of  the  natives,  how- 
ever, are  industrious  and  produce  more  than 
they  need  for  themselves. 

The  leading  exports  are  hemp,  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  copra.  Of  these,  hemp  is  the 
best  known.     It  is  produced  from  the  fibre 


of  the  wild  plantain,  which  is  much  used  in 
rope  making.  Rope  of  an  excellent  grade, 
called  Manila  rope,  is  manufactured  in 
Manila.  Knotted  hemp  is  another  form  in 
which  hemp  is  exported.  It  is  made  by  the 
natives,  who  tie  long  fibres  together  so  as  to 
form  thread  or  yarn. 

Refined  sugar   (Fig.  255)  has  displaced 


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Fig.  21G  —  A  native  house  in  the  Philippine  Islands  built  of  bamboo  and 
covered  with  a  thatch  roof.  Because  of  the  dampness  the  houses  do  not 
rest  on  the  ground. 

raw  sugar  as  an  export.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  sugar  mills  on  the  island  it  became 
possible  to  reorganize  the  sugar  industry 
and  to  produce  sugar  of  a  superior  grade. 

Cigars,  many  of  which  are  made  in  Manila 
(Fig.  217),  are  the  most  important  tobacco 
export. 

Copra,  the  dried  meat  of  the  cocoanut,  is  now  ex- 
ported in  large  amounts.  The  cocoanuts  are  raised  in 
great  quantities  in  the  interior  of  the  country  and  are 
then  shipped  down  the  river  in  rafts  to  the  cities  to  be 
dried.  The  copra  from  these  nuts  is  sent  to  Europe, 
where  it  is  used  in  soap  making.  The  oil  obtained 
from  them  is  used  in  place  of  lard  and  kerosene. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  plants  is  the  rattan, 
which  the  natives  put  to  a  thousand  uses,  such  as 
making  ropes,  houses,  canoes,  frames,  carts,  beds,  and 


160 


NORTH  AMERICA 


chairs.  Many  of  the  natives  make  a  living  by  split- 
ting and  marketing  the  cane.  The  bamboo  is  also 
of  great  value.  This  plant  grows  from  one  inch  to 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  five  to  seventy 
feet  in  height.    It  is  used  in  making  the  frames,  sides, 


11 


Fig.  217.  —  Native  women  of  the  Philippine  Islands  making  cigars  in  Manila. 


and  even  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  also  rafts,  boats, 
agricultural  implements,  bows,  bowstrings,  arrows, 
spoons,  forks,  and  many  other  articles. 

The  natives  have  domesticated  a  native  wild  ani- 
mal, the  water  bnffalo  (Fig.  218),  which  is  of  much 
value  as  a  draft  animal.  It  is  of 
special  service  in  the  rice  fields, 
whicli  are  kept  flooded  during  the 
growing  season.  The  buffalo  is 
quite  at  home  in  the  mud,  even 
preferring  wet  walking  to  dry;  and 
in  fact,  it  must  have  a  daily  plunge 
in  the  mud  and  water. 


for  a  long  time  the  center  of  the  Spanisl 
government  in  the  Philippines.  It  is  still 
the  center  of  government  in  the  archipelago. 
Under  Spanish  rule  large  portions  of  the 
islands  were  left  in  a  wild 
state  ;  and  little  pr0Dable 
attempt  was  made  future 
to  use  the  re-  progress 
sources  to  their  fullest  extent. 
The  islands  are  able  to  pro- 
duce far  more  farm  products 
than  at  present.  The  riches 
of  the  forests  have  been  little 
used  ;  and  the  minerals,  in- 
cluding gold,  silver,  coal, 
petroleum,  marble,  and  sul- 
phur, have  likewise  been 
largely  neglected. 

There  is  a  promising  future 
in  the  development  of  these 
resources,  and  the  civilized 
natives  are  already  helping 
greatly  in  the  work.  Many  of 
them  are  educated  and  cul- 
tured, living  in  excellent 
homes.  They  are  now  partly 
governing  themselves,  having 
a  legislature  of  their  own ;  but  the  United 
States  still  holds  control.  We  are  helping 
to  educate  the  people,  and  to  establish  a 
good  government. 


In  the  entire  group  of  is- 
lands, there  are  many  cities 
Cities  having  a  popula- 

tion of  more  than 
ten  thousand  ;  but  there  is 
only  one  of  special  impor- 
tance. This  is  Manila,  on 
the  island  of  Luzon.  This  city,  which  has 
over  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  is 
situated  upon  an  excellent  harbor,  and  was 


Fig.  218.  —  Native  Filipinos  plowing  with  the  buffalo. 


Alaska:  Questions.  1.  How  was  Alaska  ob- 
tained, and  how  was  the  purchase  at  first  regarded? 
2.   Describe  the   climate.      3.  What  are   the  prin- 


£  !25  >  *Js 

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COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


161 


cipal  surface  features?     1.   What  can  you  tell  about 

the  scenery''     5.   What  about  the  food  fish  there? 

6.  State  the  principal  facts  about  the 

Review  Ques-      whaling.     7.  The   sealing.      8.  The 

tions  and  rajning.     0.  What  about  the  future 

development  of  the  territory  ? 
10.  Name  and  locate  the  leading  towns. 

Suggestions.  11.  Collect  some  whalebone. 
12.  How  does  the  area  of  Alaska  compare  with  that 
of  the  L'nited  States  proper?  13.  Measure  the 
length  of  the  Yukon,  and  compare  it  with  the 
Mackenzie.     14.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Alaska. 

Porto  Rico  and  Cuba:  Questions.  15.  Give 
some  facts  in  their  history.  What  is  our  relation  to 
Porto  Rico?  To  Cuba?  16.  What  are  their  areas 
and  principal  surface  features?  17.  Describe  the 
climate.  18.  Name  the  farm  products.  19.  How 
are  these  products  of  special  value  to  the  United 
States?     20.  What  other  raw  products   are  found? 

21.  What  about  the  conveniences  for  transportation? 

22.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities.     23.  What 
about  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands? 

Suggestions.  21.  Estimate  the  length  and  the 
average  breadth  of  Cuba.  25.  AVhat  products  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  also  raised  in  the  United 
States?  Where?  26.  State  some  advantage  that 
Cuba  enjoys  over  Louisiana  in  the  production  of 
sugar.  27.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico. 

Panama  Canal  Zone  :  Questions.  28.  Locate 
this  zone.  29.  How  was  this  strip  of  land  obtained, 
and  what  is  its  extent?  30.  What  advantages  have 
been  secured  by  the  canal? 

Suggestions.  31.  What  difficulties  were  caused 
by  the  climate  in  the  work  of  digging  the  canal? 
32.  Read  magazine  articles  telling  about  the  work. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  and  other  Small 
Islands:  Questions.  33.  Where  are  the  Hawaiian 
(Islands  located?  34.  What  are  their  surface  fea- 
tures? 35.  Describe  their  climate.  36.  State  the 
iprincipal  facts  about  their  inhabitants,  industries, 
iand  principal  cities.  37.  What  is  the  special  value 
of  these  islands  to  the  United  States  ?  38.  Name 
iand  locate  other  island  possessions.  39.  How  are 
they  important? 

Suggestions.  40.  Why  should  you  expect  much 
the  same  products  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  as  in 
Cuba?  41.  Why  is  not  the  summer  very  hot  in  these 
Jtropical  regions?  42.  What  city  on  our  eastern  coast 
should  be  associated  with  San  Francisco  as  impor- 
tant for  refining  sugar?  43.  Explain  the  presence 
of  many  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  these  islands. 

The  Philippine  Islands:  Questions.  44.  How 
were  these  islands  acquired  ?  45.  Describe  their  sur- 
face features.  46.  Their  climate.  47.  What  vege- 
table and  animal  life  is  found  here?  48.  State  the 
:chief  facts  about  the  inhabitants.  49.  What  are  the 
principal  products?     50.  What    about    the   cities? 


51.  Explain  the  possibilities  for  progress  in  these 
islands. 

Suggestions.  52.  Compare  the  latitude  of  the 
islands  with  that  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.  53.  Xame  several  other  places 
thus  far  studied  that  have  volcanoes.  54.  Collect 
pictures  of  scenes  in  the  Philippines.  55.  Obtain  a 
piece  of  Manila  hemp  rope  for  the  school  collection  ; 
also  a  piece  of  bamboo  and  of  rattan.  56.  Find  out 
about  Dewey's  capture  of  Manila.  57.  Make  a  sketch 
map  of  the  islands. 

58.  Xame  the  principal  dependencies  of  the  United 
States.     59.  Locate  each  on  the  map  of  the  world 


(Fig.  2).     60.  Walk     toward    each. 


General  Re- 


61.  >»ame  the  principal  products  of 

u      an   t        r.  *  j  v.    view  Questions 

each.     62.  In  what  zones  does  each  x 

lie?     63.  How  did  we  obtain  each?    64.  Xame  and 

locate  the  principal  cities  in  our  dependencies. 


V.    Countries  North  of  the  United 

States 

i.   Canada  and  Newfoundland 

1.  Trace  the  boundary  line  between  United  States 
and  Canada.  2.  Which  of  our  states  border  on  Can- 
ada ?  3.  What  has  caused  so  many  _.  . 
lakes  in  the  Dominion  ?  4.  Xame 
and  locate  the  eight  largest  (including  the  Great 
Lakes).  5.  Xame  and  locate  the  four  largest  rivers. 
Into  what  ocean  does  each  drain  ?  6.  Where  are  the 
largest  cities?  7.  What  are  the  names  of  the  larg- 
est? 8.  What  reasons  can  you  see  for  their  location? 
9.  Trace  the  Arctic  Circle  across  Canada.  10.  Com- 
pare the  latitude  of  Labrador  with  that  of  England. 
11.  Locate  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  Hudson  Bay; 
Greenland;  Xewfoundland ;  Xova Scotia.  12.  Xame 
the  divisions  of  Canada. 

With  the  exception  of  Alaska  almost  all 
of  the  land  north  of  our  country  belongs  to 
Canada. 

While  the  British  were  founding  the  thir- 
teen colonies,  the  French  occupied  the  coast 
of  eastern   Canada  and  made   History 
settlements  at   Quebec,   Mon-    l   Contest  be- 
treal,  and  other  points  along   ^Fr^ch^d 
the  St.  Lawrence  Valley.    Even  the  result 
now  a  very  large  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
of   the   Province   of  Quebec  speak  French 
as  their  mother  tongue.     The  French  and 
English   were    often   at    war ;    but    finally 
England,    aided  by  her  colonies,  won  con- 
trol of  the  French  possessions  north  of  the 


162 


NORTH  AMEBIC  A 


United  States.  Only  the  small  islands  of 
Miquelon  and  St.  Pierre  were  retained  by 
France,  and  they  are  still  used  by  the 
French  as  fishing  stations. 

After  our  Revolutionary  War,  Canada  still 
remained  in  possession  of  Great  Britain. 
At  first  there  were  several 
colonies  with  separate  govern- 
ments, though  all  were  under 
the  control  of  Great  Britain; 
but  in  1867  a  union  was  formed  called  the 
Dominion   of   Canada.     There   are  nine 


2.   Name  of  the 
Union,  and  the 
provinces  that 
make  it 


" 

,r  "Sat 

mm&*S^'*Z* 

^BEl  '  '^B 

Fig.  220.  —  Lake  Louise,  nestled  among  the  snow-capped  mountains  of  western 
Canada,  along  the  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 


divisions,  or  provinces,  in  the  Dominion, — 
Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  New 
Brunswick,  Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  British  Colum- 
bia. Each  has  a  government  of  its  own, 
as  our  states  have  ;  but  the  united  provinces 
have  a  central  government  with  the  capital 
at  Ottawa,  which  corresponds  to  our  cap- 
ital at  Washington. 

Besides  these  provinces,  there  are  the 
Yukon  Territory,  and  several  undeveloped 
territories.  The  names  of  the  latter  are 
given  on  the  map  (Fig.  219),  but  they 
have  few  inhabitants  and  are  of  little 
importance  at  present.  Name  these  divi- 
sions. 


Newfoundland  has  refused  to  join  the 
Dominion,  so  that,  while  still  a  colony  of 
Great  Britain,  it  is  not  a  part  3    Newfound- 
of  Canada.     Newfoundland  in-  land 
eludes    not  only  the  island   by  that  name, 
but  also  the  east  coast  of  Labrador. 

The    surface    of    southern    Canada   very 
closely  resembles  that  of  our  Northern  States. 
Eastern  Canada,  for  instance, 
is   much  like   New    England.  Surface 
That  section  of  Canada  which  ,    „ 

,.  , .         .     _.,  .  .    XT  1.   Resemblance 

lies   north   of    Cnio   and  New  between  south- 
York         is  em  Canada  and 
t         i     northern  United 

more  level,  states 
like     those 

states  ;  and  it  is  the 
most  important  farming 
region  in  the  Dominion. 
Farther  west,  north  of 
Dakota  and  Montana, 
are  broad  plains  (Fig. 
226),  increasing  in  eleva- 
tion to  the  very  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Among  the  Western  moun- 
tains are  many  canyons,  gla- 
ciers, and  snow-capped  peaks 
(Fig.  220).  The  scenery  of 
this  region  is  wonderful,  and 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway 
(Fig.  280)  passes  through  the 
best  of  it.  A  portion  of  this 
wonderland  has  been  set  aside 
as  a  national  park  by  the  Canadian  government. 

The  Great  Glacier  (Fig.  18)  covered  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Canada,  for  it  had  its  source  in  the  high- 
lands of  Labrador.     As  in  our  coun-        __ 

,,  .,     c  i      t  n        i     ■      2.  Effects  of  the 

try,  the  soil  of  much  of  Canada  is    Great  GiaCier 

glacial   drift;   the   Great   Ice  Sheet 

also   formed   many  lakes  there,   and  caused   great 

numbers  of  rapids  and  waterfalls. 

The  climate  of  southern  Canada,  like  the 
surface  features,  corresponds  to  that  of  our 
Northern  States,  though  it  is 
slightly  cooler.  The  climate 
of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  south- 
ern Quebec,  for  example,  resembles  that  o£ 
New  England,  while  Ontario  has  a  climate 
similar  to  that  of  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Michigan.     Farther  west,  in  Manitoba,  we 


COUNTRIES  NORTH   OF  TIIE   UNITED   STATES 


163 


find  nearly  the  same  climate  as  in  Minne- 
sota and  North  Dakota  ;  and  west  of  this, 
in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  come  the 
arid  lands.  In  British  Columbia,  on  the 
west  coast,  there  is  heavy  rainfall  and  an 
even  temperature,  as  in  Washington. 

Toward  the  north,  however,  the  country  grows 
rapidly  colder,  until,  in  the  extreme  northern  por- 
tion, the  climate  is  frigid,  and  there  are  broad  ex- 
panses of  frozen  tundra. 

The  Labrador  current,  which  cools  the  tempera- 
ture of  Xew  England  so  much  (p.  33),  sweeps  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean  past  Labrador  and  greatly  chills 
the  coast  of  that  region,  as  well  as  Newfoundland 
and  Nova  Scotia.  There  is  no  such  ice-laden  current 
in  the  Pacific,  and  for  that  reason  the  climate  is 
far  -warmer  there.  Notice,  for  instance,  how  much 
farther  north  Vancouver  and  Juneau  are  than  any 
city  in  eastern  Canada. 

The  forests  which  cover  northern  New 
England  extend  into  the  hilly  and  moun- 
Lumbering  tainous  section  of  New  Bruns- 

1.  Extent  of  wick  and  southern  Quebec 
the  forests  (Fig.    221).      In    fact,    from 

there  westward  to  the  Pacific  this  wooded 
tract,  sweeping  northward  around  the  vast 
plains  of  Manitoba,  is  from  two  to  three 
hundred  miles  wide.  This  forest,  which  is 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  includes 
fully  a  million  square  miles,  or  over  a 
fourth  of  the  entire  area  of  Canada. 

In  the  east,  the  principal  trees  are  spruce,  balsam 
fir,  pine,  and  maple  ;  in  the  west  they  are  spruce, 
mammoth  cedar,  sometimes  sixty  feet  in  cireum- 
ference,  and  Douglas  fir,  which  in  some  cases  grows  to 
a  height  of  two  hundred  feet  (Fig.  222).  Most  of 
this  vast  forest  is  a  wilderness,  about  which  very 
little  is  known.  Wild  animals  still  live  here  in 
great  numbers,  and  there  are  few  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent where  the  hunting  for  large  game  is  so  good. 
Among  the  animals  are  the  deer,  moose,  bear,  fox, 
wolf,  wild  cat,  beaver,  and  mink.  Furs  are  one  of 
the  principal  products  of  the  region.  From  very 
■  early  days  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  has  had  trad- 
ing stations  in  this  wilderness  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  furs  from  Indians  and  other  hunters 
"and  trappers. 

Lumbering  is   carried   on   in    much   the 
same  manner  as  in  the  north- 

fumberilSand  ern  Part  of  the  United  States 
lumber  centers     (pp.  3-3  aud  125).     In  the  east 


one  of  the  rivers  down  which  the  logs  are 
floated  to  the  sea  is  the  St.  John.  Upon 
this  river  are  Fredericton,  the  capital  of 
New  Brunswick,  and  St.  John,  the  largest 
city  in  that  province.  In  these  two  cities 
the  logs  are  made  into  wood  pulp  and 
lumber.     Immense  quantities  of  both  these 


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Fig.  221.  —  Lumbermen  chopping  down  a  tree  in  the 
forest  of  eastern  Canada. 


products  are  shipped  from  the  seaport  of 
St.  John. 

The  woods  of  Canada  are  at  present  one 
of  its  greatest  sources  of  wealth  ;  indeed, 
there  are  hundreds  of  sawmills  at  the 
rapids  on  the  streams,  and  even  in  the  large 
cities.  Among  the  latter,  Montreal, 
Toronto,  and  Ottawa  are  important, 
especially  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber 
into  such  articles  as  doors,  blinds,  barrels, 
and  furniture. 

It  was  the  excellent  fishing  on  the  shal- 
low banks  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Canada 
that  early  attracted  the  French  to  America, 


164 


NORTH  AMERICA 


lakes  and  streams.  In  addition, 
there  is  much  fishing  on  the  west 
coast,  especially  for  salmon. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  the  salmon  as 
they  run  up  the  streams  to  spawn.  At 
times,  in  order  to  get  beyond  waterfalls, 
they  must  leap  several  feet  into  the  air 
(Fig.  223).  Sometimes  they  fail,  but, 
returning  to  the  task,  they  try  again  and 
again  until  successful.  When  the  young 
have  reached  the  proper  size,  they  go 
downstream  to  the  ocean,  where  they  live 
until  they  are  ready  to  spawn.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  they  always  go  back  to  the 
same  river  in  which  they  were  born. 

While  traveling  up  the  streams,  the  sal- 
mon are  easily  caught  in  nets  set  across  i 
the  current,  or  by  dip  nets  in  the  hands  of  i 
fishermen,  or  sometimes  by  salmon  wheels- 
Immense  numbers  of  salmon  are  canned  in 
western  Canada  (Fig.  224),  as  in  Wash- 
ington and  Alaska. 

We  have  already  learned  (p.  150)  about 
the  seal  fishing  in  Alaska.  Seals  are  also 
found  on  the  eastern  side  of 


Canada,  but  their  fur  is  of 


2.   Sealing 


Fig.  222.  —  One  of  the  large  trees  in  the  forest  of  western  Canada. 
The  hoy  sitting  on  the  trunk  gives  a  scale  hy  which  you  can 
judge  the  size  of  the  tree.  Coutrast  its  size  with  that  shown  in 
Figure  221. 


and  fishing  is  still  a  flourishing  industry 
along  that  coast.  Fully  fifty  thousand 
Fishing  people  in    Newfoundland  and 

l.  Catching  of  the  eastern  provinces,  espe- 
foodfish  cially  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince 

Edward  Island,  are  engaged  in  cod  fishing. 
One  of  the  best-known  fishing  ports  is  Yar- 
mouth, in  Nova  Scotia,  although  a  great 
deal  of  fishing  is  carried  on  from  Halifax, 
and  other  smaller  places  in  Nova  Scotia. 
St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  is  another  im- 
portant fishing  port. 

There  is  also  much  inland  fishing,  for  the 
streams  and  lakes  still  abound  in  trout, 
pickerel,  whitefish,  bass,  and  salmon  (Fig. 
223).  Every  year  large  numbers  of  men 
go  from  Canada  and  the  United  States  to 
enjoy  the  sport  of  fishing  in  the  Canadian 


little  value.  There  is,  however,  a  la3'er  of 
fat,  or  blubber,  just  beneath  the  skin,  a-s  in 
the  whale.  This  can  be  made  into  oil,  and 
it  is  mainly  for  the  blubber  that  these  east- 
ern seals  are  caught,  though  the  skins  are 
also  used  for  making  leather.  Vessels  go 
out  from  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  every 
spring  to  hunt  the  seals  in  the  ice  that  floats 
down  in  the  Labrador  current  (Fig.  225).    : 

What  was  said  about  the  agriculture  and 
grazing    in    our    Northern    States    applies 


Fig.  223.  —  Photograph  of  a  salmon   leaping  up  over 
waterfall  in  a  stream  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.    This 
fall  is  over  ten  feet  high  and  yet  the  salmon  are  able 
to  leap  up  over  it. 


COUNTRIES   NORTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


165 


almost  equally  to  Canada.     For  example, 

the  warm,  damp  ocean  winds  favor  the  pro- 

.     .    ..  duction  of  wheat  and  the  hardy 

Agriculture  .  .  .  •> 

1    Wheat  and      "lMts  in  British   Columbia  as 

haidy  fruits  in      well  as  ill  Wasll- 

thewest  ington  (p.  127). 

Farther  east,  on  the  plains 

at    the    base    of    the    Rocky 

2.  Ranching  in    Mountains,    the 

the  arid  lands        climate      is     too 

arid  for  farming.  Here,  there- 
fore, ranching  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry,  as  in  Montana 
and  western  Dakota  (pp.  99 
and  133).  Immense  herds 
of  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared 
on  these  plains.  There  are 
several  towns  here,  the  largest 
being  Calgary. 

In  central  Saskatchewan  the  climate  be- 
gins to  be  more  favorable  for  agriculture, 
8.  The  greatest  anc^  there,  as  well  as  in  Mani- 
grain region, and  toba,  enormous  quantities  of 
its  leading  city    wheat  are  T!lised.     This  wheat 

belt    is    a    continuation    of    that    found 


In  the  midst  of  this  wheat  region  is  Win- 
nipeg, in  which  flour  is  manufactured,  as 
in  Minneapolis.  This  city  is  situated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Red   River  of  the  North, 


m 


Fig.  225.  ■ 


Minnesota  and  eastern  Dakota.  Although 
the  winters  are  long  and  cold,  the  summers 
are  warm,  so  that  the  hardy  grains,  espe- 
cially wheat  (Fig.  226"),  oats,  and  barley, 
thrive. 


Fig    224-  —  Salmon  in  a  salmon  cannery,  just  brought  from  the  water. 


which  empties  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  Find 
out,  from  the  map  (Fig.  219),  what  other 
large  river  is  tributary  to  this  lake  ;  also 
the  name  of  its  outlet. 

The   country  north  of   Lake  Superior  is 
hilty  and  for  the  most  part  forest-covered, 
being  quite    .    _, 

&   -1  4.   The  most 

like    north-    populous  farm- 

ern  Minne-   lug  section,  and 

n    its  products 

s  o  t  a     and 

Michigan.  There  is, 
therefore,  little  agricul- 
ture here. 

Farther  east,  on  the 
peninsula  between 
Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  and 
Ontario,  is  some  of  the 
best  farm  land  in  Canada. 
This  region  is  in  the 
province  of  Ontario, 
which  is  the  most  popu- 
lous of  the  Canadian 
provinces,  containing 
about  one  third  of  all  the 
people  in  Canada.  What  large  cities  do 
you  find  here?  More  than  two  thirds  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Ontario,  however,  dwell 
either  on  farms  or  in  small  towns  in  the 
farming  districts. 


-Seal  hunters  killing  seal  on  the  floe  ice  in  the  Labrador  current 
north  of  Newfoundland. 


166 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  226.  —  Fields  of  wheat,  some  cut,  some  uncut,  on  the  level,  fertile  plains  of  southern  Manitoba. 


southeastern 
Canada 


Ontario  is  no  farther  north  than  cen- 
tral and  western  New  York  ;  and  its  cli- 
mate is  greatly  influenced  by  the  Great 
Lakes.  Here  grapes,  peaches,  corn,  and 
even  tobacco  are  raised ;  also  quantities  of 
oats,  wheat,  barle}7,  and  flax.  Some  of  the 
finest  horses  in  America  are  reared  in  On- 
tario, and  the  province  is  further  noted  as 
a  dairy  region. 

There  is  a  strip  of  excellent  farming 
country  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  St. 
5.  Farming  in  Lawrence  River,  and  along  a 
part  of  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
Prince  Edward  Island  has  many  fine  farms, 
and  portions  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick also  are  farming  districts.  One  of 
the  best  and  most  beautiful  farming  regions 
in  all  Canada  is  in  southwestern  Nova 
Scotia,  noted  especially  for  delicious  apples. 
It  was  here  that  the  French  settlements 
were  made,  about  which  Longfellow  has 
written  in  his  "  Evangeline " ;  and  this  is 
often  called  "  The  Land  of  Evangeline." 
Western  Canada,  like  western  United 
States,  is  a  noted  mining 
region.  Among  the  minerals, 
gold  and  silver  are  especially 


Mining 

1.  In  British 
Columbia  and 
Yukon  Territory    important, 


though 


lead    and 


copper  ores,  building  stone,  coal,  and  other 
mineral  products  are  also  obtained.  Valu- 
able deposits  of  coal  are  found  both  among 
the  mountains  and  in  the  plains  farther 
east.  You  have  already  Tearnedrthat  the 
famous  Klondike  region  is  situated  in  Yukon 
Territorjr,  near  the  Alaskan  boundary. 
Although  so  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  Daw- 
son City,  in  the  Klondike,  has  grown 
rapidly  because  of  the  gold  mining. 

Gold  and  silver  are  found  in  the  province    : 
of  Ontario,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  of 
the  Woods.     One  of  the  most  2.  in  Ontario 
remarkable  silver  deposits  on  and  soutneast- 
the  continent  has  recently  been  ern  Canada 
discovered   at   Cobalt,    north   of    Toronto. 
Nickel  is  also  mined  in  Ontario,  and  some 
oil  fields  have  been  developed. 

Although  iron  ore  has  been  discovered  in 
certain  places,  the  scarcity  of  coal,  near  at 
hand,  has  prevented  Canada  from  producing 
much  iron.  The  coal  of  western  Canada  is 
too  distant  for  use  in  the  Eastern  cities,  and 
the  coal  beds  of  the  East  have  never  been 
thoroughly  developed.  In  Nova  Scotia,  and 
on  Cape  Breton  Island,  which  is  a  part  of 
Nova  Scotia,  there  are  extensive  beds  of 
soft  coal,  like  that  of  western  Pennsylvania 
and     the    Central     States.     This    coal    is 


COUNTRIES  north  OF  the  united  states 


167 


shipped  to  the  cities  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
Valley.  A  few  years  ago  blast  furnaces 
were  erected  at  Sydney,  Cape  Breton  Is- 
land, and  an  important  iron-manufacturing 
industry  has  arisen  there.  This  has  in- 
creased the  value  of  the  Nova  Scotia  coal. 


the  other  hand,  ship  canals  have  been  built 
around  the  rapids  and  falls  (Fig.  227),  so 
that  good-sized  boats  are  able  to  go  from 
the  open  ocean  to  the  western  part  of  Lake 
Superior,  a  distance  of  twenty-two  hundred 
miles.     This    gives  the   Canadian    route  a 


-^B 

-:«^g 

r^ 

„, 

A                                         .— ... 

»^^^ 

^**H    BBP^^Pfw 

Wb^^rrr-  ■ 

3m.' 

v^^SSSm 

Pf3S 

■*"     <*^W?^^^^    ■ 

Fig.  227 


-The  Wellaud  Canal,  between  Lakes  Erie  ami  Ontario.    At  this  point  there  are  two  locks  in  the  canal. 
Point  them  out.    Why  are  they  needed  ? 


There  appear  to  be  two  outlets  by  water 
for  central  Canada,  —  one  by  way  of  the 
Transports-  St.  Lawrence,  the  other  by 
tion  way    of    Hudson    Bay.     The 

latter  is  of  little  use,  however.  Explain 
why. 

Canada  shares  with  the  United  States  the 
advantages  of  navigation  on  all  the  Great 
Lakes,  with  one  exception.  Which  is  it  ? 
Fortunately  for  Canada,  the  lower  St.  Law- 
rence lies  wholly  within  that  country.  But 
this  river  has  some  serious  drawbacks.  One 
is  the  ice  that  stops  navigation  in  winter. 
A  second  is  the  presence  of  numerous  rapids 
over  which  vessels  cannot  pass  in  going  up- 
stream. In  addition,  dense  fogs  are  com- 
mon in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  along 
the  Newfoundland  coast,  where  the  damp 
air  from  the  ocean  is  chilled  in  passing  over 
the  cold  Labrador  current  (Fig.  312).     On 


great  advantage  over  the  Erie  Canal  route 
upon  which  only  small  canal  boats  can  go. 

There  are  many  other  large  rivers  in 
Canada  besides  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 
Name  them,- and  tell  why  most  of  them  are 
of  little  value. 

Railways  have  been  of  great  importance  in 
Canada,  as  in  the  United  States.  The  lead- 
ing railway  is  the  Canadian  Pacific,  which 
extends  from  St.  John,  New  Brunswick, 
entirely  across  Canada,  to  Vancouver,  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  the  shortest  route 
from  England  to  China  and  Japan,  and  much 
freight  is  sent  that  way.  Another  important 
line  is  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway. 

Montreal  (Fig.  228),  the  principal  city 
in  Canada,  is  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence  River  (Fig.  229),  at  the  Leading  citles 

,,        ,    ,,v      S...  D-  1.  Along  the  St. 

mouth  of    the   Ottawa   River,   Lawren*e  and 
and    just    below   the    Lachine  Ottawa  rivers 


168 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Rapids.  Thus  goods  from  Europe  may  be 
carried  by  ocean  vessel  to  Montreal,  fully  a 
thousand  miles  inland;  then,  by  transfer  to 
other  sbips,  they  may  be  taken  on  canals, 
rivers,  and  lakes  as  far  as  Dulutb.  By  this 
means,  and  by  railways  also,  raw  products 
from  the  North,  East,  South,  and  West  col- 
lect at  Montreal,  either  to  be  manufactured, 
or  to  be  shipped  farther.     In  its  extensive 


articles   of   wood,   various    steel   and   iron 
products,  and  cigars. 

Farther  down  the  river  is  Quebec,  which 
was  once  the  center  of  the  French  govern- 
ment in  Canada,  and  the  principal  city.  It 
is  situated  on  a  high  bluff  rising  above  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  is  fortified  so  as  to  com- 
mand that  river.  The  better  location  of 
Montreal,  farther  inland,  has  drawn  the  com- 


Fio.  228. — Map  to  show  the  location  of  Montreal,  Ottawa,  and  Quebec. 


connection  with  the  interior  of  Canada,  by 
water  and  by  rail,  Montreal  reminds  us  of 
New  York ;  but  since  it  has  a  less  produc- 
tive territory  to  draw  upon,  it  has  grown 
far  less  rapidly  than  New  York. 

As  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States, 
there  are  many  kinds  of  manufacturing  in 
Montreal,  including  the  making  of  sugar, 
boots  and  shoes,  cotton  and  woolen  cloth- 
ing. India-rubber  goods,  furniture  and  other 


merce  away  from  Quebec.  The  advantage 
of  Montreal's  situation  has  been  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  building  of  ship  canals  around 
the  rapids  ;  also  by  the  dredging  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  thus  deepening  the  channel  so  as 
to  admit  ocean  vessels  as  far  as  the  city. 

Quebec  is  one  of  the  quaintest  and  most 
interesting  cities  on  the  continent.  It 
resembles  a  bit  of  the  Old  World,  trans- 
planted to  America,  and  a  visitor  from  the 


COUNTRIES   NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


169 


Fig.  22'J.  - 


■A  view  of  Montreal  from  the  hill  called  Mount  Royal,  which  rises  directly  hehind  the  city. 
is  the  broad  St.  Lawrence.     Notice  the  long  bridge  crossing  it. 


In  tliK  distance 


United  States  feels  that  he  is  indeed  in  a 
foreign  country.  There  is  some  manufac- 
turing there,  such  as  the  making  of  boots 
and  shoes. 

Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  is 
above  Montreal,  at  some  large  falls  in  the 
Ottawa  River.  On  account  of  this  fine 
■water  power,  it  has  much  manufacturing, 
and  is  especially  noted  for  its  lumber  man- 
ufactories.      It    has    beautiful    government 


buildings,  known    there   as  the  Parliament 
Buildings  (Fig.  230). 

What  Canadian  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast  have 
already  been  mentioned,  and  in  what  connections? 
One  of  these,  Halifax,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in 
Canada.  Although  it  has  an  excel- 
lent harbor,  Halifax  has  never  become  a  great  city. 
The  reason  is  easily  seen  on  examining  the  map 
(Iug.219).  The  narrow  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  is 
not  large  enough  to  supply  raw  materials  and  man- 


2    Along  the 
Atlantic  coast 


Flo.  230.  —  The  Parliament  Buildings  at  Ottawa. 


170 


NORTH  AMERICA 


ufactured  articles  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  it  a 
great  shipping  point,  and  the  country  farther  west 
is  too  difficult  to  reach.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  send 
Western  goods  to  Montreal,  for  shipment  eastward, 
than  to  carry  them  by  rail  as  far  as  Halifax. 

New  York  and  Montreal  show  clearly  the  reasons 
why  some  cities  flourish  ;  and  Halifax  is  an  equally 
good  illustration  of  the  reason  why  other  cities  fail 
to  grow  so  rapidly. 

Toronto,  the  second  city  in  size  in  Can- 
ada, is  located  on  an  excellent  harbor  on  the 
3.  Along  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  Being 
Great  Lakes  iu  the  midst  of  a  fertile  farm- 
ing country,  and  having  water  connection 
with  coal  on  the  east  and  south,  and  with 


Fig.  231 .  —  A  Greenland  Eskimo  in  his  skin-boat,  or  kayak.    In  the  distance 
are  icebergs  which  have  broken  off  from  the  great  Greenland  glacier. 

lumber  and  other  raw  products  on  the  west, 
Toronto  has  become  a  great  manufacturing 
center.  At  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive  cities  on  the  continent. 

Not  far  from  Toronto,  on  the  extreme  western 
end  of  Lake  Ontario,  is  Hamilton,  a  manufacturing 
and  trade  center ;  and  there  are  other  cities  on  the 
same  peninsula,  the  largest  being  London.  At  the 
eastern  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  near  the  Thousand 
Islands,  is  Kingston,  which  has  cotton  and  woolen 
mills,  car  shops,  and  locomotive  works,  besides 
being  a  lake  port  and  railway  center.  Windsor 
(Fig.  154),  opposite  Detroit,  shares  some  of  the 
advantages  of  that  city,  being  a  shipping  point  and 
a  manufacturing  center.  Port  Arthur,  whose 
location  corresponds  to  that  of  Duluth  in  the  United 
States,  is  a  shipping  point  for  grain,  cattle,  and  other 
Western  products. 

What  have  you  already  learned  about  Winnipeg  ? 


Vancouver,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  has  already  been 

mentioned.     In  what  connection  ?     Across  the  strait 

on  the  island  of  Vancouver,  is  the    .    „ 

city  of  Victoria.     How   do   these 

two  cities  compare  in  size  with  the  two  largest  on 

Puget  Sound  ?     (See  Appendix,  pp.  428  and  430.) 

2.  Greenland 

The  Eskimos  (Fig.  231)  living  on  the  west  coast 
of  Greenland  are  under  the  control  of  the  Danes, 
who  trade  with  them  for  skins,  walrus,  ivory,  blub- 
ber, and  eider  down.  The  most  northern  of  the 
Danish  trading  stations  is  UpERNrviK,  which  is 
the  most  northern  point  in  the  world  where  white 
men  live.  Some  uncivilized  Eskimos,  however,  have 
homes  still  farther  north. 

Most  of  Greenland  is  a  barren 
waste  of  ice  and  snow  —  one  of  the 
most  complete  deserts  in  the  world. 
There  is  no  living  thing  to  be  found 
in  the  ice-covered  interior.  The 
extent  of  this  land,  and  other  facts 
about  it,  you  have  already  studied 
in  connection  with  the  Great  Glacier 
(p.  7). 

1.  What  two  nations  struggled 
for  possession  of  Canada,  and  what 
was      the      result  ? 

2.  How  many  prov-   *evlew 
inces    are   there    in    vuestl0ns 
Canada,  and  what  are  their  names? 

3.  What  can  you  tell  about  New- 
foundland? 4.  Show  how  fully  the 
surface  features  of  southern  Canada 
correspond  to  those  of  our  Northern 
States.  5.  What  have  been  the 
effects  of  the  Great  Glacier  here? 

6.  Describe  the  climate.  7.  Where  are  the  forests  ? 
8.  What  is  the  method  of  lumbering,  and  what  are 
the  leading  lumber  centers?  9.  Where  are  food 
fish  caught?  AVhat  kiuds  are  caught?  10.  What 
about  the  sealing?  11.  What  are  the  farm  prod- 
ucts in  the  West?  12.  State  the  principal  facts 
about  ranching.  13.  Where  is  the  principal  grain 
region,  and  what  is  the  leading  city  there  ?  14. 
Where  is  the  most  populous  farming  section,  and 
what  are  its  products  ?  15.  What  about  farming  in 
southeastern  Canada?  16.  What  can  you  tell  about 
mining  in  British  Columbia  and  Yukon  Territory. 
17.  What  mineral  products  are  found  in  Ontario  and 
southeastern  Canada?  18.  Whatare  the  conveniences 
for  transportation?  19.  Locate  and  tell  the  princi- 
pal facts  about  the  leading  cities  along  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Ottawa  rivers.  20.  Along  the  Atlantic 
coast.  21.  Along  the  Great  Lakes.  22.  Locate  and 
tell  about  other  cities  of  importance.  23.  What  is 
the  condition  in  Greenland? 


COUNTRIES   SOUTH  OF  TIIE    UNITED   STATES 


171 


1.  Compare  the  area  of  Canada  with  that  of  the 
United  States  (Appendix,  pp.  424  and  420).     2.  Com- 
pare   the   populations    (Appendix). 
Suggestions         ;J   Read  ^  story  of  „  Evangeline.» 

4.  Lake  Erie  is  how  much  higher  than  Lake  Onta- 
rio? How  are  ships  able  to  pass  from  one  lake 
to  the  other?  5.  Why  should  Buffalo  grow  more 
rapidly  than  Toronto?  6.  Of  what  advantage  is  it 
to  the  United  Kingdom  to  hare  such  a  large,  pro- 
ductive colony  as  Canada?  7.  What  books  on 
Arctic  travel  have  you  read?  Tell  some  of  the  things 
you  have  learned  from  them.  8.  Read  Nansen's 
"  First  Crossing  of  Greenland  "  or  Peary's  "  Xorth- 
ward  over  the  Great  Ice."  9.  Recall  facts  that  you 
have  already  learned  about  the  Eskimo. 


VI.   Countries  South  of  the  United 
States 

Mexico.   1.  Describe  the  relief  of  Mexico.  2.  Name 

the  two  large  peninsulas.     3.  What  river  forms   a 

part    of    the     northern     boundary? 

*  '  4.  What  salt  waters  border  Mexico? 

5.  Find  the  capital.  6.  Find  the  seaport  Vera  Cruz. 
7.  Compare  the  coast  line  with  that  of  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  United  States. 

Central  America.  8.  Xame  the  countries.  9.  What 
sea  lies  to  the  east?  10.  What  large  lake  do  you 
find?  11.  Examine  the  small  map  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  Describe  the  route  proposed.  12.  Xame  the 
two  cities  at  the  two  ends  of  the  canal. 

West  Inr/ie.i  (Fig.  205).  13.  Find  the  Bahamas;- 
the  Lesser  Antilles;  the  Greater  Antilles.  14.  Xame 
the  four  largest  islands  in  the  West  Indies.  15.  In 
what  zone  do  the  West  Indies  lie  ?  10.  What 
waters  touch  the  shores  of  the  West  Indies  ? 
17.  What  nation  owns  the  Bahamas?  18.  What 
other  nations  have  possessions  in  the  West  In- 
dies? 19.  Locate  the  Bermuda  Islands  on  the  map, 
Figure  9. 

i .    Mexico 

After  Columbus  discovered  the  "West 
Indies,  the  neighboring  coast  of  the  main- 
History  land  was  visited  and  settled. 
1.  The  inhabit-  Thus  the  Spaniards  came  into 
^ts  possession  of  Mexico  and  some 
of  the  country  to  the  north  which  now  be- 
longs to  the  United  States. 

The  explorers  found  so  much  gold  and 
silver  in  Mexico  that  many  Spaniards 
settled  there.  They  opened  mines,  and 
started  coffee  plantations,  farms,  and  cattle 
ranches.       Many    of    the    Spaniards    inter- 


married with  the  Indians,  so  that  Mexico 
has  a  varied  population.  There  are  savage 
Indians,  half-civilized  Aztecs,  Spanish  and 
Indian  half-breeds,  and  some  pure-blooded 
Spaniards. 

Spain  governed  Mexico  so  badly  that 
the  people  finally  rebelled,  and  in  1821  won 
their  independence.  They  %.  The  gov- 
then  established  a  republic  ernment 
with  a  government  modeled  after  our  own. 
There  are  twenty-seven  states,  each  with 
a  government  and  capital,  somewhat  like 
our  states ;  and  there  are  three  territories. 
There  is  also  a  central  government,  with 
the  capital  at  Mexico  City,  where  the 
president  lives. 

For  a  long  time  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Colo- 
rado, together  with  the  country  west  of  them  to  the 

Pacific,    were    a    part    of    Mexico.    „ 

„.  .,       .    ,         j  ,       3.  Loss  of 

1  exas    won     its     independence    by   +errjtorv 

war,  and  joined  our  L'nion  (p.  88)  ; 

and  as  a  result  of  our  war  with  Mexico,  called  the 

Mexican  War,  the  United  States  obtained  all   the 

territory  which  in  Figure  283  is  marked  "  Mexican 

Territory  ceded  1848." 

Mexico  consists  of  four  sections,  at  dif- 
ferent heights  above  sea  level.     The  lowest 
of  these  is  a  coastal  plain,  and 
other  lowlands,  near  the  sea.    Surface 
The  second  includes  the  slopes    ^    The  fonr 
that  extend  toward  the  high-  sections  at 


different 
altitudes 


lands  of  the  interior.  The 
third  is  the  highland  itself,  a 
broad  table-land,  or  plateau,  occupying  a 
large  part  of  the  interior  of  the  country 
(Fig.  10).  The  fourth  consists  of  moun- 
tain ranges  and  peaks,  which  are  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Cordillera  of  our  Western 
States.  Among  the  mountains,  as  in  the 
United  States,  are  volcanic  cones  (Fig. 
233),  two  of  them,  Orizaba  and  Popocate- 
petl (Fig.  210),  being  among  the  highest 
peaks  on  the  continent. 

The  divide  of  this  narrow  part  of  North 
America  extends  from  north  to  south,  send- 
ing some  of  the  streams  east- 
ward, others  westward.     Thus 
all  the  streams   of  the  country  are    short. 
They  have  a  rapid  fall  in  descending  from 


172 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the   interior  plateau,    and   have   cut   deep 
canyons  in   its    edges.      In    addition,   the 


Fig.  233.  —  Colima,  a  Mexican  volcano,  in 
eruption.  This  great  column  of  steam 
and  volcanic  ash  has  been  expelled  with 
terrific  force,  rising  to  a  height  of  over 
a  mile. 

streams  pas's  through  such  an  arid  coun- 
try that  they  have  little  water.  Rivers  of 
this  kind  are  not  useful  for  navigation. 
This  lack  of  large,  navigable 
rivers  has  greatly  interfered 
with  the  development  of 
Mexico.     Suggest  why. 

As  in  our  Southern  States,  the 
land    has    been   rising    instead   of 

sinkinsr.    Therefore 
3.   The  coast         ..  .  •  , 

,.  .  .     .  the  coast  is  regular, 

line  and  harbors  , 

and  there  are   few 

good  harbors.  There  are  two 
large  peninsulas  projecting  from 
the  mainland.  One  of  these  is 
Yucatan;  the  other  is  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, a  southern  extension  of  the 
mountains  of  our  Western  States. 


near  Vera  Cruz  and  in  Yucatan,  have  the 
hot  climate  of  the  tropical  zone  (Fig.  23-4), 
with  abundant  rain  brought  by  the  damp 
winds  that  blow  across  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

On  the  slopes  west  of  these  plains  the 
temperature  is  not  so  hot,  but  there  is  much 
rain.     This  belt  has  a  subtropical  climate. 

The  interior  plateau  is  so  high  that  the 
climate  is  temperate,  even  in  the  part  that 
lies  south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer ;  but 
there  is  so  little  rain  that  the  country  is 
arid  (Fig.  299).  The  climate  becomes 
steadily  cooler  the  higher  one  goes.  In- 
deed, even  within  the  tropical  zone,  ther 
are  places  among  the  mountains  where  the 
snow  never  melts,  and  where  there  are  true 
glaciers.  On  these  high  mountain  slopes 
the  rainfall  is  quite  heavy. 

In  the  greater  part  of  Mexico  forests  are 
rare,  except  upon  the  higher  mountains.     In 
fact,  there  is  so  little  forest  on  products  from 
the  arid  plateau  that  the  in-  forest  trees 
habitants  find  difficulty  in  ob-  and  other  re- 
taining wood  for  fuel.     Much  tive  Plants 
of  this  is  dug  from  the  ground ;  for  some 
of  the  arid-land  bushes,  such  as  the  mes- 
quite,  have   long,  thick  roots   which  make 
excellent  firewood.     The  other  plants  found 


Fig. 


Mexico  has   four  different 

kinds  of  climate,  correspond- 
ing somewhat 
closely   to   the    four   areas   of 

different  altitudes.     The  low  coastal  plains, 


234.  —  A  view  in  the  tropical  lowlands  of  Mexico  near  the  coast,  called 
the  "  hot  lands."    The  road  is  bordered  by  banana  trees. 


in   the   arid   lands 
Western  States  (p. 


resemble  those   of  our 
16). 


COUNTRIES   SOUTH  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


173 


In  southern  Mexico  and  on  the  damp 
lowlands,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
dense  tropical  forests.  In  these  are  found 
many  valuable  woods,  such  as  mahogany, 
rosewood,  and  logwood.  The  rubber  tree 
also  grows  here,  and  large  quantities  of  rub- 
ber are  obtained. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  native  plants  is 
the  heniquen,  a  variety  of  hemp,  which  thrives  in 
Yucatan.     Among  the  exports  of  Mexico,  this  and 
other  fibers  rank  next  in  value  to 
mineral  products,  most  of  the  fiber 
going  to  the  United  States. 

Another  product  is  the  vanilla 
bean,  which  grows  upon  a  climbing 
plant.  In  the  seed-pod  are  nestled 
the  fragrant  beans  which  are  used 
for  making  flavoring  extracts,  for 
perfumeries,  and  for  medicine.  Pep- 
per, made  from  the  dried  berry  of  a 
tropical  plant,  is  obtained  in  Mexico. 
Indigo,  useful  as  a  dye,  is  likewise 
obtained  from  a  berry  in  this  region : 
and  sarsaparilla  is  extracted  from 
the  roots  of  a  tropical  plant  that 
grows  here. 


some  varieties  of  agave  contain  a  fiber  which  is  made 
into  paper  and  a  strong  thread;  and  from  the  juices 
of  one  kind,  called  the  maguey,  soap  may  be  made. 
So  valuable  is  the  maguey  that  it  is  carefully  culti- 
vated upon  plantations  (Fig.  235). 

The  Mexican  farming  methods,  which  are  very 
crude,  are  a  mixture  of  ancient  Aztec  customs  and 
those  introduced  from  Spain  several 
centuries  ago.  One  may  still  see  the 
wooden  plow  which  barely  scrapes 
the  ground ;  and  also  the  wooden- 
wheeled  cart  drawn  by  oxen.     There  are,  however, 


(2)  Farming 
methods;  and 
home  life 


Agriculture 

1.  On  the  arid 

plains 

(1)  Products 

by  irrigation 


Although  the  climate  of  a 
large  part  of  Mexico  is  arid, 
agriculture  is  the 
principal  industry 
of  the  people.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  snows  and  rains 
among  the  mountains,  which 
supply  water  for  irrigation.  On  the  irri- 
gated farms  the  products  of  the  temperate 
zone  are  raised,  such  as  wheat,  corn,  and 
beans  —  the  latter  being  one  of  the  staple 
foods  of  the  Mexicans.  Much  fruit  is  also 
produced,  especially  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
and  grapes. 

A  species  of  native  arid-land  plant,  called  agave, 
is  of  great  value.  The  stout,  sharp-pointed  leaves 
of  the  agave  rise  in  a  tuft  from  near  the  ground  ;  in 
the  center  stands  the  flower  stalk,  which  sometimes 
reaches  a  height  of  forty  feet,  and  which  bears  a 
cluster  of  white  flowers  on  the  top.  This  is  also 
called  the  century  plant,  because  it  requires  so  long 
(irom  ten  to  seventy  years)  to  mature  and  produce 
this  flower  stalk.  From  the  juice  of  the  agave  the 
Mexicans  obtain  analcoholic  drink  known  as  pulque, 
and  another  known  as  mescal.     The  tough  leaves  of 


Irrigated  fields  on  the  plateau  of  Me 
on  the  right  are  maguey. 


rows  of  plants 


many  farmers  who  have  adopted  the  same  methods 
of  farming  as  we  have ;  and  every  year  their 
number  is  increasing,  for  Mexico  is  now  advancing 
rapidly. 

The  home  life  of  the  people  is  interesting.  Their 
houses  have  but  one  story,  and  are  commonly  built 
of  sun-dried  bricks,  or  adobes  (Fig.  192),  held  to- 
gether by  layers  of  mud.  Often  there  is  but  one 
room  (Fig.  206),  the  ceiling  being  made  of  brush, 
and  the  floor  of  nothing  but  earth  or  stones.  In 
this  one  room  the  whole  family  cook,  eat,  and 
sleep.  Their  food  consists  of  very  simple  materials, 
such  as  unraised  bread,  baked  in  the  fireplace, 
beans,  and  sometimes  meat,  commonly  cooked 
with  red  pepper.  Men,  women,  and  even  children 
use  tobacco. 

While  this  description  is  true  for  the  poorer 
classes,  it  of  course  does  not  apply  to  the  wealthier 
and  educated  Mexicans.  But  even  these  have  adobe 
houses,  which  somewhat  resemble  those  of  southern 
Spain. 

So  much  of  Mexico  is  arid  that  large 
sections  are  suited  only  to  grazing.     For 


174 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  236.  —  Interior  of  a  Mexican  adobe  house. 

this  reason,  one  of  the  leading  industries  is 

ranching.     As  in  our  Western  States,  there 

are  extensive  cattle  and  sheep 

(  )    ane  mg       ranclies  ;  an(j  hides,  meat,  and 

wool  are  important  exports. 

Many  horses  and  mules  are  raised ;  but  the  little 
Mexican  jackass,  or  burro,  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon draft  animals  (Fig.  237).  It  is  the  size  of  a 
small  pony,  and  is  made  to  do  all  kinds  of  work. 
The  burro  is  a  very  patient  beast,  and  is  able  to 
carry  heavy  loads  and  endure  much  hardship. 

Hogs  are  fattened  in  large  numbers,  and  there  are 
many  goats.  The  latter  are  much  prized,  not  only 
for  their  meat  and  hides,  but  also  for  their  milk, 
■which  is  used  as  a  food  and  in  making  cheese. 

On  the  damp  lowlands,  the  farm  prod- 
ucts are  quite  different  from  those  on  the 
2.  On  the  lower,  arid  plateau.  There  rice,  sugar 
humid  lands  cane,  and  cotton  are  produced  ; 
also  tropical  fruits,  such  as  oranges,  ba- 
nanas, cocoanuts,  and  pineapples.  Upon  the 
slopes  between  the  tropical  lowlands  and 
the  temperate  plateau  much  cotton,  tobacco, 
and  coffee  are  raised. 

Coffee,  one  of  the  most'  valuable  products  of 
Mexico,  requires  a  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture,  a 
warm  climate,  and  plenty  of  shade.  In  order  to 
secure  shade,  the  coffee  bush,  which  reaches  a  height 
of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  is  planted  in  the  shade  of 
higher  trees.    A  white  blossom  appears  as  early  as 


March,  and  after  the  flower  falls  off, 
the  coffee  berry  begins  to  grow  (Fig. 
238).  It  resembles  a  dark  red  cran- 
berry. The  coffee  is  inside  of  this 
berry  in  the  form  of  two  kernels, 
and  the  husk  must  be  removed  in 
order  to  prepare  such  kernels  for 
market. 

One  of  the  principal  objects 
of  the  Spaniards  in  exploring 
the    New   World  Mining 
was  to  obtain  gold   i    Extent  of 
and   silver  ;    and   minerals 
they  were  rewarded   in  their 
search  by  the  discovery  of  rich 
mines    both    in    Mexico    and 
South     America.       Some     of 
these  mines  had  been  worked 
by  the  Indians  ;    others  were 
found  by  the  Spaniards  them- 
selves.     Mexico    is    still    a    great   mining 
country,  rivalling  the  United  States  in  the 
production  of  silver. 


8'> 

mr  ■■  * 

-  * 

-in 

**---^fc.~a$^^^R^^^^^^^^^Hi    1    ~~  TK  * 

5s2j&sl|lt?i         -l^w 

~ 

It"-  ■  — 3r " 

** 

Fig.  237.  —  A  Mexican  burro  carrying  heavy  sacks. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


175 


Much  gold,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  are  also 
produced,  and  recently  great  quantities  of 
petroleum  have  been  found  on  the  coastal 
plain,  as  in  Texas  and  Louisiana.  A  large 
amount  of  iron  is  known  to  exist  in  several 
parts  of  the  country.  At  one  place,  near 
Dur.yngo,  there  is  an  iron  mountain  which 
contains  an  enormous  amount  of 
very  rich  ore.  Here  blast  furnaces 
have  been  erected,  and  steel  rails 
and  other  iron  goods  are  manufac- 
tured.    Find  this  city  on  the  map. 

One  great  obstacle  to  raining  in  Mexico 

is  the  lack  of  good  coal.     Another  is  the 

lack  of  easy  transportation. 
2.  Difficulties       A   third    ;s   the   fact   that 

m  the  develop-  ,      c  , , 

.    ,     .  .         much  ot  the  region  cannot 
ment  of  mining  ...  °   , 

easily  be  explored  lor  ore. 

In  fact,  some  parts  of  the  country  are  still 
occupied  by  tribes  of  savage  Indians,  who 
not  only  prevent  miners  from  coming  in, 
but  even  defy  the  government.  Still  an- 
other difficulty  is  the  old-fashioned  methods 
of  mining  employed  by  many  of  the  Mexi- 
cans. Some  of  these  are  the  same  as  those 
used  by  the  Indians  centuries  ago.  But 
the  methods  are  being  improved,  for  many 
of  the  leading  mines  are  now  owned  by 
Europeans,  Americans,  or  educated  Mexi- 
cans. Mining  is  now  rapidly  developing 
in  Mexico,  and  minerals  form  more  than 
half  of  the  exports.  Fibers  are  the  second 
export  in  importance,  and  coffee  the  third. 

Because  of  the  ignorance  of  the 
working  people,  and  the  scarcity  of 

„      ,  coal,    there    is    not    a 

Manufacturing  ,     ,       j. 

great  deal  of  manu- 
facturing in  Mexico;  and  that  which 
is  done  is  largely  carried  on  by  hand. 
Some  of  this  hand  work  is  very 
beautiful,  for  even  the  uneducated  Mexicans 
are  quite  artistic. 

There  are  large  tobacco  factories  in  the 
tobacco  district,  and  smelters  in  the  mining 
regions.  Some  earthenware  is  also  manu- 
factured, and  some  cotton  cloth.  Indeed, 
cotton  manufacturing  is  growing  rapidly  in 
importance,  the  cotton  used  being  that 
which  is  grown  in  Mexico.  More  money 
is  now  invested  in  cotton  mills  than  in  any 
other  form  of  manufacturing. 


There  are  no  large  manufacturing  towns 
such  as  we  find  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States ;  but  Mexico  is  making  rapid  prog- 
ress. There  is  much  water  power  where 
the  streams  descend  from  the  plateau,  and 
this  is  being  used  for  producing  electricity. 
Railroads,  too,  are  being  built  in  many  parts 


Fig.  238.  —  Coffee  tree  and  berries  growing  in  the  shade  of 
higher  trees. 

of  the  republic.  But,  most  important  of 
all,  those  now  in  control  are  encouraging 
all  kinds  of  industry  and  providing  better 
facilities  for  education. 

Wherever  possible,  the  Mexicans  have  col- 
lected in  cities  or  towns  (Fig.  239).     This 
has   been    necessary  in    many   Leading  cities 
sections  in  order  to  obtain  the  i.  inthe 
water  supply  needed  for  irri-  interior 
gation.     It  is  usually  too  great  a  task  for  a 
single  farmer  to  build  a  ditch;  and  there- 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  239.  —  A  view  of  Leon,  one  of  the  cities  on  the  plateau  of  Mexico.    Notice  how  low  the  houses  are. 
Most  of  thern  are  one-story  adobe  buildings. 


fore  a  number  combine  and  thus  live  close 
together. 

There  are  a  few  large  cities,  the  greatest 
being  the  capital,  Mexico  City  (Fig.  240), 


built  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  Aztec  Indian 
city.  It  is  situated  on  a  high  plateau  and 
therefore,  although  so  far  south,  has  a  cool 
climate.     In  this  city,  as  elsewhere  in  Mex- 


Fig.  240.—  A  view  of  a  part  of  Mexico  City,  with  the  snow-capped  cone  of  the  volcano  Popocatepetl  rising  in  the  distance. 


COUNTRIES   SOUTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


177 


ico,  there  are  many  fine  churches  and  other 
notable  buildings.  Another  city  in  the 
interior  of  Mexico  is  Puebla,  founded  in 
1531.  It  also  is  situated  near  one  of  the 
ancient  cities,  or  pueblos,  of  the  Aztecs. 
Guadalajara  is  a  third  important  Mexi- 
can city.     Locate  each  of  these  cities. 

Since  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico  is  low 

and   sandy,  it    has  no  good  harbors.     The 

two  largest  cities 

2.   On  the  coast    there     ^     T ^ 

Pico  and  Veea  Cruz,  whose 
harbors  are  protected  by  break- 
waters. There  are  some  good 
harbors  on  the  western  coast. 
One  of  these  is  Acapulco, 
but  since  it  is  backed  by 
high  mountains  and  a  thinly 
settled  country,  that  port  has 
never  become  of  much  im- 
portance. 

2.   Central  America 

Of  the  six  Central  American 
republics,  the  smallest  is  Sal- 
Names  of  the  vador5  the  next' 
Costa      Rica. 

Nicaragua,  Hon- 
duras, and  Guate- 
mala are  about  equal  in  size. 
These  are  all  in  North  America ; 
but  the  Republic  of  Panama  is 
partly  in  North  America  and 
partly  in  South  America.  It 
has  a  special  interest  for  us.  Why  (p.  154)  ? 
These  ajx  countries  are  independent  of 
each  other,  and  each  has  a  form  of  govern- 
ment modeled  after  that  of  the  United 
States.  In  addition  to  these  countries,  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Yucatan  Peninsula 
is  British  Honduras  (or  Belize),  a  colony  of 
the  United  Kingdom. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Central  American  republics 

are  mainly  Indians,  Spaniards, and  half-breeds.    The 

great  majority  are  uneducated,  and 
Character  of  ■   .,•     ,      T         , 

many  are  even  uncivilized.     Largely 

*    *  on    account  of  the  ignorance  of  the 

people   these  countries  are   not   good   examples   of 


republics.  An  ambitious  general,  finding  a  few 
followers,  may  at  any  time  try  to  overturn  the  gov- 
ernment. There  has  been  rebellion  after  rebellion 
in  these  nations;  presidents  have  been  driven  away 
or  murdered;  and  the  countries  have  quarreled  with 
one  another. 

Most  of  Central  America  is   mountainous,  and  is 
subject  to  volcanic  eruptions  and  to 


earthquakes  of  great  violence.     The 


Character  of 


earthquake     shocks     have     leveled        e  reSlon 
towns  and  killed  thousands  of  people.    For  instance, 


countries  and 
their  govern- 
ment 


241.  —  Loading  bananas  on  a  banana  plantation  in  Costa  Rica.  The 
bananas  are  then  taken  to  the  coast  and  placed  on  steamers  to  be 
shipped  to  the  United  States. 


San  Salvador,  the  capital  of  Salvador,  -was  so 
frequently  destroyed  by  earthquakes  that  the  inhabit- 
ants decided  to  choose  a  new  location  for  their  city ; 
but  this  is  scarcely  better  than  the  old  one. 

Since  these  countries  lie  in  the  tropical  zone,  the 
climate  is  hot.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  especially  on 
the  eastern  coast,  where  there  are  dense  jungles. 

A  large  portion  of  these  countries  is  occu- 
pied by  dense  tropical  forests,  from  which 

are   obtained  mahogany,  rose- 

,      ,  ,       r     ,  •  i    The  products 

wood,    logwood,     fustic,    and  r 

other  valuable  cabinet  and  dye  woods.  The 
rubber  tree  also  grows  here,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  rubber  is  an  important  industry. 


178 


NORTH  AMERICA 


As  in  Mexico,  coffee  is  raised  on  the 
hill  slopes  in  the  shade  of  the  forest  trees. 
Costa  Rica  is  one  of  the  most  important 
coffee-producing  districts  (Fig.  242).      Ba- 


1.  Jamaica 

(1)  Government 
and  people 

mainly 


are 


Fig.  2i2. — Drying  coffee  berries  in  Costa  Riea.  There  are 
berries  here  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry.  After  they 
husk  is  removed  and  the  bean  is  then  shipped  away. 

nanas   (Fig.    241),   sugar,   tobacco,   indigo, 
and  cocoa  are  other  products. 

Some  gold  and  silver  are  obtained,  the  former 
near  Bluefiekls,  the  latter  in  Honduras.  Manu- 
facturing is  little  developed. 

The   largest   city   in   Central    America  is   New 

Guatemala,  the  capital  of  Guatemala.     This  city, 

which  was  formerly  situated  at  the 

The  leading         \,&se    0f   two  very  active  volcanoes, 

y  was  changed  to  a  safer  site;  hence 

the  name  New  Guatemala. 


3.  The  West  Indies  (see  the  Map,  Fig.  205) 

A  chain  of  islands  reaches  from  the 
Yucatan  and  Florida  peninsulas  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River 
on  the  South  American  coast. 
These  islands  inclose  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  ;  and,  also,  with  the 
aid  of  the  peninsulas  of  Florida  and  Yucatan, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  All  of  this  archipelago, 
excepting  the  Bahamas,  lies  entirely  within 
the  tropical  zone. 

These  islands,  scores  of  which  are  very 
small,  are  called  the  West  Indies,  because 


tons  of  coffee 
are  dried,  the 


Location  and 
names  of  the 
groups  of 
islands 


Columbus  thought  he  had  reached    India. 


With  the  exception  of  the  Bahamas,  they 
are  also  known  as  the  Antilles.  Those  on 
the  north,  including  the  larger  ones,  are 
called  the  Greater  Antilles ;  and  those  on 
the  south,  the  Lesser  Antilles. 
Two  of  the  Greater  An- 
tilles have  already  been  de- 
scribed (p.  152).  The  Greater 
What  do  j'ou  re-  Antilles 
member  about  them  ? 

South  of  Cuba  lies  the  island 
of  Jamaica,  the  third  in  size  in 
the  West  Indies, 
and  a  possession 
of  Great  Britain. 
The  inhabitants 
either  negroes  or  mulattoes, 
there  being  fully  forty  blacks 
to  one  white  person. 

This  island  is  mountainous 
in  the  center,  but  has  excellent 
soil  on  the  lower 
slopes  and  in  the  valleys,  and  (2)  Prod™ts 
is  very  productive.  The  chief  occupation 
is  agriculture,  and  the  women  are  employed 
in  outdoor  work  as  much  as  the  men.  Oue 
of  the  main  products  is  sugar  cane.  Early 
vegetables  and  fruits,  such  as  oranges 
and  bananas  (Fig.  243),  are  also  raised. 
Jamaica  ginger,  of  which  every  one  has 
heard,  is  obtained  from  the  root  of  a  plant 
that  grows  in  this  island. 

The  climate  and  scenery  are  very  attractive,  and 
many  people  from  the  United  States  go  there  for  a 
part  of  the  winter.  Regular  ocean  steamers  carry 
passengers,  together  with  great  quantities  of  tropical 
fruits  and  vegetables.  ^, 

As   in   other  islands  of. the  West' Indies,  earth- 
quakes are  common.     One  of  these, 
in  1906,  caused  great  destruction  in    (3>  Earthquakes 
Kingston,  the  capital  and  leading  city. 

Haiti  was  the  first  large  island  discov- 
ered by  Columbus,  and  on  it  he  made  settle- 
ments and  opened  mines.  Like  2.  Haiti 
the  other  Greater  Antilles,  this  (l)  Government 
became  an  important  Spanish  colony;  but 
Spain  lost  one  island  after  another,. the  last 
to  go  being  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  (p.  152). 


COUNTRIES   SOUTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


179 


(2)  Products 


Haiti  has  long  been  independent,  and  there 
are  now  two  republics  in  the  island  —  Haiti 
and  Santo  Domingo.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  former  is  Pokt  au 
Prince  ;  and  of  the  latter, 
Santo  Domingo.  They  are  not 
very  progressive  republics,  and,  as  in 
Central  America,  revolutions  are  very 
common.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are 
negroes  and  half-breeds,  descendants 
of  the  slaves  of  the  Spanish  settlers; 
but  there  are  more  white  people 
in  Santo  Domingo,  winch  is  more 
progressive  than  Haiti. 

Many  of  the  natives  obtain  their 
living  in  the  most  primitive  fashion, 
like    the   negroes    of 
Africa ;  but  others, 
especially  near  the  seacoast,  are 
engaged  in  raising  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  and  bananas.     There  are 
valuable  woods  covering  much 
of  the  island,  and  some  mineral 
wealth  ;  but  little  is  done  with 
these  resources. 

Most  of  the  islands  among 
the  Lesser  Antilles  are  posses- 
The  Lesser         sions     of     Great 
Antilles  Britain,    though   some    belong 

(1)  Government  to    other     nations.       For    in- 
«* product,      gfcancej  Martillique  and  Guade. 

loupe  belong  to  France  ;  St.  Thomas  and 
St.  Croix  to  Denmark  ;  and  some  to 
Holland.  The  products  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  are  similar  to  those  of  the  other 
West  Indies,  the  most  important 
sugar  cane. 


Fig 


being 


and  earth 
quukes 


These  small  islands  are  volcanic  cones.  Most  of 
the  volcanoes  are  now  extinct,  but  in  Martinique 
and  in  St.  Vincent  there  have  been 
violent  volcanic  outbursts.  One  of 
the  most  terrible  volcanic  eruptions 
ever  recorded  occurred  in  Martinique 
in  1002.  After  being  quiet  for  about  fifty  years, 
Mont  Pelee  (Fig.  244)  suddenly  burst  forth  and 
completely  destroyed  the  beautiful  city  of  St.  Pierre, 
which  was  situated  at  its  base  (Fig.  245).  In  a  few 
seconds  all  of  the  inhabitants,  over  twenty-five  thou- 
sand people,  were  killed  by  the  cloud  of  steam  and 
hot  ash  which  descended  upon  them. 


North    of    Haiti    and    Cuba    are    several 
hundred  small  islands  called  the  Bahamas, 

which  be- 
long to  Great 
Britain.  A 
number  of 
these  are  in- 
habited, and  . 
on  one  is 
situated  the 
city  of  Nas- 
sau. 

These   islands,  like   the  coast 
of  southern  Florida  (p.  72),  have 
been     made      by 
coral  polyps.   One    The  Bahamas 
of  the  products  is    1.  Government 
the  sponge,  which   and  chief  city 
grows  in  the  clear,    2.  How  the 
warm  waters  of  the    islands  were 
Bahama  banks.     To    madei  als° 
obtain    sponges,    the    °^^onS  *** 
inhabitants       either 
cruise  about  in  boats,  raking  them 
up,  or  they  dive  into  the  clear  water, 
tearing  them  from  the  bottom. 

On    the    land,    early    vegetables, 
pineapples,    oranges,  and   cocoanuts 
are  raised   by  the  inhabitants,  who 
are  chiefly  negroes.     One  of  the  in- 
dustries, as  on  the  neighboring  coast  of  Florida,  is 


!43.  —  Bananas  as  they  grow, 
hanging  in  great  bunches  from 
the  broad-leafed  banana  tree. 


Copyrighted  1902,  by  William  IT.  Rail. 
Fig.  244.  —  A  view  of  Mout  Pelee.    When  this  picture 
was  taken  a  small  eruption  was  just  beginning,  and 
the  steam  and  ash  are  seen  rising  from  the  crater. 


180 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  245.  — The  ruined  city  of  St.  Pierre  after  the  terrible  volcauic  eruption  of  1902. 


Location  and 
climate 


caving    for    winter   visitors.       Why   should    people 
wish  to  go  there? 


4.    The  Bermudas  (Fig.  9) 

Far  out  in  the  Atlantic,  six  hundred  miles  east  of 
the  Carolinas,  and  alone  in  mid-ocean,  is  a  cluster  of 

islands,   known    as   the    Bermudas. 

The  largest  is  only  fifteen  miles  long 

and  one  or  two  miles  wide.  Being 
in  the  open  ocean,  and  surrounded  by  warm  ocean 
currents,  these  islands  have  a  delightful  and  equable 
climate.  In  midwinter,  when  people  in  the  same 
latitude  in  the  United  States  are  shivering  with 
cold,  those  in  the  Bermudas  are  able  to  sit  out  of 
doors  in  comfort,  both  day  and  night. 

This  group  of  islands,  which  belongs  to  Great 
Britain,  is  inhabited  mainly  by  negroes  and  mulat- 
Peopleand  toeS'   wh°   are    e»Saged    in   raising 

occupations         early   veSetabIes   for  the  American 

market,  especially  potatoes  and  on- 
ions. Another  important  product  is  the  Easter  lily, 
great  fields  of  which  are  cultivated  for  the  Easter 
season.  Many  persons  from  the  United  States  are 
attracted  here  every  winter,  most  of  whom  stay  in 
the  largest  city,  Hamilton. 


Mexico:  Questions.  1.  Give  some  facts  about 
the  history  of  Mexico.  2.  Explain  about  the  four 
sections   in   Mexico   that    have   different   altitudes. 


3.  Tell  about  its  rivers.  4.  Its  coast  line  and  har- 
bors. 5.  Its  climate.  6.  What  are  the  products 
from  the  forest  trees,  and  other  na- 
tive plants  ?  7.  What  agricultural 
products  are  obtained  by  irrigation? 
8.  Describe  the  farming  methods 
and  the  home  life  in  the  arid  lands. 


Review  Ques- 
tions and 
Suggestions 

9.   Where  is 


ranching  carried  on?  What  animals  are  raised? 
10.  What  products  are  obtained  from  the  lower 
humid  lands?  11.  What  about  the  extent  of  min- 
erals in  Mexico?  12.  Mention  several  difficulties  in 
the  development  of  mining  there.  13.  What  is  the 
condition  of  manufacturing?  14.  Name  and  locate 
the  leading  cities  in  the  interior.     15.   On  the  coast. 

Suggestions.  1G.  Find  out  why  coffee  raising 
requires  special  care.  17.  Find  an  article  of  furni- 
ture made  of  mahogany.  18.  Walk  toward  Mexico 
City.  li).  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  its  loca 
tion?  20.  Who  is  the  president  of  Mexico? 
21.   Make  a  sketch  map  of  Mexico. 

Cextral  America  :  Questions.  22.  Name  the 
countries  here,  and  tell  their  form  of  government. 
23.  What  is  the  character  of  the  people.  24.  De- 
scribe the  region.  25.  What  are  the  products? 
2G.    Name  and  locate  the  leading  city. 

Suggestions.  27.  What  disadvantages  do  you 
see  in  the  lack  of  a  central  government  for  all  the  Cen- 
tral American  republics?  28.  In  what  other  ways, 
besides  saving  coal,  will  the  canal  across  Panama 
prove  of  advantage?     Let  a  committee  be  appointed 


REVIEW  OF  XORTU  AMERICA 


181 


from  your  class  to  obtain  definite  facts  about  tbe 
matter.  29.  Why  will  harbors  at  each  end  of  the 
canal  be  necessary?  30.  .Make  a  sketch  map  of 
Central  America. 

The  West  Indies  and  the  Bermudas:  Ques- 
tions. 31.  Locate  the  West  Indies,  and  give  the 
names  of  their  principal  groups.  32.  Tell  what  you 
can  about  the  government,  people,  and  products  of 
Jamaica.  33.  The  earthquakes  there.  3-1.  What  can 
you  tell  about  Haiti?  35.  State 
important  facts  about  the 
Lesser  Antilles.  313.  About 
the  Bahamas.  37.  How  are 
the  Bermudas  important? 
Locate  them. 

Suggestions.  38.  How 
does  each  of  the  largest  four 
of  the  West  Indies  compare 
in  area  and  population  with 
New  York  State  ?  (See  tables 
in  Appendix,  pp.424  and42fi.) 
39.  Find  out  more  about  the 
eruption  of  Mont  Pelee. 

VII.    Review  of 
North  America 


The  natural  advan- 
tages that  North  America 
The  story  of  possesses  as 
a  home  for 


ered  by  the  Great  Glacier  (p.  7)  ?     Mention 
some  of  its  important  effects  (pp.  9-11). 

In  what  ways  has  the  sinking  or  rising  of 
the  coast  been  important  (p.  11)  ?  State 
the  present  size  and  shape  of  the  continent 
(p.  12).  Show  the  importance  of  its  posi- 
tion (p.  12j. 


Fig.  24ti.  — Distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States,  1U10. 


our  continent 

man  have  been  the  result  of  slow  changes 

extending  through  millions  of  years. 

How  has  our  coal  been  formed  (p.    2)  ? 
How  about  other  minerals  (p.  4)  ? 

What  great  mountain  systems  have  been 
produced     (p.    4)  ?       What    about     their 


Describe  the  plants  and  animals  of  the  Far 
North  (p.  14).  Of  our  arid  West  (p.  16). 
What  about  the  plants  and  its  plants,  ani- 
animals  in  other  parts  of  the  mals,  and  peo- 
temperate  zone  (p.  17)?  ples 
About  those  of  the  torrid  zone  (p.  19)  ? 


New  York 

Pennsylvania 

Illinois 

Ohio 

Texas 

y.  113,014 

7,665,111 

5.638,591 

4.767,12' 

3,896,542 

3,366,416 

Fig.  247.  —  The  six  states  with  largest  population  (10101. 


height?  What  are  the  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal ranges  in  the  Cordillera?  What  do 
you  know  about  the  formation  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  (p.  5)  ? 

What  portion  of  the  continent  was  cov- 


Describe  the  manner  of  life  of  the  Indians 
Cp.  22).  Why  did  they  never  become 
more  powerful  (p.  23)  ? 

What  European  nations  tried  to  obtain 
possession  of  large  portions  of  this  continent 


182 


NORTH  AMERICA 


(p.  24)  ?      Give  some  reasons  why  the  Eng- 
lish succeeded  most  fully  (p.  26). 

i.  The  United  States 

At  present  there  are  probably  as  many  as 
a  hundred  and  twenty -five  million  persons  liv- 


lair        1255        120°        115*      110°      100°       100" 


Fig.  248.  —  Map  showing  distribution  of  cities. 


Population 

1.   Distribution 
of  people  in 
North  America 


ing  in  North  America,  distributed  among  the 
four  chief  sections  as  follows  : 
Central  America,  over  five 
million  ;  Canada,  over  seven 
million  ;    Mexico,  over  fifteen 

million  ;   and  the  United 

States  (not  including  de- 
pendencies), more    than 

ninety-one  million  (Fig. 

246).    From  these  figures 

it  is  clear  that  about  three 

fourths  of  all  the  inhab- 
itants  of    the    continent 

are  living  in  the  United 

States. 

Figure  246  shows  more 

clearly  than  Figure  248 

2.  Distribution    the  density 

of  people  in  of     popula- 

United  States        tion   jn   the 

different  parts  of  the 
Union.  Where  are  the 
most  thickly  settled  por- 
tions ?  The  most  S2>arsely  pIO,  249.  _ .  Map  show 


settled?  How  can  you  explain  such  dis- 
tribution (p.  28)  ?  Name  in  their  order 
the  six  states  having  the  greatest  popula- 
tion (Fig.  247).  Find  the  center  of  popu- 
lation (star  in  Fig.  246). 

Figure  248  gives  the  location  of  the  cities, 
the  largest  having  the  largest 
dots.     In  the  Ap-  3   Numberin 

pendix  (p.  426)  is  cities,  and  in 
a  table  of  the  the  country 
twenty-five  largest  cities.  Find 
the  dots  (Fig.  248)  that  repre- 
sent several  of  these.  In  what 
respect  are  the  two  figures  (246 
and  248)  alike  ? 

The  great  cities  are  so  numer- 
ous, and  have  been  so  often 
mentioned,  that  there  is  danger 
of  valuing  them  too  highly,  as 
compared  with  the  country. 
At  the  time  of  George  Wash- 
ington very  few  people  lived  in 
cities.  Even  at  present  about 
two  thirds  of  our  ninety-one 
million  inhabitants  live  either  in  the  coun- 
try, or  in  towns  with  a  population  of  less 
than  eight  thousand.  In  Mexico  and , 
Canada  the  proportion  living  in  the  country 
is  still  greater.     In  other  words,  the  great 


113'       113°       111"       107°       103°       DO 


ing  the  regions  of  corn  production  in  the  United  States. 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


183 


majority  of  persons  in  North  America  are 
country  people. 

There    are    over    five     million    families 
occupying    farms    in    the    United    States. 


Illinois 


$157,629,000 
414,812,000  Bushels 


also  extensively  engaged  in  the  wheat  in- 
dustry. Figure  251  shows  the  principal 
wheat  regions.  Where  are  they?  What 
can  you  tell  about  wheat  in   the  valley  of 


Iowa 


$123,793,000 
343,870,000 


Tcvis 


$120,516,000 
273,900,000 


Indiana 


$114,206,000 
181,280,000 


$80,486,000 
201,216,000 


Fig.  230.  — The  six  leading  corn-producing  states  (1910). 


Kansas 


$76,095,000 
169,100,000 


-*M:. 


About  how  many  persons  does  that  repre- 
sent ?  Why  should  so  many  people  live  on 
farms  ?  The  leading  occupations  of  persons 
living  outside  of  the 
cities  are  agriculture, 
lumbering,  fishing,  and 
mining.  The  most  im- 
portant of  all  is  agricul- 
ture. 

Figure  249  shows  the 
regions  that  are  most 
Agriculture  extensively 
1.  Grains  engaged  in 

raising  corn.  What 
states  are  included  ?  In 
1910  over  two  and  a  half 
billion  bushels  were  pro- 
duced; how  many  bushels 
is  that  for  each  of  our  in- 
habitants? How  is  corn 
cultivated,  and  what  are 
its  uses  (p.  95)  ?  Which 
are  the  six  leading  states  in  corn  production, 
and  how  do  they  rank  (Fig.  250)  ? 

Many  of  the  states  that  raise  corn  are 


the  Red  River  of  the  North  (p.  96)  ?  What 
are  the  uses  of  wheat  ?  What  states  on  the 
Pacific  coast  produce  wheat  ?     Name  the  six 


09  -        05-         01 : 


_,  l^A  II'.'  llil  111  1"!  I'M  '.'.'  '.'.,  '.'1  ^1 


f  |£eaa  (Ann  CI  iitaAeffl 

{----■JO-i     <°     &*° 

^Bs200  bushels  and  over 


*r 


si  -R 


1"  r 


Fig.  251.  —  The  wheat  regions  of  the  United  States. 


leading  wheat  states  in  the  order  of  their 
importance  (Fig.  252). 

Corn  and   wheat   are  our  most  valuable 


Minnesota 

Kansas 

South  Dakota 

Indiana 

North  Dakota 

$88,435,000 
94,080,000  Bushels 

$52,137,000 
62,068,000 

Nebraska 

$41,581,000 
46,720,000 

$35,653,000 
40,981,000 

$32,494,000 
36,105,000 

$31,612,000 
35,124,000 

Fig.  252.  — The  six  leading  wheat-producing  states  (1910). 


184 


NORTH  AMERICA 


food  crops.      Why  is  so  little  of  either  raised 
in  the  western  half  of   the   United  States 


Fig.  253.  — Map  showing  the  cotton-producing  states. 

(p.  120)?  Why  so  little  in  New  England 
(p.  38)  ?  What  other  grains  do  we  raise, 
and  for  what  is  each  used  ? 


According  to  Figure  256  what  states  are  largely 

engaged  in  tobacco  growing  ?   What    _ 

•    °,°  %   ..      s,      t         ,3.  Tobacco 

is  the  appearance  of   the  plant,  and 

how  is  it  prepared  for  use  (p.  52)  ? 

Name  fruits  and  vegetables  that  are  extensively 
raised  in  the  United  States.     Figure  257  shows  the 
sections  that  produce  large  quantities 
of  fruit.   What  fruits  are  grown  along      '         ' 
the   coast   of    the    Middle    Atlantic 
States  (p.  53)  ?     In  Florida,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico  ? 

Why  is  the  region  near  the  Great  Lakes  especially 
suited  to  fruit  raising  (p.  97)  V  What  fruits  are  ex- 
tensively grown  there  (p.  97)  ?  Why  is  truck  farm- 
ing especially  important  in  New  England  (p.  39)? 
Where  are  early  vegetables  extensively  raised 
(pp.  53  and  77)  ? 

Name  and  locate  the  principal  irrigated  sections 
in  our  Western  arid  lands  (Fig-  258).  What  are 
their  products  (pp.  129-133)  ? 

Following  are  three  figures  showing  the  principal 
states  from  which  other  important  farm  products 
come  :  — 

How  does  the  value  of  hay  (Fig.  259)  in  New 
York  compare  with  that  of  corn  in  5  other  leading 
Iowa,  and  of  wheat  in  Minnesota?   farm  products 


Texas 

Georgia 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

South  Carolina 

3,140,000  Bales  of  500  lb. 

1,750,000 

Oklahoma 

1,174,000 

1,160,000 

1,116,000 

900,000 

Fig.  254.  —  The  six  leading  cotton-producing  states  (1910). 


Colorado 


The  cotton  belt  is  confined  entirely  to  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  country,  as 
2.  Cotton,  shown  in  Figure  253.  Why? 
sugar  cane,  Name  the  principal 
and  nee  cotton-raising  states 

and  give  their  rank  (Fig.  254). 
What  do  you  know  about  the 
growth  and  uses  of  cotton 
(pp.  74  and  75)  ? 

Where    in    these    states    are 


Note  that  the  states  raising  most  corn  (Fig.  250) 
correspond  rather  closely  with  those  raising  most 
hogs  (Fig.  260).  Why  is  that?  Name  the  six  lead- 
ing dairy  states  (Fig.  261). 


Hawaii 


sugar    cane 


and 


rice    grown 


Porto  Rico        Louisiana 


320,000 


300,000 


Philippines 


150,000 


T 

P 


Texas    1L000 


How  is  each  cultivated  (pp.  76 

and  77)?    ,How  does  LouisianaF,°-  'm-     The  six  leading  sugar-producing  sections  in  the  United  S 

rank  with  our  dependencies  in 


its  dependencies.     Colorado,  beet  sugar;  others,  cane  sugar  (1910). 


the  production  of  sugar  cane  (Fig.  255)  ? 
What  are  the  other  sources  of  sugar  ? 
Where  is   beet   sugar   produced   (p.    75)  ? 


Point  out,  on  the  map  (Fig.  40),  the 
portions  of  the  country  largely  given  up 
to  grazing.     Why  these  ?    Relate  how  cattle 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


185 


6.   Grazing 


jgg«      na;      vzv      117'    iw     iouJ    iqj'    ioi'      u1 


ranching  is  carried  on  (p.  99)  ;  also  sheep 

ranching  (p.  133).     Which  states  are  most 
important 
in  these  in- 
dustries     (Figs.     262- 

263)?      What    are    the 

uses     of     ranch     cattle 

(p.  110)  ?       Of     sheep 

(p.   134)  ?       In     which 

states    are    most    horses 

raised  (Fig.  264)  ? 
Figure  265  shows  the 

distribution  of  the   for- 
ests in  the 

Lumbering  tj  u  i  t  e  d 

States.  Describe  the 
industry  as  it  is  carried 
on  in  Maine  (p.  33)  ; 
in  the  Southern  States 
(p.  73) ;  in  Wisconsin 
(p.  102 )  ;  in  the  North- 
west (p.  125).  Why 
these  differences? 
Which  are  the  most  common  kinds  of  trees  in 
each  section  (Fig.  266)?  What  are  the 
products    of    the    forests    besides    lumber 


(Fig.  266)  ?     Where  are  the  leading  forest 
reserves  (p.  126)?    Of  what  value  are  they? 


109°  105 


Fig.  256.  —  Map  showing  the  tobacco-producing  states. 


Fig. 


-Map  showing  the  leading  fruit-growing  regions  of  the  United  States. 


(pp.    41    and    82)  ?     What   states    produce 
the  greatest  amount  of  lumber  at  present 


In  what  sections  is  fishing  especially  important 
(Fig.  2G7)  ?     What  fish  are  caught  on  our  Eastern 
coast     (p.    37)?        Ou    our    Pacific 
coast?    Tell  what  you  can  about  the  ° 

fishing  industry  in  Alaska. 
Describe  how  cod  fishing  is 
carried  on  (p.  37)  ;  salmon 
fishing  (p.  127)  ;  the  oyster 
industry  (p.  51). 

About    four   hundred 

thousand    men    in    our 

country  are    „.  . 

J  Mining 

employed  in 

mining.        How      many 

different  metals  can  3-011 

name  ?    How  many  other 

mineral     products     can 

you  mention  ? 

Of   all    the    minerals, 

the  fuels    are    probably 

the       most 

important. 

Why  ?     What  kinds  are 

there?      Figure    268 

shows    how    extensive    the    coal    beds    are. 

Name    the    states    in    which    the    greatest 


1.   The  fuels 


186 


NORTH  AMERICA 


quantities  of  coal  are  mined   (Fig.    269). 
Of  what  importance  is  it  that  there  are  coal 


*    n     I      '  X  J  iT^"*^ — i — -— — 


DAK. 

-  V 


te-*    V.-^'***.  J  N.MEX.  V       j 


* 


j^TvO^retM  that  can 


■S 


-5- 


Fig.  258.  —  Map  showing  irrigation  in  United  States. 

fields  in  so  many  parts  of  the  country  ? 
What  kinds  of  coal  are  there  ?  What 
are  the  differences  between  them  (p.    3)? 


2.  Iron  ore 


the  mineral  products.  Why  so  important? 
Where  are  the  principal  iron-producing  re- 
gions (Fig.  268)  ?  How  is  pig 
iron  made  (p.  57)  ?  Why  is 
not  the  Lake  Superior  district  a  favorable 
place  for  smelting  iron  ore  ?  Name  the  six 
states  that  lead  in  production  of  iron  ore 
(Fig.  270). 

Describe  three  methods  of  gold  mining 
(p.  122).  What  can  you  tell  about  gold 
and  silver  mining  in  Cali-  3.  Precious 
fornia  and  Colorado  (p.  123)  ?  metals 
In  what  other  parts  of  our  country  are  the 
precious  metals  found  (Fig.  271)  ?  How 
does  the  value  of  the  gold  produced  in  the 
six  leading  states  (Fig.  272)  compare  with 
that  of  the  silver  in  the  six  leading  states 
(Fig.  273)? 

What  states  are  most  noted  for  copper  mining 

(Fig.   271)  ?      Describe   that   industry   in   the   two 

leading  sections  (pp.  105  and  124).    „    „ 

,TT1       °       ,  ,  .       .  -4.  Other  min- 

W  here  and  how  is  stone  quarrying        ,        .     . 

■  j        ■     -w        n     ,      ?,     Li   eral  products 
carried  on  in  K  ew  England  (p.  do)  l 

How  is  salt  obtained  in  New  York  (p.  54)  ?    What 

other  valuable    mineral    products   can    you    name 

(pp.  57,  80,  106,  123)  ? 


New  York 


Pennsylvania 


Michigan 


Illinois 


Fig.  259.  —  The  six  leading 

Describe  a  coal  mine  (p.  55).     What  are 
the  uses  of  coal  ? 

Name  the  chief  sections  in  which  petro- 
leum and  natural  gas  are  found  (Fig.  271). 
Tell   also   how   they    have   been   produced 

Iowa 


hay-producing  states  (1010). 

The    four   occupations    that    have   been 

named  furnish  the  raw  materials   for   our 

food,  clothing,  and  shelter.    In 

. ,  ,  i  r  Occupations  of 

the  main,  these  four  occupa- .  country  and 

tions,  as  stated,  lead  people  to  of  city 


and     what 

their 

uses 

are  (p. 

56). 

The 

ores 

of   iron 

are 

among 

the 

most 

lm- 

portant 

of 

Nebraska 


Kansas 


Indiana 


260.  —The  six  leading  hog-producing  states  (1010). 


New  York 


783,479,286  Sal  Ions 


REVIEW  OF  NORTU  AMERICA 

Wisconsin 


187 


667,497,765 


Iowa 


489,563,616 


Minnesota  Pennsylvania 


407,020,500 


411,735,240 


Illinois 


395,934,071 


Fig.   261. —  The   six  leading  milk-producing  states    (1910).     (Based   on  statistics  giving  number  of  dairy  cows  and 

production  per  cow.) 


Texas 

Iowa 

New  York 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

.  $129,130,917 
6,721,502 

$118,991,384 
4,468,422 

Missouri 

$83,015,622 
2,421,593 

$80,184,162 
3,066,337 

$73,048,897 
2,931,255 

$72,731,694 
2,556,420 

Fig.  262. —  The  six  leading  cattle-producing  states  (1910). 


Wyoming 

Montana 

Idaho 

Ohio 

Oregon 

$29,648,616 
5,394,959 

$28,999,239 
5,372,639 

New  Mexico 

$15,631,797 
2,950,534 

$14,932,790 
3,907,055 

$12,197,477 
2,696,779 

$11,905,380 
3,264,012 

Fig.  263.  —  The  six  leading  sheep-producing  states  (1910). 


Iowa 


Fig.  264.  —  The  six  leading  horse-producing  states  (1910) . 


4,097,492,000 
Board  Feet 

3,733,900,000 
Board  Feet 

2,122,205,000 
Board  Feet 

2,084,633,000 
Board  Feet 

1,891,291,000 
Board  Feet 

Washington 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

Oregon 

Wisconsin 

Principal  Species, 
Douglas  Fir 

Principal  Species, 
Yellow  Pine 

Principal  Species, 
Yellow  Pine 

Principal  Species, 
Douglas  Fir 

Principal  Species, 
Hemlock 

Fig.  266.  — The  five  leading  lumber-producing  states  (1910). 


188 


NORTH  AMERICA 


live  in  small  towns  or  in  the  country.  The 
three  other  great  occupations  require  per- 
sons engaged  in  them  to  live  for  the  most 


Fig.  2(i7.  —  Map  showing  distribution  of  fish 

part  in  cities.  These  are  manufacturing ; 
the  transportation  of  goods;  and  buying 
and  selling,  or  trading. 

Figure  27-4  shows  the  principal  manufac- 
turing sections  in  the  United  States.  What 
groups  of  states  do  they  include  ?  How 
does  it  happen  that  New  Eng- 
land very  early  developed 
cotton  manufacturing,  although  it  raises  no 
cotton  (p.  40)  ?  What  other  kinds-  of 
manufacturing  are  important  there  (p.  41)? 


Manufacturing 


Name  several  of  the  leading  manufacturing 
centers  there,  and  tell  the  kinds  of  work-in 
each.  What  states  lead  in  textile  manufac- 
tures (Fig.  275)? 
Where  are  the  cotton 
and  wool  obtained  ? 

What  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing are  very  im- 
portant in  the  Middle 
Atlantic  States,  aside 
from  textile  goods 
(p.  57)?  What  great 
advantage  over  New 
England  have  those 
states  for  manufacturing 
(p.  54)  ?  What  reasons 
can  you  give  why  Penn- 
sylvania leads  in  iron 
manufacturing  (p.  56)  ? 
How  are  iron  and  steel 
made  (p.  57)  ?  Name 
three  kinds  of  iron 
(p. -58).  Name  the  six 
leading  states  in  the 
production  of  pig  iron 
(Fig.  276).  In  iron  man- 
ufacturing (Fig.  277). 

Tell  about  the  manu- 
facture of  pottery  in 
the  Middle  Atlantic 
(p.  59)  and  in  the  Cen- 
tral (p.  107)  States ; 
about  the  manufacture 
of  glass  (p.  59);  of  ce- 
ment (p.  60) ;  of  bricks 
(p.  59). 

Tell  about  the  advance 
in  manufacturing  in  the  Southern  States 
(p.  81).  What  great  advantage  does 
Birmingham  enjoy  for  the  manufacture  of 
iron  goods  (p.  82)  ?  I  Name  other  impor- 
tant kinds  of  manufacturing  in  the  Southern 
States  (p.  82).  What  are  the  leading  man- 
ufacturing centers  there,  and  for  what 
goods  is  each  important  ?) 

Into  what  goods  are  corn,  wheat,  and 
barley  manufactured  in  the  Central  States 
(p.  106)  ?     Name  the  great  centers  for  the 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


189 


manufacture  of  flour  (p.  113).  What  can 
you  tell  about  the  manufactures  from  forest 
products  in  the  Central 
States  (p.  106)?  For 
what  kinds  of  manufac- 
turing is  Chicago  impor- 
tant (p.  109)?  St.  Louis 
(p.  113)?  Cleveland 
(p.  112)?  Kansas  City 
(p.  114) ? 

How  has  the  abun- 
dance of  fruits  in  the 
Western  States  led  to 
much  manufacturing 
(p.  132)?  Name  some 
f  1  o  u  r-m  a  n  u  f  a  c  t  u  r  i  n  g 
center  in  the  Far  West 
(p.  137).  Name  impor- 
tant centers  for  smelting 
of  ores  (p.  137).  For 
what  manufactures  is 
San  Francisco  important  (p.  139)? 
land  (p.  140)?     Seattle  (p.  141)? 

Pennsylvania 


the  Pacific  coast  (pp.  138-141).     Our  seven 
leading  ocean  ports,  in  the  order  of  their  im- 


Fig.  20S. —  Map  showing  the  distribution  of  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  in  the 
United  States. 


Port- 


$313,304,812 
235,006,762  Short  Tons 


West 
Virginia 


Illinois 


856,665.061 
61,671,019 


Ohio 


$52,405,897 
45,900,246 


Ind.      Ala. 


Ohio 

Indiana 

Alabama 


$35,932,288 
$20,813,659 
$20,236,853 


Fig  260. —  The  six  leading  coal-producing  states  (1910). 

Manufacturing  employs   more   workmen   in  the 
United  States  than  any  other  industry,  except  agri- 
culture.    More  than  seven  million  men  are 
engaged  in  it. 

The  six  wealthiest  states  are  shown  in 
Figure  '278.  Xote  that  all  these  states  are 
extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing,  as 
shown  in  Figure  274. 

The  importance  of  being  able  to  ship 
goods  by  water  is  clearly  shown  by 
Transporta-  the  fact  that  most  of 
tion  of  goods  ,,ur  twenty-five  largest 
1.  By  water  cities  (see  Appendix,  p. 
426)  are  situated  on  a  water  route  of  some 
kind.  Name  the  leading  harbors  along  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.     Name  those  on 


portance,  are  New  York,  Boston,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore.  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
Galveston.     Locate  each. 

What  can  you  say  about  the  impor- 
tance of  the  Great  Lakes  for  shipment  of 
goods?  How  are  these  lakes  connected 
by  water  with  the  ocean  (p.  60)  ?  By 
examining  P'igure  279,  name  the  prin- 
cipal navigable  rivers  in  our  country. 

The  Great  Lakes  carry  about  twice  as 
much  freight  as  the  Mississippi  system. 
Mention   some    of   the   principal   kinds 
carried  on  each. 

Where  is  the  Erie  Canal?     Why  has  it 


34.209.668 
18,389,815 
16,111,462 


$78,462,560 
31,966.769  Long  Tons 


Michigan 


$41,393,585 
13.303,906 


N.Y.Wis.  Va.  N.J. 


New  York  $3,848,683 
Wisconsin  $3,610,349 
Virginia  $1,845,144 
New  Jersey  $1,582,213 


1.287,209 

1.149.551 

903,377 

521,832 


Fig.  270.  —  The  six  leading  iron-producing  states  (1910). 

been  so  important  ?  Why  has  it  become  of 
less  importance  than  formerly  ?  Where 
else  are  canals  found  (pp.  108  and  167)  ? 


190 


NORTH  AMERICA 


12.r  l-u"  115"  I10J  105°  100' 


1         Iflna  and  Petroleumj 

EH^-' "'"'  and  Silver 
E5U  C"PI"r 


Fig.  271.  — Mineral  regions  of  the  United  States. 


What  about  the  direction 
of  a  majority  of  the  railway 
lines  ?  Count  the  number 
of  railways  that  extend  east 
and  west  across  the  western 
half  of  the  continent  (Fig. 
280).  In  what  city  on  the 
Pacific  coast  does  each  of 
the  transcontinental  lines 
terminate  ? 

The  number  of  miles  of 
railroad  that  each  section  of 
states  has,  in  proportion  to 
its  area,  is  shown  in  Figure 
282.  The  names  of  the 
principal  railroads  in  the 
East  are  shown  in  Figure 
281.  Note  how  the  roads 
come  together  at  the  great 
centers  of  manufacturing 
and  commerce. 


Figure  280  shows  an  enormous  number  of 

railways  in  the  United  States.     They  now 

carry  fully  three  times  as  much 

freight  as  all  the  water  routes 

together.      In  what  part  of  the  country  are 


Trade  is  the  third  occupation  that  attracts 
great    numbers    of    people    to   Buying  and 
cities.     Every  one  knows  that  selling,  or 
it  is  important  to  have  stores  trade 
scattered  about  over  the  country,  in  towns 


Nevada 


$20,526,500 
992,969  Ounces    /\ 


PANNING    GOLD  — 


$20,441,400 
988,853 


$18,873,700 
913,015 


$16,271,800 

787,148 


South  Dakota 


$5,380,200 
260,267 


$4,312,700 
208.627 


Fig.  272. —  The  six  leading  gold-produeing  states  (1910). 


most  of  them  found  ?  Why  there  ?  Which 
section  is  next  best  supplied  with  them  ? 
Which  portion  has  fewest  lines?  How  does 
the  location  of  railway  lines  on  this  figure 
compare   with    the    location  of    cities    on 


Figure  248  ? 


Nevada 


Montana 


Utah 


$6,677,600 
12.366,000  Ounces 


$6,632,700 
12.282,900 


$5,640,800 
10,445,900 


Colorado 


Fig  273.  —The  six  leading  silver-producing  states  (1910). 


and    villages,  where  one  can  purchase  the 
articles  that  he  needs  from  day  to  day. 

But  there  could  not  well  be  such  stores 
unless  there  were  great  centers  of  trade 
where  the  storekeepers  themselves  could 
buy  the  goods  that  they  wished  later  to  sell. 


$4,602,400 
8,523,000 

Idaho 

$3,794,600 
7,027,000 

$1,434,100 
2,655,700 

REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


191 


This  is  called  ivholesale 
trade,  and  is  one  of  the 
leading  occupations  in 
the  great  cities. 

The  greatest  center 
for  the  wholesale  trade  in 
our  country  is  New  York 
City.  Describe  that 
business  there  (p.  63). 
What  goods  are  sold? 
Name  other  great  centers 
for  wholesale  trade,  and 
some  of  the  goods  that 
are  sold.  What  goods 
are  extensively  sold  in 
New  Orleans  (p.  76)  ? 
Memphis  (p.  86)  ?  In- 
dianapolis (p.  116)? 
Denver  (p.  136) ? 

Fully  four  million  persons  in  the  United 
States   are   engaged    in    transportation   of 


I         I  Lets  than  t    1000 

L— I   )    li«M  to  i  10000 

33    «  10000  to  (100000 

■   1100000  and  °*f 


Fig.  274. —  Map  showing  the  leading  manufacturing  districts  in  the  United  States. 

agriculture,  lumbering,  fishing,  and  mining. 
The    remainder    are    mainly   employed    in 


New  York 


*3,3&9.490,a00 


Pennsylvania 


iZfiZiJ^Z.QOO 


Illinois 


*I,9I9,277,000 


Massachusetts        Ohio 


*I,490,5Z9,000 


$1,437936,000 


New  Jersey 


*I,I45,5Z9.000 


Fig.  275.  — The  six  leading  manufacturing  states  (1910). 


goods  and  in  trade,  or  in  commerce,  as  these 
two  kinds  of  business  together  are  called. 


Pennsylvania 


l|8|!l#J 


Illinois         Alabama     New  York 


2,675,646 


1,939,147 


manufacturing  these  raw  materials  into  use- 
ful articles,  or  in  buying,  sell-  Dependence  of 
ing,  and  transport-  country  and 
ing  them.  Show  city  uPon  each 
by  numerous  ex-  otller 
amples  how  neither  class  can 
well  do  without  the  other. 


1,938,407 


Virginia    444,976 
Fig.  276.  —  The  six  leading  pig-iron-producing  states  (1910). 


The  relation  between  country  and  city  is 
now  clear.  About  one  half  of  our  men  are 
engaged  in  obtaining  raw  materials  through 


Differences  in 
manner  of  life 


Although  the  two  classes  are  so 
dependent  on  each  other,  the  life  of 
one  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  other. 
Recall  farm  life  as  de- 
scribed on  page  93.  What  idea  have 
you  formed  of  farm  life  on  Southern  plantations? 
Of  the  ranchman's  life  (p.  101)?  Of  the  miner's 
manner  of  living  (p.  122)?  The  lumberman's 
(p.  34)  ?    The  fisherman's  (pp.  38  and  127)  ? 


192 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Recall,  on  the  other  hand,  what  was  said  about 
life  in  New  York  City  (p.  64).     Give  your  idea  of 


Pennsylvania 


*eiO,746,Z57 


New  York 


4154.370,346 


Ohio 


$145,836,648 


Illinois 


Mass.  Conn 


Fig.  277.  —  The  six  states  leading  in  iron  manufacturing 
(1910). 

factory  life;  of  life  in  trade  and  transportation. 
Which  of  these  several  occupations  do  you  consider 
most  attractive?     Which  least  attractive? 


home '?  How  about  the  knives,  forks, 
dishes,  and  spoons  ?  How  about  the  clothes 
that  you  wear  ? 

Because  of  the  climate,  water  power,  soil, 
or  for  some  other  reason,  each  part  of  the 
country  is  especially  fitted  for  producing 
one  or  several  things ;  for  instance,  eastern 
Kansas  for  grain,  western  Kansas  for  stock, 
northern  Maine  for  lumber,  etc.  Indeed, 
most  of  the  articles  used  in  each  part  of 
the  country  must  be  brought  from  other 
places. 

Name  the  materials  that  the  Montana  ranchman 
needs  from  the  Southern  planter;  from  New  Eng- 
land; from  Minneapolis  and  Chicago.     Upon  what 


New  York 

Pennsylvania 

$14,769,042,207 

$11,473,620,306 

$8,816,556,191 

Ohio 

MasiachujelU             California 

$5,946,969,466 

$4,956,578,913 

$4,115,491,106 

T-  wiBipJifel'JIriii. IIP  i  j'ff-" 

Q 

Fig.  278.— 

The  six  wealthiest  states. 

and 
the 


It  is  difficult  to  say  which  occupation  requires 
the  hardest  work,  for  success  demands  one's  best 
effort,  no  matter  what  the  occupation  may  be.  But 
which  are  more  sure  of  simple  food,  clothing, 
shelter,  those  living  in  the  city  or  those  in 
country?  Why?  Which  are 
more  independent  in  general? 
Why  ?  Which  have  the  better 
opportunities  for  amusement? 
Why?  For  education  ?  Why? 
For  homes  with  plenty  of 
light  and  fresh  air?     Why? 

For  miny  years  the  popula- 
tion of  cities  has  been  increas- 
ing more  rapidly  than  that  of 
the  country,  which  suggests 
that  people  prefer  city  to  coun- 
try life.  Can  you  give  any 
reasons  for  this,  in  addition 
to  those  already  mentioned? 

No  one  place  produces 

Dependence  ilU  the  mate" 
of  different  rials  needed 
sections  upon  there.  Which 
one  another 


parts  of  the  United  States  are  the  inhabitants  of 
Florida  dependent?  What  do  they  supply  in  re- 
turn ?  Make  a  list  of  the  materials  used  in  the  build- 
ing of  your  house ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  determiue 
where  each  one  may  have  come  from. 


of  your  foods 
are  not  raised  near  your 


Fig.  279.  —  Map  to  show  the  navigable  interior  water  routes  of  the  United  States. 


193 


194 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


195 


From  these  facts  it  is  plain  that  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  are  of  vital  im- 
portance to  one  another,  much  as  different 
parts  of  the  body  are. 

In  spite  of  our  broad  territory,  and  the 
enormous  number  of  our  products,  there  are 
Our  relation  some  necessary  articles  that  are 
to  our  depend-  either  entirely  lacking,  or  can- 
encies  not  be   produced  in  sufficient 

quantities      within 


manufacturing  in  that   country   (p.    175). 
Locate  the  principal  cities. 

Name  the  six  republics  of  Central  Amer- 
ica.    Describe  the  surface   of  the   country 
and    the    climate     (p.     177).    centrai 
Name  the  principal  industries   America  and 
(p.    178).      Tell     about     the   West  Indies 
canal  across  the  isthmus  (p.  154). 

Mention  the    largest    islands  among  the 


Middle  Atlantic  States 


our    own     borders. 
Name  a  few.      (See 
Table    of    Imports, 
p.  411.)     Mention 
some   that   we  are 
therefore  glad  to  re- 
ceive from  Alaska; 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico; 
the    Hawaiian    Is- 
lands ,    the   Philip- 
pines.     Mention  others  that  they,  likewise, 
are  glad  to  receive  from  us.     State,  then, 
how  the  United  States  and  its  dependencies 
are  of  advantage  to  each  other. 

2.   Other  Countries  of  North  America 

The  principal  industries  in  southern 
Canada  and  Newfoundland  are  similar  to 
Canada  and  those  in  our  Northern  States. 
Newfoundland  What  about  agriculture  there 
(p.  165)?  Where  is  coal  mined  (p.  166)? 
Precious  metal  (p.  166)?  What  about 
grazing  (p.  165)  ?  Lumbering  (p.  163)  ? 
Fishing  and  sealing  (p.  164)  ?  Compare 
the  raw  products  of  southern  Canada 
with  those  of  our  Northern  States.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  cities ;  the  lead- 
ing trade  route.  Mention  the  chief 
kinds  of  manufacturing.  (For  above,  see 
p.  168). 

Describe  the  surface  of  Mexico  (p.  171). 
The  climate  (p.  172).  What  are  the  agri- 
cultural products  from  its  arid 
plateaus  (p.  173)?  From  its 
lowlands  (p.  174)?  From  the  slopes  be- 
tween (p.  174)?  Tell  about  the  forests  of 
Mexico  (p.  172);  the  mining  (p.  175). 
Give  some   reasons  why  there  is  so  little 


Central  States 


172.27 


Southern  States        New  England  States 


106.96 


Western 
States 


Fig.  '282.  —  The  figures  represent  the  number  of  miles  of  railway  for  every  one  hundred  square 
miles  of  territory  in  each  of  the  rive  groups  of  states  (1910) . 

West  Indies.     What  are  their  chief  indus- 
tries (p.  178) ? 


3.    Relation  of  United  States  to  Other 
Countries 

What  industries  in  the  United  States  are 
not    found,    or    are    little    de- 
veloped,     in      Canada'''        In 


Mexico 


Need  of  our 
sending  away 
some  goods 
and  receiving 
others 


Mexico  ?  In  Central  Amer- 
ica? What  industries  in  any 
one  of  the  latter  countries  are 
not  found  in  the  United  States  ? 

As  in  the  case  of  any  single  locality,  the 
United  States  as  a  whole  produces  far  more 
of  some  materials  than  our  people  can  con- 
sume. Other  important  articles  must  come 
wholly,  or  in  part,  from  abroad.  Give  ex- 
amples of  each. 

If  we  could  not  secure  a  market  for  our 
products  in  foreign  lands,  we  should  suffer 
greatly  ;  and  if  foreign  countries  did  not 
provide  us  with  what  we  need,  we  should 
suffer  again.  Other  countries  are  in  the 
same  condition.  Show  how  that  is  true 
of  Canada  ;  of  Mexico.  There  is  excellent 
reason,  therefore,  for  a  constant  exchange 
of  goods  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 


196 


NORTH  AMERICA 


How  does  the  size  of  our  country  give  us 
a  great  advantage  in  this  respect  ? 

The  goods  that  we  send  forth  are  called 
exports,  and  those  brought  in,  imports.     Ex- 

The  names  of  amine  the  tables  of  exports 
such  goods,  and  imports  on  pp.  410  and 
and  their  411  to  see  some  things  that  we 

value  send  away  and  receive,  as  well 

as  the  countries  with  which  we  trade. 

More  than  half  of  all  our  exports  and 
imports  are  sent  by  way  of  New  York. 
Why  ?  Other  ports  next  in  importance 
have  already  been  named  (p.  189).  What 
are  their  names  ?  The  total  value  of  our 
exports  in  1911  was  #1,536,561,442 ;  of  our 
imports,  1824,620,160. 

Some  imports  are  allowed  to  enter  the  country  free ; 

but  upon  most  of  them  there  is  a  duty ;  that  is,  a  charge 

for  entering  our  country.  This  duty 
Meaning  and       •  t  •  c 

.         f  ls  a  S0llrce  ot  income,  or  revenue,  tor 

lt  j  l(  the  government.     It  is  also  intended 

to  protect  our  industries  by  prevent- 
ing foreign  products  from  being  sold  in  our  country 
at  a  lower  rate  than  we  can  produce  them. 

However,  this  sometimes  causes  hardship.  For 
example,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  living  near 
the  border  of  Canada,  cannot  buy  lumber  and  wood 
pulp  from  that  country  without  paying  a  duty  upon 
them.  This  causes  us  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  many 
articles  than  we  would  have  to  pay  if  no  duty  were 
placed  upon  them.  Under  such  conditions  the  bound- 
ary line  between  two  neighboring  countries  becomes 
of  real  importance  as  a  hindrance  to  free  trade. 

4-    Value  of  Steam  and  Electricity  in  Devel- 
opment of  North  America 

The  use  of  steam  upon  the  water  ways 
and  railways  has  been  of  the  greatest  in- 
Advances  fluence    in     the    development 

made  in  a  of    our    country.      A    century 

century  ag0   ft  required    two    days  to 

travel  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia,  and 
six  days  from  New  York  to  Boston.  In  the 
latter  case  only  two  trips  per  week  were 
made  by  stage.  The  journeys  were  not  only 
very  tiresome,  but  were  often  dangerous. 

At  that  time  there  were  but  thirteen 
daily  papers  in  the  United  States,  and 
neither  papers  nor  books  could  be  sent  by 
mail.      Letters  cost  from  six  to  twenty-five 


cents,  according  to  the  distance  ;  and  be- 
cause the  expense  of  carrying  them  was 
great,  they  were  not  sent  from  the  smaller 
towns  until  a  sufficient  number  were  col- 
lected to  make  it  worth  while. 

Now  we  can  travel  as  far  in  an  hour  as 
our  forefathers  could  in  a  day,  and  with 
much  more  comfort.  There  are  over  two 
thousand  daily  papers,  and  these,  as  well  as 
letters,  may  be  sent  quickly  and  cheaply  to 
every  section  of  the  country.  We  can  send 
a  telegram  to  a  distant  point  in  an  instant, 
and  can  talk  by  telephone  with  a  person 
hundreds  of  miles  away,  even  recognizing 
the  tones  of  his  voice.  How  wonderful 
these  facts  would  have  been  to  persons  liv- 
ing a  hundred  years  ago  ! 

The  effect  of  such  a  mighty  change  is  seen  in 
every  direction.  Each  year  thousands  of  car  loads 
of  fruit  are  shipped  to  Eastern  cities 


from  California.  If  there  were  no 
railways,  how  could  such  fruits  reach 
these  cities?    What,  then,  would  be 


Influence  of 
these  advances 
on  our  mode  of 
life 


the  effect  on  southern  California  ? 
Also,  how  could  the  corn  of  the  Central  States  be 
marketed  ?  And  how  could  furniture,  sugar,  and 
coffee  be  brought  to  the  Western  farmer's  door  ? 
Trace  other  results  of  this  change. 

If  our  railway  trains  and  steamboats  should  all 
suddenly  stop  running,  there  would  be  a  famine  in 
every  large  city  within  a  few  days.  Even  now,  when 
heavy  falls  of  snow  block  the  trains  for  a  day  or 
two,  the  supply  of  milk,  meat,  and  other  foods 
quickly  runs  low,  and  the  prices  rise  to  several  times 
their  usual  value. 

If  we  had  no  railway  trains,  there  might  also  be 
extensive  famines  over  large  areas  of  country,  as 
there  were  in  Europe  in  the  olden  times,  and  as 
there  are  even  at  present  in  China.  Why  in  China? 
As  it  is,  however,  hundreds  of  articles  of  food  and 
clothing  are  quickly  brought  from  distant  points. 
Mention  several  such  articles.  No  one  section  is  in 
danger  of  suffering  from  want  of  food,  because  if 
the  supply  fails  there,  it  is  easily  obtained  from 
other  sections. 

The  effect  of  steam  and  electricity  on  the  indus- 
tries and  inhabitants  of  cities  is  striking.  Many 
persons  living  scores  of  miles  away  do  much  of 
their  shopping  in  the  cities.  Owing  to  trolley 
lines,  elevated  railways,  and  other  means  of  rapid 
travel,  those  engaged  in  manufacture  or  commerce 
are  able  to  live  many  miles  from  their  places  of 
work,  and  thus  secure  more  healthful  homes  in 
the    suburbs.      Because   so   many   people   are   able 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


197 


to  have  their  homes  in  the  suburbs,  the  cities  are 
not  nearly  so  overcrowded  as  they  might  other- 
wise be. 

When  our  Union  was  formed,  more  than 
a  century  ago,  many  wise  persons  believed 

that  it  was  bound  to  be  a  fail- 
Their  influence  0up    population    was  s0 

on  government  *    r 

scattered  (rig.  4o)  that  people 

living  in  one  part  were  likely  to  know  and 

care  little  about  those  in 

other  distant  parts.      It 

seemed     probable     that 

quarrels  and  wars  would 

arise,  due  to  differences 

of  opinion,  and  therefore 

that  our  republic  might 

be  split  into  several  rival 

countries. 

Just  the  opposite  has 
happened.  Our  people 
are  closely  united  in  in- 
terests, and  are  working 
well  together.  At  the 
same  time  our  boundaries 
have  been  so  enlarged  as 
to  include  far  more  ter- 
ritory than  was  at  first 
thought  possible  (Fig. 
283). 

Aside  from  that,  millions  of  foreigners 
have  settled  in  our  country  since  1821, 
representing  all  the  principal  races  of  man- 
kind (App.,  p.  432),  and  many  of  the  lead- 
ing languages,  religions,  and  political  beliefs 
of  the  world.  In  spite  of  all  this,  we  have 
kept  in  such  close  touch  with  one  another 
that  our  Union  has  grown  stronger  and- 
stronger. 

Each  day,  by  rail  and  water,  articles  are 


sent  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  all  the 
states  the  people  read  the  same  news  every 
morning  ;  and  whatever  books  are  found 
especially  valuable  in  one  section  quickly 
become  known  in  others.  Thus  we  not 
only  enjoy  far  better  opportunities  for 
education  than  formerly,  but  we  learn  to 
knoiv  one  another  ;  we  have  the  same 
thoughts,    and    we    feel    a    common    sym- 


Fig.  283.  —  Map  to  show  when  and  how  the  United  States  obtained  its  territory. 


path}'.  So  far  as  meeting  and  under- 
standing one  another  are  concerned,  our 
country  is  really  far  smaller  than  it  was  a 
hundred  years  ago  ;  we  are  living  together 
like  one  very  large  family. 

The  governments  of  Canada  and  Mexico 
are  unions  of  many  states,  much  like  our 
Union  ;  and  the  benefits  that  they  have 
received  from  steam  and  electricity  have 
been  similar  to  our  own. 


PART   II.     GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


I.  The  Earth 

The  earth  is  a  sphere  with  a  circumfer- 
ence of  about  twenty-five  thousand  miles, 
Form  and  size  and  a  diameter  of  nearly  eight 
of  the  earth  thousand  miles.  It  is  slightly 
flattened  at  the  poles,  however.  For  this 
reason,  the  line  which  extends  through  the 
center  of  the  earth  from  pole  to  pole  — 
called  the  eartJis  axis — is  a  little  shorter 
than  the  diameter  at  the  equator. 

The  earth  is  known  to  be  round  like  a 
ball,  not  only  because  people  have  traveled 
Proofs  that  around  it,  but  also  because  its 
it  is  round  shadow,  as  seen  in  an  eclipse, 

is  always  round.  A  sphere  is  the  only 
body  that  will  always  cast  a  round  shadow. 
Can  you  give  another  proof  that  the  earth 
has  the  form  of  a  sphere  ? 

The  earth  is  rapidly  turning,  or  rotating, 
about  its  axis.  This  motion  has  very  im- 
Its  daily  mo-  portant  results.  In  the  first 
tion,  and  the  place  it  causes  sunrise  and 
results  sunset.     When  we  glance  out 

of  the  window  of  a  moving  car,  the  objects 
that  we  pass  often  appear  to  be  moving  in 
the  direction  opposite  from  that  in  which 
we  are  traveling.  It  seems  as  though  we 
were  standing  still.  In  a  similar  way  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  causes  the  sun  to  ap- 
pear to  move  ;  to  appear  to  rise  and  set. 
Indeed,  for  a  long  time  people  believed 
that  it  was  the  sun  that  moved,  and  not 
the  earth. 

Since  we  first  see  the  sun  in  the  east,  it 
is  plain  that  the  earth  is  rotating  eastward ; 
that  is,  from  west  to  east.  This  rotation 
gives  us  the  light  of  the  sun  for  a  few 
hours,  and  then  brings  darkness.     Thus  it 


causes  day  and  night.  And  since  one  ro- 
tation lasts  twenty-four  hours,  it  gives  us  a 
day  of  that  length. 

It  was  stated  before  that  the  circumference  of  the 
earth  is  about  twenty-five  thousand  miles.  How  far, 
then,  must  a  point  on  the  equator  move  in  one  hour? 
In  one  minute? 

By  rotating  a  globe,  or  an  apple,  in  the  sunlight, 
show  how  day  and  nightare  caused  on  theearth.  Hold 
the  sphere  still ;  what  would  be  true  about  daylight 
and  darkness  on  the  earth  if  it  did  not  rotate  at  all? 
What  might  be  the  effect  upon  life  on  the  earth  if 
the  same  side  were  always  toward  the  sun? 

The  earth  has  another  motion  that  is  of 
very  great  importance.     This  is  its  revolu- 
tion around  the  sun,  which  is   The  yearly 
illustrated  in  Figure  284.     The  motion  of  the 
object  shown  in  the  center  of  eartJl 
the   circle  is  the   sun,  as  you  see,  and  the 
circle  itself  shows  the  course  that  the  earth 
takes  in  its  revolution. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  earth  is  whirl- 
ing on  its  axis,  it  is  also  forever  swinging 
around  the  sun,  although  the  sun  is 
ninety-three  million  miles  from  it.  It  takes 
a  year  to  complete  one  revolution.  Indeed, 
the  time  necessary  for  this  great  journey1-  is 
what  fixes  the  length  of  our  year.  The 
path,  or  orbit,  that  the  earth  takes  is  here 
represented  as  a  circle,  although,  in  fact, 
the  earth's  path  is  not  a  perfect  circle. 

In  its  revolution,  the  earth  is  moving  at  the  rate 
of  more  than  one  and  a  half  million  miles  per  day. 
What  fearful  speed !     And  this,  too, 
while  it  is  whirling,  or  rotating,  on   J^POrtance  of 
its  axis  !      One  might  ask, 


With 


the  forces 


such  rapid  motion,  why  are  we  not   cal'ed  gravity 
swept  from  the  earth  by  the  wind?"    *™d  Sravlta- 
The  answer  is  that  the  air,  as  well 
as  everything  else  upon  the  earth,  is  drawn  toward 
the  earth  and  held  in  place  by  the  force  called  grav- 


198 


THE  EARTH 


199 


a    rope,    to 
sure,     but 


ity.  It  is  on  account  of  this  force  that  everything 
on  the  earth  turns  with  it,  in  the  daily  rotation,  and 
swings  around  with  it  in  its  annual  revolution. 

Again,  if  the  earth  is  revolving  at  such  speed,  why 
does  it  not  fly  away  into  space?  As  a  stone  swinging 
round  at  the  end  of  a  string  flies  off  when  the  string 
breaks,  so  it  might  seem  that 
the  earth  would  fly  off  into 
space;  for  there  appears  to  be 
nothing  holdiug  it  to  the  sun. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is 
something  holding  it.     It 
is  not   a  strin 
nor 
be 

something     far 
stronger.        The 
sun  is  very  much 
larger    than   the 
earth ;     in    fact, 
it   is    over 
a     million 
times   as 
large.       It 
attracts 
the    earth, 
and   holds  it   in 
place,    in    niucl: 
the  same  way  as 
the  force  of  grav- 
ity attracts  men 
and  houses  to  the 
earth.     This    at- 
traction (if  gravita- 
tion, which  the  sun  exerts 
upon  the  earth,  is  what 
vents  our   sphere   from   flying 
off   into   space ;    it    holds    the 
earth   as  firmly  as  the  string 
holds  the  stone 


the  shadow,  until  the  farthest  point  is 
reached  on  December  21.  That  is  the  date 
for  our  shortest  day  and  longest  night. 
Farther  north  the  nights  are  longer  still,1 
and  the  Eskimos,  who  live  within  the  Arc- 
tic Circle,  are  having 
night  that  lasts  week 
after  week.  It  is  upon 
this  date,  also,  that  our 
winter  begins. 

After  De- 
cember    21, 
the   Arctic 
region  grad- 
ually   comes 
into  the  light 
once     more, 
until,  on 
M  arch 
21,    the 
sun's 


extends 
from  pole  to 
pole.       Day 
and    night 
are      once 
equal    every- 
where upon  the  earth, 
and    warmer    weather 
returns.       That     date 
marks    the    beginning 
of  our  spring. 

Going    farther,     on 


Fig.  284.  —  To  illustrate  the  revolution  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun.  The  shaded  portion  represents  ni«ht. 
The    revolution    of    the      The  end  of  the  axis  around  which  the  earth  rotates    June  21,  the  north  pole 

Effects  of  the  earth   is  w]lat     is  the  Point  where  the  lines  come  tosetnel'-  is  shown  to  be  just  as 

far  within  the  light  as  it  was  within  the 
shadow  on  December  21.  This  is  the  date 
for  our  longest  day  and  shortest  night. 
Farther  north,  the  days  are  longer  still, 
and  within  the  Arctic  Circle  the  day  lasts 
week  after  week.  It  is  upon  this  day,  also, 
that  our  summer  begins.2 

1  Exactly  at  the  north  pole  there  are  six  months  of 
day  and  then  six  months  of  night. 

2  Some  teachers  may  wish  to  introduce  here  an  ex- 
planation of  the  effects  of  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis, 
and  a  more  complete  study  of  the  seasons.  This  has 
not  been  included  in  this  book  because  it  is  felt  that, 


earth's  revo-  causes  our  seasons  and  the  chang- 
lution  ing  length  of  our  day  and  night. 

In  Figure  284  the  lowest  sphere,  bearing 
the  date  September  23,  represents  the 
earth  as  receiving  the  light  of  the  sun  from 
pole  to  pole.  On  that  date  day  and  night 
are  equal  everywhere  upon  the  earth.  It 
marks  the  end  of  summer  and  the  begin- 
ning of  our  autumn. 

Following  the  earth  in  its  revolution  (to 
the  right),  we  find  that,  as  the  months  pass, 
the  north  pole  falls  farther  and  farther  into 


200 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


After  this  date,  until  September  23,  the 
continued  revolution  of  the  earth  grad- 
ually brings  the  north  pole  again  toward 
the  shadow.  Then,  on  September  23,  the 
light  of  the  sun  once  more  extends  from  pole 
to  pole,  so  that  day  and  night  are  again  equal, 
and  a  year  is  completed. 

Thus  the  seasons  follow  one  another,  and 
our  days  and  nights  constantly  change  in 


and  when  the  north  pole  is  in  darkness,  the  south 
pole  is  bathed  in  the  sunlight. 

Figure  285  shows  the  zones  on  the  earth. 
How  many  are  there  ?     Name   and  locate 
each.     The  cause  of  the  zones  Cause  of  the 
is  found  in  the  slant  at  which   zones,  and 
the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  the  their  bounda- 
earth.     In  the  torrid  zone  they  ries 
are    always   either   vertical,  or   nearly   so. 


Fig.  285.  —  A  map  of  the  zones. 


length.  And  it  is  all  because,  as  the  earth 
revolves  about  the  sun,  the  part  of  the  earth 
that  receives  the  sun's  rays  is  continually 
changing. 

While  these  changes  are  in  progress  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  there  are  also  changes  in  the  season, 
and  in  the  length  of  day  and  night,  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  These  changes  are  o£  the  same  kind, 
but  the  seasons  are  exactly  changed  around ;  that 
is,  it  is  winter  there  when  it  is  summer  with  us; 

unless  the  teacher  has  the  necessary  apparatus,  a  mere 
study  from  the  text  is  too  difficult.  The  authors  believe 
that  it  is  a  subject  that  is  better  fitted  for  the  high 
school  age. 


In  the  temperate  zone,  they  strike  the  earth 
at  a  greater  slant ;  and  in  the  frigid  zones 
at  a  much  greater  slant  still.  On  this  ac- 
count, the  heat  grows  less  and  less  as  one 
approaches  either  of  the  poles. 

The  boundaries  of  the  tropical  (torrid)  zone  are 
easily  fixed,  because  they  mark  the  points  farthest 
north  and  south  where  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  at 
some  period  of  the  year.  On  December  21,  when  the 
north  pole  is  farthest  within  the  shadow  (Fig.  284), 
the  sun's  rays  are  vertical  as  far  south  as  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn.  On  June  21,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
the  north  pole  is  farthest  within  the  light,  the  sun's 
rays  are  vertical  as  far  north  as  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer. 


LATITUDE,   LONGITUDE,   AND   STANDARD    TIME 


201 


The  north  frigid  (Arctic)  zone  is  the  region 
around  the  north  pole  that  lies  entirely  in 
darkness  on  December  21.  On  June  21,  this 
same  region  lies  entirely  in  the  light.  The 
south  frit/id  zone  is  the  corresponding  region 
about  the  soutli  pole. 

The  two  temperate  zones  are  merely  the 
wide  belts  that  lie  between  the  torrid  zone, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  frigid  zones  on 
the  other.  There  is  one,  called  the  north 
temperate  zone,  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  another,  called  the  south  temperate 
zone,  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Name  the  boundaries  of  each  of  the  zones.  It  is 
convenient  to  use  such  boundaries;  but  there  is 
really  no  sharp  difference  on  the  two  sides  of  anyone 
of  them.  Indeed,  the  real  boundaries  are  quite  ir- 
regular (Fig.  28.3)  ;  for  in  some  parts  of  the  temper- 
ate zone  there  is  a  very  hot  climate;  and  on  the 
highlands  of  the  tropical  zone,  the  climate  is  often 
temperate,  or  even  frigid.  These  are  exceptions, 
however,  and  generally  the  climate  is  torrid  in  the 
tropical  zone,  temperate  to  the  north  and  south  of 
it,  and  frigid  around  the  poles. 

Our  seasons  are  likewise  due  to  the  slant 
at  which  the  sun's  rays  strike  the  earth  at 
How  the  different   times    of    the    year, 

earth's  revolu-  On  December  21,  the  midday 
tion  causes  our  Sun  is  low  in  the  heavens,  in 
seasons  j.jie  regjon  where  we  live,  and 

then  its  rays  reach  us  at  the  greatest  slant. 
That,  then,  marks  the  beginning  of  our 
coldest  season.  On  June  21,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  midday  sun  is  high  in  the  heavens, 
and  the  rays  are  then  most  nearly  vertical. 
That,  then,  marks  the  beginning  of  our 
warmest  season.  Spring  comes  as  the  rays 
become  more  nearly  vertical ;  and  autumn 
as  they  grow  less  so. 

The  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  is, 

therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance.     It  causes  our 

seasons  by  continually  changing  the 

,  '  _  .  slant  at  which  the  sun's  rays  fall 
lution  afreets 


our  daily  lives 


upon  us.     That  affects  us  in  a  thou- 


sand ways.  It  determines,  for  in- 
stance, the  time  when  our  lamps  shall  be  lighted, 
when  crops  shall  be  planted  and  harvested,  and 
when  the  navigation  of  many  of  our  rivers  and  lakes 
shall  be  opened  and  closed.  It  even  leads  to  changes 
in  the   kind  of  clothes  that  we  wear,  and  greatly 


influences  the  sports  that  we  enjoy.     Name  some  of 
its  other  influences. 


1.  State  the  form  and  size  of  the  earth.  2.  Give 
proofs  that  it  is  round.  3.  Tell  what  you  can  about 
its   daily   motion,    and   the   results.  . 

1.  What  is  its  yearly  motion'.'  ^evi^w 
5.  How  are  gravity  and  gravitation  " 
important  forces?  6.  State  the  effects  of  the  earth's 
revolution.  7.  State  the  cause  of  the  zones.  8.  Of 
their  boundaries.  9.  How  does  the  earth's  revolu- 
tion cause  our  seasons?  10.  How,  then,  does  this 
revolution  influence  our  daily  lives? 

1.  Show  by  a  globe,  or  a  ball,  how  the  two  move- 
ments of  the  earth,  rotation  and  revolution,  can 
be    going    on    at    the    same    time. 

2.  Are    the    days    growing    longer    ^Kge8110113 
or  shorter  at  present?     3.    During  w:hich  months  do 
they  grow  longer  ?       During  which  months  shorter  ? 

I.  At  what  time  of  day  does  your  shadow  always 
point  directly  north?  5.  Notice  how  your  shadow 
changes  with  the  season  in  early  morning;  at  noon; 
in  the  evening.  6.  Tell  about  the  direction  and 
length  of  a  man's  shadow  at  noon  on  December  21 
at  various  points  between  the  poles.  7.  On  June  21. 
8.  On  September  23.  9.  How  long  is  our  longest 
night?  Our  shortest?  10.  Which  zone  has  the 
slightest  change  of  seasons?  Why?  11.  Is  it  once 
or  twice  each  year  that  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun 
fall  upon  any  one  place  in  the  torrid  zone  ? 

II.  Latitude,  Longitude,  and  Stand- 

ard Time 

i.    Latitude  and  Longitude 

In    a    study    of   geography,    it    is    often 
necessary  to  locate  places  exactly.     This  is 
not  so  easy  as  it  might  seem.    Need  of  some 
For  instance,  suppose  we  wish  way  of  locat- 
to  state  where  London  is  sit-   ing  places 
uated  ;  how  would  it  be  done  ?  exactly 
Of  course,  by  taking  a  long  time,  it  would 
be  possible  to  describe  the  general  location 
of  this  city  ;  but  some  more  accurate  way 
should  be  found. 

The  difficulty  is  much  the  same  as  that 
which  arises  in  locating  a  place  in  a  large 
city,    where    there    are    thou-   how  houses 
sands  of  houses.     No  one  per-  are  located 
son  knows  who  lives  in  most  in  Clties 
of  them,  and  if  a  stranger  were  looking  for 
a  friend,  he  might  have  much  trouble  in 
finding  his  house. 


202 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


-   — ifTl — i  f""i' — n"ir 
SOUTH 

Fig.  28(i.  —  Map  of  a  part  of  a  city,    central 
to  illustrate  the  need  of  naming 
streets. 


A  very  simple  means  has  been  found  for 
locating  city  houses.  For  example,  a  street 
running  east  and  west  may  be  selected  to  di- 
vide the  city  into  two  parts,  as  Washington 

Avenue  does  in 
north  „ .  0  „  „ 

jljUuuuUl  ligure     286. 

]  Onn  0  a  Q  L  Any  place  north 

lOIlDOnOC  of  this  street  is 

JOGOLtjOOC  spoken  of  as  be- 

□"□"□  Q  Q  Q  [-  ing  on  the  north 

WEST        WASHINGTON  AVE.  _  EAST       cm'/Ta    •      onir     nlnno 

no — id — trf — i  i — p — id    q  sza6 ,   any  pitice 

i — isiouTiHrn  rl  n  rST*i  r         south  ot   it  as 
JUU«LJ|UUUL       being    on   the 

=^f0-^J=Ji;b51ir=^?T.17=  south  side.    The 

streets  to  the 
north  of  this 
street 
are  numbered 
as  North  1st, 
North  2d,  North  3d,  etc.  ;  those  to  the 
south  of  it  as  South  1st,  South  2d,  South  3d, 
and  so  on.  Then  if  a  man  says  that  he 
lives  on  North  4th  Street,  we  know  at  once 
that  he  lives  on  the  north  side,  and  that 
his  house  is  on  the  fourth  street  from  this 
central  one. 

But  we  need  also  to  know  on  what  part 
of  North  4th  Street  this  house  is  to  be  found. 
To  answer  that  question,  another  street 
running  north  and  south,  and  crossing  the 
east  and  west  ones,  may  be  selected  to  di- 
vide the  city  into  east  and  west  parts.  In 
Figure  286,  Jefferson  Avenue  is  such  a 
street.  The  streets  on  the  two  sides  of  it 
are  numbered  as  East  1st,  East  2d,  West 
1st,  West  2d,  etc.  (Fig.  286). 

Then  if  a  man  lives  on  the  corner  of 
North  4th  and  East  3d  streets,  we  know 
not  only  that  his  home  is  north  of  a  certain 
line,  but  east  of  a  certain  other  line.  If  the 
Mocks,  as  the  spaces  between  two  streets 
are  called,  are  always  the  same,  it  will  be 
easy  to  tell  the  distance  from  each  of  the 
central  streets  to  the  house.  Thus  the 
house  can  be  located  exactly. 

Such  a  plan  is  not  necessary  in  small  towns  and 
villages,  because  the  people  there  know  one  another, 
and  are  able  to  direct  strangers  easily.     Few,  if  any, 


cities  follow  exactly  the  scheme  here  given ;  but  all 
have  a  plan  somewhat  similar  to  this.  If  you  live 
in  a  city,  perhaps  you  can  tell  just  how  houses  are 
located  there. 

Places  upon  the  earth  are  located  in  much 
the   same   manner  as   in    the  city  just  de- 
scribed.    The    equator,  which  How  piaces 
extends  around  the  earth  mid-   can  be  exactly 
way    between    the    poles,    cor-  located  on  the ' 
responds  to  the  dividing  street  earth 
(Washington     Avenue)    that  ^T^cated 
runs  east  and  west.      The  dis-  in  a  north  and 
tance  between  the  equator  and  south  ^lei:tim 
the  poles,   on   either   side,   is   divided  into 
ninety  parts  (Fig.  287),  corresponding,  we 
might   say,  to  the   blocks  in  a  city.     The 
earth    is    so    large,    however,    that    these 
"  blocks,"  or  parts,  are  very  much  larger, 
each    being    about    sixty-nine    miles   wide. 
That  distance   is  called  a   degree,   and  the 
sign  for  degrees  is  a  little  circle  (°)  placed 
at  the  right  of  a  figure.     (For  example,  60° 
means  60  degrees.) 

Lines  are  drawn  upon  maps  and  globes 
to  represent  these  degrees.     The  lines  on  a 

North  A>/e9°  „„•„  ^t 
ltr  -^"^  ^^     cf>°  N.  Lat. 


20°  J.  Lat. 
33V  S  Lat. 


Fig.  287.  — The  globe,  showing  the  two  hemispheres  and 
some  of  the  circles  of  latitude. 

globe  extend  completely  around  it  from 
east  to  west,  and  are  therefore  circles.  The 
first  circle  north  of  the  equator,  marked  l°,is 
about  sixty-nine  miles  from  that  dividing 
line ;  the  one  marked  2°  is  twice  that  dis- 
tance, and  so  on.     The  north  pole  is   90° 


LATITUDE,   LONGITUDE,   AND   STANDARD    TIME 


203 


from  the  equator.  The  same  plan  is  fol- 
lowed south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  south 
pole  is  also  90°  from  the  equator.  Thus 
the  distance  from  pole  to  pole  is  180°. 

All  points  on  any  one  of  these  circles  are 
the  same  distance  from  the  equator,  and 
from  each  of  the  other  circles.  That  is,  the 
circles  are  parallel  with  one  another ;  and 
on  that  account  they  are  called  parallels. 

If  one  fiii'ls  that  a  certain  place  is  on  the  8th  or 
the  50th,  or  some  other  circle  north  of  the  equator, 
he  knows  how  many  miles  it  is  north  of  that  divid- 
ing line ;  for  every  degree  is  about  69  miles.  San 
Francisco,  for  example,  is  close  to  the  38th  parallel ; 
Chicago  is  close  to  the  42d;  and  St.  Paul  is  on  the 
45th  (Figs.  125  and  160).  Knowing  this,  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  Chicago  is  4°,  or  about  276  miles,  farther 
north  than  San  Francisco.  It  is  also  easy  to  see 
that  St.  Paul  is  3°,  or  over  200  miles  farther  north 
than  Chicago. 

Thus,  by  the  help  of  the  parallel  lines  one 
can  find  how  far  any  place  is  north  or  south 
of  the  equator.  Instead,  however,  of  saying 
that  places  are  so  many  degrees  north  or 
south  of  the  equator,  we  usually  say  that  they 
are  in  so  many  degrees  north  or  south  latitude. 
San  Francisco,  for  instance,  is  near  38°  north 
latitude  (abbreviated  JV.  Lat.~).  Both  ways 
are  correct,  but  the  latter  is  merely  the 
shorter  way  of  saying  it.  Latitude  is  noth- 
ing more  than  distance  north  or  south  of 
the  equator,  measured  in  degrees;  and  the 
parallel  lines  are  called  parallels  of  latitude. 

Of  course  there  are  no  marks  upon  the  earth  to  show 
where  these  circles  run.  They  are  drawn  on  maps, 
where  they  are  of  great  use  because  they  help  to 
locate  places. 

Small  maps  and  globes  cannot  well  show  the  en- 
tire ninety  parallels  on  each  side  of  the  equator. 
That  would  make  too  many  lines.  For  this  reason, 
only  every  fifth  or  tenth  parallel  is  usually  put  on 
such  maps.  Examine  some  maps  (such  as  Figs.  9 
and  125),  to  see  which  ones  are  given.  Near  what 
parallel  do  you  live  ? 

As  in  the  city,  some  means  must  also  be 
„   „       ,  found  for  locating  places  east 

2.   How  places  °     .  . 

can  be  located      and  west ;  for  two  points  might 

in  an  east  and  ke  jn  JQO  nortn  latitucle  and 
west  direction         , .,,    ,  ,     ,  .        ., 

still  be  several  thousand  miles 
apart.     Show  that  this  is  so. 


Imaginary  lines  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
as  before  ;  but  this  time  they  extend  around 
the  earth  from  pole  to  pole  (Fig.  288 J. 
These  lines,  extending  through  both  poles, 
are  called  meridians. 

In  a  city  it  makes  little  difference  what 
north  and  south  street  is  chosen  from  which 
to  number  the  others.  It  is  necessary  only 
that  a  certain  one  be  agreed  upon.  The 
same  is  true  of  these  meridians.  No  one  is 
especially  important,  as  the  equator  is,  and 
any  one  of  them  might  be  chosen  from  which 
to    start.     Indeed,    different    nations    have 


Fig.  288.  —  The  earth,  cut  in  halves  along  the  Greenwich 
meridian,  showing  some  of  the  meridians.  The  me- 
ridian 20°  is  usually  considered  the  dividing  line  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres. 

selected  different  circles  as  the  one  from 
which  to  begin  numbering.  In  France 
the  meridian  extending  through  Paris  is 
chosen ,  in  England  that  through  Green- 
wich, near  London  ;  and  in  America  the 
one  passing  through  Washington  is  some- 
times used. 

It  is,  however,  important  that  all  people  agree  on 
some  one  meridian  to  start  from,  so  that  all  maps 
may  be  made  alike.  On  that  account,  many  coun- 
tries begin  their  numbering  with  the  meridian  which 
passes  through  Greenwich.  The  maps  in  this  book 
follow  that  plan. 

It  is  necessary  in  locating  places  on  the  earth  to 
study  the  movements  of  the  sun  and  the  stars;  and 
this  is  done  in  a  building,  called  an  observatory,  in 
which  there  are  telescopes  and  other  instruments. 
Since  there  is  such  an  observatory  at  Greenwich, 
this  seemed  to  the  English  people  to  be  a  fitting 
place  from  which  to  beg:n  numbering  the  meridians. 


204 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Commencing  with  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich, we  measure  off  degrees  both  east  and 
west  of  it.  On  maps  and  globes  these  dis- 
tances are  represented  by  circles  extending 
completely  around  the  earth,  through  both 
poles.  Thus  there  is  a  meridian  1°  west, 
another  2°,  a  third  3°,  etc.  Going  eastward, 
the  meridians  are  numbered  1°,  2°,  3°,  etc., 
in  the  same  way.  Any  place  on  the  3d 
meridian  ivest  of  Greenwich  is  3°  west  of 
the  principal  meridian  ;  if  on  the  60th  me- 
ridian, it  is  60°  west. 

Again,  however,  instead  of  saying  that 
a  place  is  so  many  degrees  east  or  west  of 


rS^°l 


*<*ra 


'"■uof 


V&* 


Fig.  289.  —  A  view  looking  down  on  the  north  pole,  to 
show  how  the  meridians  come  to  a  point  at  the  north 
pole.  Notice  that  if  the  0°  meridian  were  continued,  it 
would  unite  with  the  meridian  180°. 


the  principal  meridian,  we  say  it  is  in  so 
many  degrees  east  or  ivest  longitude.  This 
is  merely  the  shorter  way  of  saying  it. 
The  place  on  the  third  meridian,  just  men- 
tioned, is,  therefore,  in  3°  west  longitude, 
and  the  other  place  is  in  60°  west  longi- 
tude. Longitude  is  nothing  more  than  dis- 
tance east  or  ivest  of  the  principal  meridian, 
measured  in  degrees.1    The  circles  that  form 

1  The  ancients  thought  that  the  world  extended 
farther  in  an  east  and  west  direction  than  in  a  north 
and  south  direction.  Therefore  they  called  the  east 
and  west,  or  long  direction,  longitude ;  the  north  and 
south  direction,  latitude. 


the  meridians  are  also  known  as  circles  of 
longitude. 

Any  place  on  the  20th  meridian  east  of  Greenwich 
is  in  20°  east  longitude  (E.  Long.).  New  York  is 
in  7-1°  W.  Long.,  while  San  Francisco  is  in  about 
123°  W.  Long.  Which  meridian  passes  near  Chi- 
cago ?     Denver  ? 

The  distance  around  the  earth  from  .north,  to 
south,  through  both  poles,  is  four  times  90°,  or  360° 
in  all.  The  equator  is  likewise  divided  into  360 
parts,  or  degrees.  There  are  therefore  360  meridi- 
ans, if  they  are  drawn  one  degree  apart.  They 
are  numbered  up  to  180°  in  both  directions  (Fig. 
289).  Thus,  180°  E.  Long,  is  the  same  as 
180°  W.  Long. 

The  meridians  are  not  parallel,  like  the  circles  of 
latitude.  They  are  farthest  apart  at  the  equator, 
where  the  width  of  a  degree  of  longitude  is  about 
69  miles.  But  all  the  meridians  come  together  at 
the  poles,  as  you  can  see  on  a  globe  or  on  Figure 
289.  Therefore  the  width  of  a  degree  of  longitude 
becomes  smaller  toward  the  poles. 

On   maps  showing   only  a  small  part  of 
the  earth,  the  circles  of  latitude  and  longi- 
tude are  too  far  apart  to  be  of  why  an(j  ^ow 
much    use.       It     is    therefore   degrees  are 
necessary  to   have   still  other  divided  into 
circles.     For  this  purpose  the  sma  er  pa  s 
degrees  are  divided  into  parts,  called  min- 
utes.    There  are  sixty  minutes  in  a  degree, 
as  there  are  sixty  minutes  in  an  hour.     The 
minutes  themselves  are   also  divided   into 
sixty  parts,  called  seconds. 

The  sign  for  a  degree  is  °;  for  a  minute  ';  for  a 
second  ".  Thus,  60  degrees,  40  minutes,  and  20 
seconds  north  latitude  is  marked  60°  40'  20"  N.  Lat. 
Examine  some  map  of  a  small  section  of  country  to 
find  these  signs. 

Knowing  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  any  place, 
it  may,  by  the  aid  of  a  map,  be  as  easily  located 
as  a  house  in  a  great  city.  For  instance,  Denver 
is  about  40°  N.  Lat.,  and  105°  W.  Long.  It  is  there- 
fore far  to  the  north  and  west  of  New  Orleans,  which 
is  about  30°  N.  Lat.,  and  90°  W.  Long. 

Find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  some  of  the 
large  cities  on  the  map  (Fig.  40).  Notice  also  that 
only  every  fifth  meridian  is  marked  on  this  map. 
Compare  this  with  the  map  of  New  England 
(Fig.  45).  Since  the  latter  map  represents  a  smal- 
ler section,  more  meridians  can  be  drawn  upon  it. 
Now  look  at  the  map  of  the  Holy  Land  (Fig.  465), 
which  represents  a  still  smaller  section.  There  both 
degrees  and  miuutes  are  shown. 


LATITUDE,   LONGITUDE,   AND   STANDARD    TIME 


205 


2.  Standard  Time 

If  you  were  to  travel  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco,  you  would  find  on  arriving 
The  differences  there  that  your  watch  was 
in  time  be-  three  hours  too  fast.  The 
tween  places  reason  [s  that  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  is  from  west  to  east.  This  causes 
the  sun's  rays  to  fall  upon  the  Atlantic 
coast  more  than  three  hours  earlier  than 
upon  the  Pacific  coast.  Hence,  when  it  is 
noon  in  New  York,  it  is  only  about  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning  at  San  Francisco. 
The  time  steadily  changes  in  going  either 
east  or  west,  so  that  no  two  places  on  an 
east-west  line  have  exactly  the  same  time 
by  the  sun. 

Formerly  every  city  used  its  own  sun 
The  trouble  time,  or  local  time.  This  was 
caused  by  such  a  source  of  great  trouble  to 
differences  travelers  ;    for    their    watches 

were  always  wrong  when  they  arrived  at 
new  places.  When  railroads  were  built, 
and  people  began  to  travel  more,  and  to  go 
longer  distances,  the  many  different  kinds 
of  local  time  became  even  a  greater  incon- 
venience. 

In  order  to  avoid  this  trouble,  our  conti- 
nent has  been  divided  into  belts,  in  each  of 
How  this  which  the  railways,  and  most 

trouble  is  now  of  the  towns,  have  agreed  to 
largely  use  the  same  time.     Since  this 

av01  e  time    is  the   standard  for   all, 

these  belts  are  called  the  Standard  Time 
Belts.  The  one  in  the  extreme  East,  in- 
cluding eastern  Canada,  is  called  the  Colo- 
nial Belt;  the  belt  next  west  of  this,  which 
includes  New  England,  New  York,  and 
some  of  the  other  Eastern  States,  is  called 
the  Eastern  Time  Belt.  What  are  the 
others  called  (Fig.  290)  ? 

In  traveling  across  the  country  from  Xew  York 
City  to  San  Francisco,  one  starts  with  his  watch  set 
at  the  standard  time  for  the  Eastern  Time  Belt. 
After  a  while  he  comes  to  a  place  where  the  time  is 
changed  one  full  hour  ;  then  lie  sets  his  watch  hack 
an  hour  in  order  to  have  the  Central  Time.  Going 
still  farther  west  to  the  Mountain  Belt,  the  watch  is 
again  set  back  one  full  hour.     What  is  done  when 


the  Pacific  Belt  is  reached?  By  this  arrangement, 
the  same  time  is  used  over  a  very  broad  belt,  and 
only  a  few  changes  of  the  watch  have  to  be  made. 
State  how  a  watch  would  have  to  be  changed  when 
one  goes  eastward  from  San  Francisco  to  Xew  York. 

Our  study  of  longitude  helps  us  to  under- 
stand what  determines  the  places  for  chang- 
ing   this     time.      The    earth  How  the  time 
makes   one   complete    rotation   for  each  time 
every  24  hours,  so  that  the  sun   belt  is  fixed 
passes  over  360  degrees  in  the  course  of  the 
day  of  2-1  hours.     Dividing  360  by  24  gives 


SIA.VD.1UU  TIME  IS  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Fig.  290.  — To  show  the  Standard  Time  Belts  of  the  United 
States. 

15  ;  that  is,  the  number  of  meridians,  one 
degree  apart,  that  the  sun  passes  over  in  a 
single  hour.  Therefore,  when  it  is  noon  in 
a  place  on  the  75th  meridian,  as  at  Phila- 
delphia (Fig.  200),  it  is  eleven  o'clock  just 
15°  west  of  this,  or  on  the  90th  meridian. 
When  it  is  noon  at  one  point  on  a  merid- 
ian, it  is  noon  all  along  that  meridian. 

This  explains  what  has  determined  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  time  belts.  The  time 
selected  for  the  Eastern  Belt  is  that  of  the 
75th  meridian  :  for  the  Central  Belt,  that 
of  the  90th  meridian,  which  is  just  one  hour 
later.  What  meridian  is  selected  for  the 
Mountain  Belt  (Fig.  290)  ?  For  the  Pacific 
Belt? 

Each  of  these  meridians  runs  through  the 
middle  of  the  belt  whose  time  it  fixes. 
Thus,  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Central 
Time  Belt  is  halfway  between  the  75th  and 
90th    meridians,  that   is,  82*°  W.    Long.  ; 


206 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Why  the 
boundaries  for 
these  time 


and  the  western  boundary  is  halfway  be- 
tween the  90th  and  105th  meridians,  or 
971°  W.  Long. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  railways  do  not  change 
their   time   exactly   on    these    meridians.     It   often 
happens    that  the  meridians  chosen 
for    boundaries    pass   through   very 
unimportant   points,   or   even   cross 

belt.-;  are  not  the  raihvays  far  out  in  the  °Pen 
reeular  country.     Instead  of  following   the 

exact  boundaries,  therefore,  the  rail- 
ways often  select  well-known  cities  as  the  places 
where  the  changes  shall  be  made.  For  instance, 
Buffalo,  Pittsburgh,  and  Atlanta  are  the  principal 
cities  that  lie  on  the  boundary  between  the  Eastern 
and  the  Central  time  belts.  Railway  time-tables 
show  a  change  of  one  hour  at  these  points;  and  pas- 
sengers going  east  or  west  change  their  watches  one 
hour  here  (Fig.  290).  Name  cities  located  on 
other  boundaries.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  bound- 
aries where  the  railways  actually  change  their  time 
are  somewhat  irregular.  But  that  makes  little  dif- 
ference, so  long  as  there  is  a  general  agreement  as 
to  the  location  of  the  boundaries. 

It  is  true  that  the  Standard  Time  is  incorrect  for 
most  places.  It  is  the  sun  that  really  fixes  our  time, 
and  at  most  points  Standard  Time  cannot  agree 
with  the  sun,  or  local  time.  Yet  Standard  Time 
relieves  us  of  much  trouble,  and  that  is  the  chief 
reason  for  its  use. 

In  order  that  our  system  may  agree  with  that 
of  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  time  of  the  Green- 
wich meridian  is  taken  as  a  basis.  Thus  the 
whole  world  may  be  divided  into  Standard  Time 
belts,  with  a  change  of  an  hour  at  every  fifteenth 
meridian. 

1.  Explain  the  need  of  some  way  of  locating  places 
exactly.     2.    How  may  houses  be  located  in  large 
.  cities  ?    3.    How  can   all  places   be 

-        .  located  in  a  north  and  south  direc- 

tion on  the  earth?  4.  How  in  an 
east  and  west  direction  ?  5.  Locate  several  places 
accurately  by  using  a  map.  6.  Define  latitude; 
longitude.  7.  What  is  meant  by  a  degree  ?  8.  How 
many  degrees  of  longitude  are  there  on  the  equa- 
tor? 9.  How  many  miles  is  each  of  these  degrees? 
10.  Why  are  meridians  not  parallel?  11.  How 
many  degrees  of  latitude  are  there  from  pole  to  pole  ? 
12.  How  are  degrees  subdivided  ?  Why?  13.  Ex- 
plain about  the  differences  in  time  by  the  sua,  in 
different  places.  14.  How  have  these  differences 
caused  much  trouble?  15.  How  is  the  difficulty 
now  largely  avoided?  16.  Explain  how  the  time 
for  each  time  belt  is  determined.  17.  Name  the 
time  belts  in  North  America,  and  locate  each. 
18.    Why  are  the  boundaries  not  regular? 


1.  Find  how  the  streets  of  Washington  have  been 
numbered  and  lettered.  2.  What  is  the  latitude  and 
longitude  of  Boston  ?  Of  Washing-  Suggest-ons 
ton?  Of  Chicago?  Of  your  home? 
3.  Find  some  cities  that  are  on  or  near  the  42d 
parallel  of  latitude.  4.  What  place  is  in  25°  N. 
Lat.  and  81°  W.  Long.  ?  What  place  is  near  40°  N. 
Lat.  and  75°  W.  Long.  ?  5.  Find  places  that  have 
nearly  the  same  latitude  as  your  home.  6.  Show  on 
a  globe,  or  map,  where  a  ship  would  be  in  the 
Atlantic  when  in  zero  latitude  and  zero  longitude. 
7.  Examine  a  globe  to  see  what  meridian  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  zero  longitude  on  the  other  side  of  the 
earth.  8.  Find  the  latitude  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  ; 
of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  ;  of  the  Arctic  Circle ; 
of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  9.  Where  and  how  much 
would  you  change  your  watch  in  traveling  from  San 
Francisco  to  Chicago?  10.  Examine  some  railway 
time-tables  to  see  how  they  indicate  the  changes  in 
time.  11.  What  is  the  difference,  where  you  live, 
between  Standard  Time  and  solar  or  sun  time  ? 
12.  Find  out  whether  the  true  Standard  Time  is 
telegraphed  to  your  city  each  day,  and  if  so  from 
what  place. 


III.  Winds  and   Rain 

i  .   Winds 

In  our  study  of  North  America,  we  have 
learned  that  the  winds  of  different  sections 
came  from  different  directions.  The  problem 
For  example,  in  the  West  before  us 
Indies,  Central  America,  and  southern 
Alexico,  the  winds  usually  blow  from  the 
northeast;  but  on  the  western  side  of  the 
continent,  all  the  way  from  San  Francisco 
to  Alaska,  the  wind  blows  quite  regularly 
from  a  westerly  quarter.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  winds  are  irregular  in  direction, 
although  they  blow  more  often  from  the 
west  than  from  any  other  quarter.  We 
will  now  study  the  causes  for  <  these  dif- 
ferences, and  also  learn  what  the  principal 
winds  on  the  earth  are. 

It  will  help  us  to  understand  this  subject 
if  we  first  find  what  currents  of  air  a  hot 
stove  causes  in  a  room  (Fig.  The  currents 
291).      The    first    thing    that  of  air  caused 
happens    when  a  fire    is    kin-   by  a  hot  stove 
died   is    that    the    air    near   the   stove    is 


WINDS  AND  RAIN 


207 


'0.' . 

0', 

■r  ,-. 


warmed.  This  causes  it  to  expand  and 
become  lighter.  Then  the  cooler,  heavier 
air  in  other  parts  of  the  room  settles  down 
and  flows  in  toward  the  stove,  forcing  up- 
ward the  warm,  light  air 
near  the  stove.  This 
warm,  rising  air  grows 
cooler  as  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  cool  ceiling 
and  the  walls  of  the  room. 
This  makes  it  dense 
and  heavy  again  ;  it 
then  settles  toward  the 
floor  at  some  distance 
from  the  stove,  and  once 
more  moves  toward  the 
stove. 

In  other  words,  the  cur- 
rents of  air  keep  circling 
around  in  the  room,  ris- 
ing when  warmed,  and 
settling  when  cooled.  In 
such  a  room,  you  can 
easily  observe  how  warm 
the  air  is  near  the  ceiling, 
where  it  has  risen  above 
the  stove  ;  and  how  much 
cooler  it  is  near  the  floor  at  some  distance 
from  the  stove. 

The  greater  winds  of  the  earth  may  be 
compared  to  this  movement  of  air  in  a  room. 


lighter,  just  as  the  air  does  about  the  hot 
stove.  The  cooler,  heavier  air  to  the  north 
and  south  of  the  torrid  zone  then  flows 
in  and  pushes  the  light  air  up  and  away. 


HOT 


t 


o, 

'X, 


WARM 


'"•■0   •     : 


i',^^^/^ 


f 


-.— cold^; 


COLD 


Fig.  291. 


C*L*S 

J- 1  -Oy 

v  /UM 

'•  •■•'  < 

V'    \  % 

i 

_JJJ-/' 

Fig.  292.  —  Piairram  to  show,  liy  arrows,  the  movement 
of  the  greater  winds  of  the  earth. 

Here,  however,  the  broad  torrid  zone,  which 
is  warmed   by  the  sun's  rays, 

d°Il  winds  of  takeS  the  plaCe  °f    the   St0^'e' 

the  earth  ^n    tne    torrid    zone    the    hot 

resemble  these  sun   heats    the  air,  thus  caus- 

currents  ing  it  to  expand  and   become 


The  arrows  show  the  currents  of  air  in  a  room  that  are  caused 
by  a  liot  stove. 


Such  a  flowing  of  the  air  is  what  we  call 
wind. 

This  vast  movement  of  the  air  is  illus- 
trated in  Figure  292.  The  letter  E  stands 
for  the  equator.  The  arrows  represent  the 
cooler  air,  north  and  south  of  the  equator, 
as  crowding  in  toward  that  section,  then 
rising,  and  returning  once  more  to  the  north 
and  south. 

The  air  that  flows  toward  the  torrid  zone 
causes  very  regular  winds   that  are  called 
trade  winds.    They  start  in  both  uamesofthe 
the  north  and  south  temperate   principal 
zones,  hundreds  of  miles  away,   winds  on  the 
and  blow  toward  the  equator  earth 
day  after  day  and  month  after  month. 

Since  the  heated  air  must  escape  some- 
where, it  rises  far  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  then  flows  back  in  the  same 
direction  from  which  it  came.  This  forms 
the  return  trade,  or  anti-trade  winds  (Fig. 


208 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


292).  The  atmosphere  extends  many  miles 
above  the  earth,  so  that  there  is  plenty  of 
room  for  two  winds,  one  above  the  other, 
blowing  in  opposite  directions. 

In  Cuba,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  elsewhere,  where 
the  trade  winds  are  felt  at  the  surface,  one  notices 
that  the  clouds,  far  up  in  the  sky,  move  steadily  in 
the  opposite  direction.  They  are  being  borne  along 
in  the  anti-trades.  When  volcanoes  in  Central 
America  have  been  in  eruption,  the  ashes  that  were 
hurled  out  from  them  have  been  carried  hundreds 
of  miles  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  of  the 
trade  winds  at  the  surface. 

Being  cooled  on  account  of  its  great 
height,  the   air   of    the   anti-trades   slowly 


outward  and  down,  and  once  more  (4)  in- 
ward toward  the  heated  part.  Make  a 
drawing  to  illustrate  these  four  directions 
of  movement  of  the  air. 

There  are  differences,  however,  and  one  of  them 
is  especially  important.  In  the  room,  the  currents 
move  directly  toward  the  stove  ;  then, 
after  rising,  moves  directly  away 
from  it.  If  the  earth  stood  still,  the 
trade  winds  also  would  blow  directly 
toward  the  equator  from  the  north 
and  south  ;  and  the  anti-trades  would 
blow  directly  away  from  it. 

As  you  know,  however,  the  earth  rotates  from 
west  to  east  at  a  rapid  rate.  This  rotation  causes 
the  trade  winds  to  be  turned   from   their  straight 


Effects  of 
earth's  rota- 
tion on  direc- 
tion of  these 
winds 


Fig.  293.  —  A  diagram  to  show  the  principal  wind  belts  of  the  earth. 


settles,  some  of  it  coming  to  the  surface  at 
about  a  third  of  the  distance  to  the  poles. 
There  it  spreads  out,  a  part  continuing  on 
toward  the  poles,  a  part  returning  to  the 
equator  as  the  trade  winds.  Point  out  the 
arrows  that  show  these  movements  in 
Figure  292. 

Thus,  as  you  see,  these  currents  in  the 
atmosphere  closely  resemble  those  in  the 
room.  In  both  cases  air  moves  (1)  in  to- 
ward a  heated  place,  (2)  then  up,  then  (3) 


course  toward  the  equator.  Those  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  are  turned  to  the  right,  so  that  they  blow 
from  the  northeast  instead  of  from  the  north.  Those 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  are  turned  toward  the 
left,  and  therefore  they  blow  from  the  southeast  in- 
stead of  from  the  south. 

The  anti-trades  are  also  turned  toward  the  right 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  where  they  blow  from 
the  southwest,  and  toward  the  left  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  where  they  blow  from  the  northwest 
The  exact  reason  for  this  effect  of  rotation  is  far 
too  complex  to  state  here ;  so  that  only  the  facts 
are  given  without  explanation. 


WINDS  A\n   RAIN 


209 


It  is  now  easy  to  see  why  the  West 
Indies,  Central  America,  and  southern 
'  The  great  Mexico    receive   such   regular 

wind  belts  winds     from     the     northeast. 

They  lie  in  the  belt  of  the  northeast  trade 
winds  just  described. 

The  prevailing  west  winds  of  the  Pacific 
coast  are  a  part  of  the  air  of  the  anti-trades 
that  has  settled  to  the  surface  and  is  moving 
on  toward  the  east.  If  you  watch  the  higher 
clouds,  you  will  find,  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  that  they  are  moving  toward 
the  east.  Even  at  the  surface,  the  winds 
blow  from  the  west  more  often  than  from 
any  other  quarter.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada,  the 
winds  blow  so  often  from  the  west,  north- 
west, or  southwest,  that  this  whole  region 
is  known  as  the  region  of  the  prevailing 
westerlies. 

Regular  winds,  such  as  are  found  in 
North  America,  are  likewise  found  in  most 
other  parts  of  the  world.  In  other  words, 
there  are  several  belts  of  regular  winds 
extending  around  the  earth.  Figure  293 
shows  these  clearly.  Point  out  the  belt  of 
trade  ivinds  north  of  the  equator.  Point 
out  the  prevailing  ivesterlies.  Point  out  the 
two  similar  wind  belts  on  the  south  side  of 
the  equator. 

Notice  how  much  more  distinctly  these 
belts  are  shown  over  the  ocean  than  over 
Why  the  the  hind.     There  are  several 

winds  are  reasons  why  winds  blow  much 

most  regular      more  steadily  over  the   ocean 

over  the  ocean    j.i  ^i     1       i        rri 

than  over  the  land.  The  prin- 
cipal one  is  that  the  temperature  of  the 
water  does  not  change  so  quickly  as  that 
of  the  land.  On  the  land  one  place  may 
become  much  wrarmer  than  another  not  far 
away,  and  then  winds  blow  toward  the 
warmer  section.  This  often  changes  the 
direction  of  the  regular  winds  on  the  land. 

That  the  winds  blow  very  steadily  over  the  ocean 
is  most  clearly  shown  (Fig.  293)  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  where  there  is  little  land.  There,  in 
the  belt  of  prevailing  westerlies,  the  wind  is  almost 
all  the  time  from  the  west.     Indeed,  it  is  said  that 


vessels,  choosing  a  course  south  of  Africa  and  South 
America,  can  sail  around  the  world  with  fair  winds 
almost  all  the  way,  if  they  go  toward  the  east;  but 
if  they  sail  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  winds  are 
against  them. 

Besides  the  four  belts  of  winds  just  men- 
tioned, there  are  three  other  belts  in  which 
it  is  either  calm,  or  else  there   _, 
are  only  light,  variable  winds.    caims-  ana 
The  most  important  of   these  the  belts  of 
is    called    the    belt    of    calms   light  and  vari- 
(Figs.  292  and  293),  which  is  able  winds 
several    hundred    miles    in    width.     This 
belt    is    situated    where    the    trade    winds 
from    the    northeast    and    those    from    the 
southeast  die  out.     It  is  in  this  belt  that 
the  heated  air  in  the  torrid  zone  is  rising-. 
Since  it  is  moving  upward,  no  wind  can  be 
felt,  and  this  is,   therefore,   a   belt  of   pre- 
vailing calms.     What  winds  there  are,  are 
usually  light  and  changeable. 

Northern  Mexico  and  southern  Califor- 
nia are  situated  in  another  belt  of  light 
winds  with   frequent   calms.     This  is  the 


U — " — —  iiu — ^~ — ^y~ 


CAPRICORN  80° 


Fig.  294.  —  Diagram  to  show  the  position  of  the  trade 
winds  belts  and  the  belt  of  calms  in  summer. 

belt  where  the  air  of  the  anti-trades  is 
settling  toward  the  earth  ;  and  settling  air, 
like  rising  air,  does  not  cause  winds.  This 
region  is  known  as  the  horse  latitudes.1 
Point  out  the  belt  on  Figures  292  and  293. 

1  Called  horse  latitudes  because  sailing  vessels,  carry- 
ing horses  from  New  England  to  the  West  Indies  in 
the  early  days,  were  so  delayed  by  the  calms  that  the 
horses  had  to  be  thrown  overboard  when  the  drinking 
water  gave  out. 


210 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Show  the  corresponding  belt  on  the  south 
side  of  the  equator. 

The  belt  of  most  intense  heat  is  not  always  in 
exactly  the  same  part  of  the  earth.  In  June,  when 
the  sun  is  vertical  at  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  the  belt  of  greatest  heat  lies 
north  of  the  equator ;  and  in  Decem- 
ber, when  the  sun's  rays  are  vertical 
at  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  it  lies 
farther  south.     As  the  belt  of  greatest  heat  thus 


Effects  of 
earth's  revolu- 
tion on  all 
these  belts 


Fig.  295.  —Diagram  to  show  the  position  of  the  belt  of 
calms  and  the  trade  winds  in  winter. 

shifts  with  the  season,  the  belt  of  calms  moves  also. 
That  causes  the  trade  wind  belts  to  move,  likewise. 
Indeed,  all  the  belts  slowly  shift  northward  in  sum- 
mer and  southward  in  winter  (Figs.  294  and  295). 


2.    Rain 

Knowing  the  wind  belts  that  encircle  the 
earth,  we  have  a  key  to  the  principal  rain 
Relation  of  belts  ;  for  the  winds  are  the 
winds  to  rain  water  carriers  of  the  earth. 
Water  that  is  evaporated  from  the  surface 
of  the  oceans  and  of  the  lands,  is  borne 
along  in  the  air  in  the  form  of  vapor.  It 
descends  to  the  earth  as  rain  or  snow,  fall- 
ing in  great  abundance  in  some  places,  and 
scarcely  at  all  in  others. 

To  understand  the  cause  for  the  change 
of  vapor  to  rain  or  snow,  it  is  necessary, 
Principal  first  of  all,  to  know  that  there 

cause  of  rain  can  be  more  water  vapor  in 
warm  than  in  cool  air.  Quite  warm  air 
can  hold  much  more  vapor  than  cold  air. 

For  this  reason,  whenever  air  is  cooled 
sufficiently,  some  of  the  water  vapor  which 


it  bears  is  condensed.  For  example,  vapor 
condenses  on  a  cold  glass  because  the  air 
next  to  it  is  cooled  ;  and  dew  forms  on 
grass  when  the  air  near  the  ground  grows 
cool  in  the  evening.  In  a  like  manner,  the 
vapor  in  our  breath  is  condensed,  thus  form- 
ing a  little  cloud,  when  we  breathe  into  the 
cold  air  of  a  winter  day.  Rain  is  also  caused 
by  the  cooling  of  air  which  contains  vapor. 

One  important  cause  for  the  cooling  of 
air  is  that  it  expands  on  rising  above  the 
surface.  Perhaps  you  have  noticed  how 
cool  the  air  feels  as  it  rushes  out  from  a 
bicycle  tire  when  you  open  the  valve. 
The  coolness  is  due  to  the  expansion  of  the 
air  as  it  comes  out.  In  a  similar  way, 
when  air  rises  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  it  exj:>ands,  because  there  is  less  air 
above  to  press  upon  it.  Then  it  grows 
cool ;  and  while  doing  so,  some  of  its 
vapor  may  be  condensed  to  form  clouds 
and  raindrops. 

This  is  the  chief  reason  why  winds  from 
the  ocean  cause  rainfall  on  mountain  slopes 
and  plateaus.  The  air  is  forced  to  rise  in 
order  to  pass  over  the  highlands,  and  that 
allows  it  to  expand  and  grow  cool.  For 
the  same  reason,  air  that  rises  in  the  warm 
fiarts  of  the  earth,  like  the  belt  of  calms, 
also  gives  up  vapor  to  form  rain.  Briefly, 
—  ivlien  air  rises,  it  expands  and  cools;  and 
then  rain  usually  follows. 

On  the  other  hand,  air  that  is  settling 
grows  warmer ;  and,  instead  of  giving  up 
its  vapor,  it  becomes  dry  and  One  reason  for 
clear.  This  may  again  be  il-  dry  weather 
lustrated  by  the  bicycle ;  for  when  air  is 
pumped  into  the  tire,  the  pump  becomes 
warm  as  the  air  is  made  denser,  or  is  com- 
pressed, by  pumping.  In  a  like  manner, 
air  that  is  descending  toward  the  earth's 
surface  is  compressed  and  warmed  because 
of  the  great  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
above.  Since  there  can  be  more  vapor  in 
warm  than  in  cool  air,  such  settling  air 
currents  become  steadily  drier.  They  cause 
clouds  to  disappear,  and  water  to  be  evap- 
orated from  the  ground.     This  is  the  rea- 


WINDS  AND  BAIX 


211 


son  why  the  horse  latitudes  are  arid  belts; 
for,  as  )rou  remember,  the  air  in  these  belts 
is  settling  from  above.  Briefly, — ivhen  air 
descends,  it  becomes  denser  and  grows  warmer; 
then  the  shy  is  clear  and  the  weather  dry. 

These  facts  have  been  well  illustrated  in 
the  rains  of  North  America.  The  northeast 
The  regular  trade  winds'  having  gathered  a 
rain  belts  large  amount  of  vapor  from  the 

1.  In  North  ocean,  deposit  it  on  the  wind- 
America  ward  slopes  of  the  West  Indies, 
southern  Mexico,  and  Central  America 
(Fig.  296).  The  southwestern  slopes  of  the 
West  Indies,  however,  receive  a  much 
smaller  quantity  of  rain ;  and  the  western 
coast  of  Mexico  is  quite  arid. 

Farther  north  the  prevailing  westerlies, 
having  traveled  a  long  distance  over  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  likewise  cause  heavy  rains 
along  the  western  coast  of  North  America 
(Fig.  297).  But  these  winds  also  lose 
much  of  their  moisture  in  passing  over  the 
Western  highlands  ;  and  the  land  farther 
east,  therefore,  re- 
ceives very  little 
rain. 

Northern  Mexico 
and  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  the 
United  States,  lying 
within  the  horse 
latitudes,  where  the 
air  is  descending, 
also  receive  very 
little  rain  and  are 
arid  (Fig.  297). 
This  is  true  even 
at  the  seashore 
in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Other  regions  ly- 
ing within  the  regu- 
lar wind  belts  show 
the  same  conditions 

2.  In  other  of  rainfall.  For  example,  note 
regions  north       what  heavy  rains  the  northeast 

of  the  equator        trade  windg  brh]g   tQ  northern 

South  America  (Fig.  296),  to  southeastern 


Asia  (Fig.  299),  and  to  the  islands  near  by, 
such  as  the  Philippine  Islands. 


Fig.  297.  —  The  heavy  rainfall  where  the  prevailing  westerlies 
blow  over  the  rising  coast.  What  is  the  condition  farther 
east?    What  is  the  case  where  the  trade  winds  blow  ?  Why? 


Fig.  29(5. — The  rainy  east  coasts  and  arid  west  coasts  of 
the  trade  wind  belts.  Also  the  rainy  belt  of  calms  of 
South  America. 

Iii  western  Asia  and  northern  Africa,  on 
the  other  hand,  these  winds  deposit  little 
moisture,  as  is 
clearly  shown  by 
Figures  298  and 
299.  One  cause  for 
this  is  that,  before 
reaching  these  re- 
gions, the  trade 
winds  have  been 
blowing  a  long  dis- 
tance over  the  land, 
and  not  over  the 
oceans.  For  this 
reason  they  have 
little  vapor  to  de- 
posit. Another  very 
important  reason  is 
that  the  air  is  mov- 
ing from  a  cooler  to 
a  warmer  region, 
and  is  steadily  be- 
coming warmer. 
Instead  of  being  forced,  therefore,  to  give 
up  its  moisture,  it  takes  more  vapor.  Thus 
in  this  region  the  trade  winds  take  up 
water  wherever  they  find  it ;    and  instead 


212 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


of  causing  rain  they  are  really  drying  winds. 
This  accounts  for  the  Sahara  and  some  other 
deserts. 

The  prevailing  westerlies  reach  Europe,  as 
well  as  North  America,  and  cause  abundant 


Fig.  298.  —  To  illustrate  the  desert  regions  in  the  trade  wind 
and  horse  latitude  belts  of  Africa.  Also  to  show  the 
heavy  rainfall  in  the  belt  of  calms.  Find  the  similar 
belts  on  Figures  296,  299,  and  300. 

rainfall  on  the  western  coast.  Since  there 
are  no  lofty  mountains  on  the  west  coast  of 
Europe,  however,  there  is  no  arid  and  desert 
land  in  this  part  of  the  west  wind  belt.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  three  peninsulas  of 
southern  Europe,  like  southern  California, 
lie  partly  within  the  horse  latitudes ;  and 
for  this  reason  there  is  little  rain,  especially 
in  their  southern  portion. 

South  of  the  equator  the  southeast  trade 
winds  cause  heavy  rains  on  the  east  coast 
3.  in  regions  °f  South  America  (Fig.  296)  ; 
south  of  the  then,  crossing  the  continent, 
equa  or  they  give    up   more    vapor    in 

ascending  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
The  air  is  so  drained  of  its  vapor  here, 
that  when  it  descends  on  the  western  side 
of  the  mountains,  there  is  little  left.  For 
this  reason  the  southern  parts  of  Peru  and 
northern  Chile,  even  within  sight  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  form  one  of  the  most  desert 
regions  of  the  earth.  Southern  Chile,  on  the 
other  hand,  being  in  the  belt  of  the  prevail- 
ing westerlies,  has  plenty  of  rain  (Fig.  299). 

Most  of  Australia  is  in  the  southeast 
trade    wind    belt.      Therefore,    rainfall    is 


ample  on  the  eastern  coast ;  but  since  the 
highlands  on  this  continent  are  close  to 
the  east  coast,  nearly  all  the  remainder  of 
the  country  suffers  for  want  of  rain  (Fig. 
300).  The  southwestern  tip  of  Australia, 
the  island  of  Tasmania,  and  the  southern 
island  of  New  Zealand,  like  southern  Chile, 
are  reached  by  the  prevailing  westerlies ; 
and  for  that  reason  they  receive  abundant 
rain. 

The  belt  of  calms  is  the  most  rainy  of  all 
the  belts  (Figs.  296,  298,  and  300),  because 
its  hot,  moisture-laden  air  is  4.  in  the  belt 
rising  and  cooling.  After  a  of  calms 
clear  night  in  that  region,  the  sun  usually 
rises  in  a  cloudless  sky.  As  the  morning 
advances,  and  the  heat  grows  more  intense, 
the  damp  air  rises  more  rapidly  ;  then  small 
clouds  appear,  and  they  grow  steadily  until 
rain  falls  from  them.  Showers  occur  al- 
most every  day,  increasing  in  the  afternoon. 
When  the  sun  sets,  and  less  air  rises,  the 
clouds  melt  away,  the  stars  appear,  and  the 
night  is  as  clear  as  before.  Our  hot,  muggy 
summer  days,  with  heavy  thunder  showers 


Wll.Li.ME  ENS. 


Fig.  300.  —  Showing  the  heavy  rainfall  on  the  east-facing 
coast  of  Australia  where  the  trade  winds  blow.  Notice 
also  the  arid  interior  and  west  coast.  What  is  the  con- 
dition in  the  belt  of  calms  ?  What  resemblance  do  you 
see  to  Figure  297? 

in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  illustrate  the 
weather  that  is  repeated,  day  after  day,  in 
this  belt  of  calms. 

You  have  already  learned  (p.  210)  that  the  wind 
belts  shift  northward  in  summer  and  southward  in 


213 


214 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


"winter.     Many  places  in  the  torrid  zone  are  within 
the  belt  of  calms  during  the  summer  months,  and 
are  swept  by  the  trade  winds  in  the 
5.  The  shifting      .  months.     This  is  of  special 

of  these  ram  •     .    \ 

belts  importance,  because   tne  rain    belts 

shift   with  the   wind    belts.      That 
divides  the   year  in  such  places  into  two  seasons : 


(2)  The  reason 
for  such 
weather 

When    such 
the    North- 


FiG.  301.- 


Winds  and  rainfall  in  South  America  and  Africa  from  December 
to  February. 


(1)  a  wet  season,  when  the  region  is  in  the  belt  of 
calms;  and  (2)  a  dry  season,  when  the  trade  winds 
blow. 

The  part  of  northern  Africa  that  lies  just  south 
of  the  Sahara  Desert  affords  an  instance  of  this 
(Figs.  301  and  302).  Find  another  instance  in 
northern  South  America.  Note  what  an  enormous 
area  in  each  of  these  continents  is 
wet  during  one  part  of  the  year  and 
dry  during  the  other. 

Thus   far    only  the   regular 
wind     and     rain     belts     have 

been    considered. 

From    what    has 

been     said,     one 

might     expect 

that    the    west 

winds,    so    dry 
after    passing    over  the    high- 
lands of  western  United  States, 
would  continue  eastward  and 
cause  our  Central  and  Eastern  States  to  be 
arid.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  know  that 
abundant  rain  falls  in  this  section,  as  shown 
by  Figure  303.    We  know,  too,  that  there  are 
no  very  regular  winds  over  this  entire  area  ; 
on  the  contrary,  both  winds  and  temperature 
are    quite    changeable.     In    any   particular 


south  wind  on  one  day  ;  the  next  day  a  coo 
dry  wind  may  blow  from  the  northwest 
after  two  or  three  days  this  may  give  plac 
to  a  cloud}r  sky  and  rain,  brought  on  by  soul 
or  east  winds  ;  and  then  fair,  cool  weather, 
with  northwest  winds,  may  again  set  in. 

The  reason  for  such  change- 
able weather  here  is  that  this 
region  is  crossed 
by  great  storms, 
moving  from 
west  to  east, 
storms  begin  in 
west,  there  is  a  large  area  there 
with  lighter  air  than  that  over 
the  surrounding  region.  Such 
an  area  is  called  a  loiv  pressure 
area  (Fig.  304).  The  heavier 
air,  from  the  surrounding 
country,  flows  toward  this  low 
pressure  area.  This  causes  winds  which 
on  the  south  side  blow  from  the  south,  on 
the  east  side  from  the  east,  and  so  forth 
(Fig.  304). 

The  air  that  flows  in  from  all  sides  rises 
near  the  center  of  the  low  pressure  area. 


Regions  of 
irregular  rains 
1 .   In  eastern 
United  States 
and  Canada 
(1)  Kind  of 
weather  here 


locality  it  may  be  warm  and  pleasant,  with 


Fig.  302. —  Winds  and  rainfall  in  South  America  and  Africa  from  June  to 
August.  Compare  with  Figure  301  to  see  how  the  belts  of  heavy  rain 
have  migrated  as  the  wind  belts  have  shifted  with  the  change  of  season. 

As  it  rises,  the  vapor  condenses,  forming 
clouds  and  rain,  as  in  the  belt  of  calms. 
Such  an  area  of  low  pressure,  with  its  clouds 
and  rain,  is  known  as  a  cyclonic  storm  area 
(Fig.  305). 

Instead  of  remaining  in  one  place,  the 
cyclonic  storms  travel  steadily  onward, 
usually   beginning    in    the    northwest,   and 


WINDS  AXD  RAIX 


215 


always  passing  eastward  (Fig.  306).  The 
paths  followed  by  the  storm  centers  gener- 
...  ™  ally  pass  over  the  Great  Lakes, 

(3)   The  move-  ,      ■,  ,-, 

pent  of  the  cy-    and    down    the    St.    Lawrence 

They 


clonk- storms,      Valley  to    the    ocean. 

and  their  extent  ,      , 

move    eastward     because    the 


prevailing  westerlies  carry 
them  along ;  indeed,  these 
great  cyclonic  storms  appear 
to  be  whirls,  or  eddies,  in 
the  prevailing  westerlies, 
somewhat  like  the  eddies  in 
the  current  of  a  stream. 

These  storms  bring  most 
of  the  rain  that  falls  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada, 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  area  of  country  upon 
which  the  rain  may  be  falling 
from  the  clouds  of  one  of  the 
cyclonic  storms  is  sometimes 
very  great.  Indeed,  places 
fully  a  thousand  miles  apart 
sometimes  receive  rain  at 
the  same  time,  from  the  same 
storm  (Fig.  305).  As  the 
storm  moves  eastward,  the  weather  begins 
to  clear  on  the  western  side  (Figs.  304 
|  and  306). 

The  vapor  that  causes  the  rain  in  these  storms  is 
I   brought  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 


places,  tornailoes,  often  called  cyclones,  in  which  the 
winds  blow  so  fiercely  that  houses  are  torn  to  pieces 
(Fig.  307). 

After  a  low  pressure  area  has  passed  eastward, 
and  the  storm  is  over,  the  wind  generally  blows  from 
the  west.  This  causes  cool,  dry  weather  in  summer, 
and  cold  snaps  in  winter.     The  latter  are  often  so 


Fig.  Mi.  —  A  weather  map  of  the  United  States  on  a  winter's  day.  The  lines 
are  lines  of  equal  air  pressure,  —  the  lower  the  figure,  the  lighter  the  air 
(29.5  representing  lighter  air  than  2D.7).  The  pressure  is  determined  by  an 
instrument  called  the  barometer. 


severe  that  they  are  called  cold  waves;  and  these, 
sweeping  over  the  East,  and  even  in  the  South,  often 
do  great  damage  to  fruit  trees  and  delicate  plants. 

While  the  cyclonic  storms  are  quite  ir- 
regular, they    are   almost    certain  to   come 


Fig.  305.  —  A  diagram  section  through  a  cyclonic  storm  area.  The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  winds :  the  shaded 
area  represents  cloud  and  rain.  Such  a  storm  covers  a  very  large  area,  often  from  the  Mississippi  River  (M)  to 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  (A). 


Ocean,  being  carried  by  the  winds  for  hundreds  of 
miles,  even  into  Canada. 

Xot  only  are  rains  caused  by  these  storms,  hut 
hot  spells,  and  other  changes  as  well.     Warm  winds,. 

,.,   m   .    ..  blowing  from  the  south  toward  the 

(4)  Their  differ-    ,  „       b  .,  c 

-  .   j-   .      '".t      low  pressure  areas,  are  the  cause  ot 
ent  effects  on  the     ,      r .  ,  '      ,     , 

ireut/ier  *ne  "winter  thaws  and  the  summer 

hot  spells,  which  are  common  in  the 
Eastern  and  Central  States.  It  is  during  the  hot 
spelLs  that  thunder   storms   come ;    also,   in   some 


whenever  a  wide  area  of  low  air  pressure 
appears  in  the  "West.     Thus,  by  watching 
the    pressure    of    the    air,    as  (5)  Possibmty 
shown   by   instruments   called  of  predicting 
barometers,    it    is    possible    to  thesestorms 
predict    such    a    storm  ;     and    since    they 
always  move  toward  the  east,  it  is  possible, 
by  further  study  of  the  barometer,  and  of 


216 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


the  winds,  to  predict  their  course  some- 
what accurately,  and  thus  warn  people  of 
their  coming. 

This  work  is  so  important  that  the  United 
States  government  employs  a  large  force  of 


WIRIAMB  ENS.  CO., 


Fig.  306. 


-  Weather  map  for  the  day  following  that  of  Figure  304. 
carefully,  and  tell  how  it  differs  from  Figure  304. 


(6)  How  the  pre- 
dictions are 
made,  and  how 
people  are 
vmrned 

the    central 


men,  stationed  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  to  observe  the  pres- 
sure of  air,  direction  of  wind, 
etc.  The  observations  are 
made  at  the  same  time  at  all 
stations,  and  telegraphed  to 
office     at     Washington.       A 

special   branch  of   the  government,    called 

the  Weather  Bureau,  has  been  established  to 

have  charge  of  this  work. 

The  storm  predictions  are  telegraphed  from  Wash- 
ington to  all  parts  of  the  country,  so  that  one  knows 
what  kind  of  weather  to  expect  a  full  day  before  it 
comes.  These  predictions  are  usually  printed  in  the 
newspapers,  as  you  no  doubt  know. 

Maps,  called  weather  maps,  are  also  sent  out  in. 
great  numbers.  Figures  304  and  306  are  made  from 
such  maps.  Figure  304  shows  a  cyclonic  storm  in 
the  Northwest,  the  arrows  indicating  how  the  winds 
blow,  from  all  sides,  toward  the  center  of  low  pres- 
sure. Farther  east  is  a  region  of  high  pressure.  In 
Figure  306,  the  high  and  low  pressure,  areas  are 
again  represented;  but,  since  it  is  a  day  later,  they 
have  botli  moved  eastward;  and  the  following  day 
they  would  be  still  farther  east. 

From  these  maps  you  can  see  how  the  direction 


of  the  wind,  for  any  one  locality,  changes  as  the  low 
pressure  areas  pass  over  the  country.  By  them, 
also,  any  person  may  see  what  the  weather  promises 
to  be  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  may  follow 
the  changes  from  day  to  day. 

By  the  predictions  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  farm- 
ers and  gardeners  are  warned 
against  damaging 

frosts,  and  sailors    <">  /alue  * 

such  warnings 
against    severe 

storms.     Hundreds  of  thousands    . 
of  dollars  are  saved  in  this  manner 
everj'   year.     Especially  valuable 
service  has  been  rendered  by  the   . 
Weather    Bureau    in    predicting 
the  fierce  hurricanes  that  start  in 
the  West  Indies  and   sometimes 
do  great  damage  there,  as  well  as 
on    our    own    coast    (Fig.   308).   | 
These     resemble      the     cyclonic 
storms,  but   are   much   more  de- 
structive.   They  often  pass  along 
our  eastern  coast,  and  then  east- 
ward out  into  the  Atlantic. 

Since  the  storms  and  high  pres- 
sure areas  have  so  great  an  influ- 
ence on  our  weather,  you  will  find 
it  of  interest  to  study  the  weather 
yourself.  Watch  the  changes  in 
wind,  temperature,  clouds,  and  rain;  and  if  there 
is  a  barometer  at  hand,  observe  how  it  changes  as 
the  high  and  low  pressure  areas  come  and  go.  You 
might  also  examine  the  weather  map  and  watch 
the  weather  that  follows,  to  see  how  accurately  the 
map  predicts  the  weather. 


Study  this 


Fig.  307. 


-  A  house,  one  side  of  which  was  hlown  off 
during  the  passage  of  a  cyclone. 


Since  Europe,  like  the  United  States,  is 
mainly  in  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerlies, 


WINDS  AND   RAIN 


217 


it  also  is  visited  by  cyclonic  storms.     Many 
of  the  storms  that  cross  our  country  pass 

2.  Regions  of      over  tne  ocean,  and  travel  far 
irregular  rains     into   Eurasia    before   they  die 

in  Europe  Qut>       Ther6)  ag   j^^  fche   area 

upon  which  rain  may  be 
falling  during'  one  of 
these  storms  is  some- 
times very  great.  As 
in  our  country,  the 
weather  is  made  change- 
able by  these  storms  ; 
it  may  be  warm  and 
pleasant  one  day,  stormy 
the  next,  then  clear  and 
cool,  or  cold. 

Similar    cyclonic     storms 
develop     in    the    prevailing 

wester! v  belt 

3.  Such  regions 

in  the  southern 
hemisphere 


shore  soon  becomes  warm  on  a  hot  summer  morn- 
ing, while  the  water  near  by  remains  cool.  The 
air  over  the  warm  land  is  heated,  as 

over  a  stove,  so  that  it  expands  and   . 

breezes 
grows    light ;     but    that    over    the 

water  remains  cool,  like  the  sea  itself. 


1 .   Sea  and  lake 


of  the  south- 
er n  he  m  i- 
sphere ;    and 

there,  too,  they  cause  changes 

in    temperature,    wind,    and 

rain.      For   this   reason   the   weather  of    southern 

South   America,  Australia,  and  the  islands  of  the 

Southern  Ocean  resembles  our  own. 


I         I  Vet  *  LiaM  Rainfall      l^^Hravy  Rainfi 
^^M'Jmttt  Rainfall  Mfff,: 


Fig.  309. 


-The  winds  and  rainfall   during  the  summer 
.monsoon  of  India. 


There  are  other  causes  besides  cyclonic  storms  for 
P  •  ,       interference  with  the  regular  winds 

i™  ««.         •  j     °f  the  earth,  and  therefore  with  the 
by  other  winds       .  ,  ' 

rainfall.     One  of  these  is   the   dif- 
ference in  temperature  between  land  and  water. 

Laud  warms  and  cools  much  more  quickly  than 
water.     For   this  reason   the   land   along   the   sea- 


Fig.  308.  —  A  scene  in  Galveston,  showing  the  vast  destruction  done  by  a  hurricane 
in  1900,  when  many  of  the  houses  were  torn  to  pieces  during  the  storm. 


This  cooler  air,  being  the  heavier,  then  pushes 
in  toward  the  shore ;  and  thus  a  breeze  from 
the  sea,  or  a  sea  breeze,  is  created.  In  summer 
such  a  breeze  is  frequently  felt  at  the  seashore 
and  along  the  shores  of  large  lakes;  and  it  often 
changes  a  very  hot  day  into  a  cool  one.  Often,  also, 
it  brings  a  shower  of  rain,  especially  in  the  warm 
lands  of  the  torrid  zone.  At  night  the  land  cools 
more  rapidly  than  the  sea;  and  the  cool  air  from 
the  land  blows  out  toward  the  sea,  forming  a  land 
breeze.     Then  the  weather  is  clear. 

The  sea  breezes  blow  only  for  short  distances. 
But  when  a  large  bod}'  of  land,  like  a  continent, 
becomes  warm,  air  from  the  cooler 
ocean  may  blow  toward  it  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles.  In  winter,  on  the 
other  hand,  when  the  land  becomes  cooler  than  the 
ocean,  the  cold  air  over  a  vast  area  may  move  toward 
the  sea.  Such  winds  exist  in  Mexico  and  our  Gulf 
States ;  but  they  are  far  more  important  in  Asia. 

The  interior  of  that  vast  continent  is  so  far  from 
the  ocean,  that  there  are  naturally  great  changes  in 
temperature  from  summer  to  winter.  During  the 
winter,  the  heavy  air  over  the  cold  land  settles  down 
as  drying  air,  and  presses  outward  beneath  the 
warmer  air  which  lies  over  the  ocean.  This  produces 
dry  winds  from  the  land  (Fig.  310).  In  summer, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  air  over  the  cool  water 
crowds  in,  raises  the  heated  air  of  the  continent, 
and  produces  ocean  winds  and  rain  (Fig.  309). 


2.   The  mon- 
soons of  India 


218 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Winds  which  thus  blow  in  opposite  directions  in 
different  seasons,  are  better  developed  in  India  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  earth;  and  it  was  here  that 
they  received  the  name,  monsoon  winds.  The  name 
monsoon  is  now  given  to  this  class  of  winds  wherever 
they  may  blow. 

The  rainy  season  comes  in  India  when  the  summer 
monsoons  blow  (Fig.  309)  ;  and  the  rainfall  is  es- 
pecially heavy  where  the  moisture-laden  air  ascends 
the  steep  slope  of  the  Himalayas.  Indeed,  the  region 
north  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  receives  the  heaviest 
rainfall  of  any  part  of  the  earth  (Fig.  309).  Here, 
in  the  month  of  July  alone,  there  is  three  times  as 


Fig.  310.  —  Map  of  the  winter  monsoon  winds  and  rainfall 
of  India.  Compare  with  Figure  309,  and  notice  how 
very  light  the  rainfall  is  in  one  season,  and  how  heavy 
it  is  in  the  opposite  season. 

much  rain  as  falls  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 

States  during  the  entire  year.     The  winter  monsoon, 

on  the  other  hand,  is  so  dry  that  vegetation  withers 

and  the  soil  becomes  parched  and  cracked,  as  in  a 

desert. 

1.  Explain  the  currents  of  air  that  are  caused  by 

a  hot  stove  in  a  room.     2.  Show  how  the  principal 

.  winds  of   the  earth  resemble  these 

evl®.  currents.      3.   Name    the    principal 

Questions  windg  of  tfae  eapth     4    what  {g  the 

effect  of  the  earth's  rotation  on  the  direction  of  these 
winds?  5.  Locate  the  principal  wind  belts  on  the 
earth's  surface.  6.  Why  are  the  winds  most  regular 
over  the  ocean  ?  7.  Locate  the  belt  of  calms  ;  and 
the  two  belts  of  light  and  variable  winds.  8.  What 
is  the  effect  of  the  earth's  revolution  on  the  location 
of  these  wind  belts?  9.  What  is  the  relation  of 
winds  to  rain?  10.  Explain  the  principal  cause  of 
rain.     11.  Give  one  reason  for  clear,  dry  weather. 

12.  Locate  the  regular  rain  belts  in  North  America. 

13.  In  other  regions  north  of  the  equator.  14.  In 
regions  south  of  the  equator.  15.  In  the  belt  of 
calms.  10.  Explain  about  the  shifting  of  these  rain 
belts.  17.  Describe  the  more  irregular  weather  in  our 
Eastern  States  and  in  eastern  Canada.    IS.  Explain 


do 

nt? 


thereasonsfor  such  weather.    19.  In  what  direction  di 
the  cyclonic  storms  move,  and  what  is  their  extent 

20.  How  do  cyclonic   storms   affect   our  weather? 

21.  What  about  the  possibility  of  predicting  thea 
storms?  22.  How  is  that  work  managed?  23.  Ho' 
are  the  warnings  of  value  ?  24.  What  about  region; 
of  irregular  rains  in  Europe?  25.  In  the  souther: 
hemisphere  ?  20.  Explain  the  causes  of  sea  breezes 
and  land  breezes.  27.  Account  for  the  different 
directions  of  the  Wind  in  southern  Asia  in  sumnie: 
and  winter.  28.  What  effect  have  the  summer  mon- 
soons of  India  on  rainfall  ?     The  winter  monsoons  ? 

1.  Estimate  the  number  of  barrels  of  water  that 
falls  on  an  acre  of  ground,  or  upon  a  city  block,  in 
one  year,  where  the  rainfall  is  forty    „ 
inches.     2.  How  is  a  movement  of 
air  secured  in  your  schoolroom  in  order  to  ventilate 
it  ?     3.  Make  a  drawing  to  show  the  direction  of  the 
regular  winds  of  the  earth.     4.   Watch  the  higher 
clouds  to  see  in  what  direction  they  are  moving. 
5.  Read  once  more  the  section  on  "  Air "   in   the 
First   Book,   p.   54.      0.    Write  an   account  of   the 
changes    in  weather  for   five   days-  in   succession : 
the  "wind  direction   and  force;    the   clouds;    rain 
temperature ;    and,   if   possible,    the    air    pressure. 
7.  Read  the  chapter  on  winds  and  storms  in  Tarr'i 
"  New  Physical  Geography,"  pp.  255-274. 


IV.  Ocean  Movements,  and  their  Ef- 
fects ;  also  Distribution  of  Temper- 
ature 

i.   Ocean  Movements,  and  their  Effects 

Like  the  air,  the  ocean  water  is  in  motion 
Its    three    principal    movements   are    wind 
waves,    tides,    and    ocean    currents.     Tin 
movements  of  the  water,  like  those  of  th 
winds,  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  us 


(1)    Wind   Waves  and  Tides 


Waves  are  formed  by  winds  which  blow 

over  the  surface  of  the  water  and  ruffle  it. 

Sometimes,  during  storms,  the  _.  , 

W  ind  waves 
heavy  winds  pile  up  the  water 

in  waves  that  are  from  twenty  to  forty  feet 

high.     Even  such  great  waves  are  rare! 

very  dangerous  to  large  vessels  in  the  ope; 

ocean  ;  but  upon  the  seashore  they  do  grea' 

damage  to  vessels,  and  even  to  the  coasi 

itself.     The  constant  beating  of  the  waves 

is  slowly  wearing  the  rocks  away  and  drag- 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS  AND   THEIR   EFFECTS 


219 


ging  the  fragments  out  to  sea,  thus  cutting 
the  coast  back. 

People  living  upon  the  seacoast  know 
that  the  ocean  water  rises  for  about  six 
Xides  hours,  and    then    slowly    falls 

1.  What  the       for    the    same    period.      This 
tides  are  rising  and  falling  of  the  water, 

twice  each  day,  forms'" what    is    known   as 
the  tides. 

For  a  long  time  men  were  puzzled  to  explain  this 

movementof  theocean.    It  was  called 

j  j. ,  the  breathing  of  theearth  ;  and  to  this 

day,  certain  uncivilized  races  think 

that  the  tide  is  caused  by  some  great  animal. 


Bay  of  Fundy,  the  tide  reaches  a  height 
of  forty  or  fifty  feet. 

The  height  of  the  tide  also  varies  from  day  to 
day;  for  the  moon  and  sun,  which  combine  to  form 
it,  do  not  always  work  together.  At  new  moon,  and  at 
full  moon,  — when  the  earth,  moon,  and  sun  are  nearly 
in  a  straight  line,  —  the  moon  and  sun  pull  together. 
They  then  make  the  tidal  wave  higher  than  at  the 
quarter,  when  the  sun  is  pulling  in  one  direction  and 
the  moon  in  another.  The  high  range  of  tides  at  full 
and  new  moon  are  called  spring  tides ;  those  at  the 
quarters,  neap  tides. 

In  the  open  ocean,  the  tides  are  of  little 
or  no   consequence.      But    along  the  coast, 


ill.  —  The  ocean  waves  running  on  to  the  beach  in  great  breakers. 


As  a  result  of  much  careful  study,  it  has  been 
learned  that  the  tides  are  caused  by  the  moon  and 
the  sun,  especially  the  former.  Each  of  these  bodies 
is  pulling  upon  the  earth,  by  the  attraction  of  gravi- 
tation, much  as  a  horseshoe  magnet  pulls  upon  a 
piece  of  iron.  Since  the  ocean  is  a  liquid,  this  "  pull  " 
draws  it  slightly  out  of  shape.  This  causes  two 
great  swells,  or  waves,  many  hundreds  of  miles  broad, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  earth.  They  sweep  across 
the  oceans,  following  the  moon,  and,  on  reaching  the 
coast,  cause  the  rise  of  water  known  as  the  tide. 

The  tidal  wave  is  only  two  or  three  feet 
high  upon  islands  in  the  open  ocean;  but  it 
3.  Height  of  the  rises  a  great  deal  higher  in 
tidal  wave  many  bays  because  the   space 

that  it  occupies  becomes  narrower  near  the 
head  of  the  bay.     In  some  places,  as  in  the 


where  the  water  rises  and  falls  against  the 
beaches  and  cliffs,  they  are  of  much  im- 
portance. Where  the  coast  4.  Effects  of 
is  irregular,  the  tide  is  often  tides 
changed  to  a  current,  which  sometimes 
moves  so  rapidly  that  a  sailing  vessel  can- 
not make  headway  against  it,  but  must 
wait  until  the  tide  changes.  Such  a  rapid 
current  is  found  in  one  of  the  entrances  to 
New  York  harbor,  at  what  is  known  as 
Hell  Gate,  where  the  channel  is  narrow 
and  rocky. 

These  tidal  currents  move  in  one  direction  during 
the  incoming,  or  flood,  tide,  and  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion during  the  outgoing,  or  ehh,  tide.  They  some- 
times drift  vessels  out   of    their   course   and  place 


220 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


them  in  dangerous  positions.  Many  a  ship  has  been 
wrecked  upon  a  coast  where  it  was  drifted  by  the 
tidal  currents. 

The  tidal  currents  often  carry  mud  and  sand 
hither  and  thither,  building  sand  bars  opposite  the 
mouths  of  harbors.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
the  government  is  obliged  to  spend  large  sums  of 
money  every  year  in  improving  our  harbors.  For 
example,  the  tidal  currents  bring  large  quantities 
of  sand  into  the  mouth  of  New  York  harbor  near 
Sandy  Hook,  and  along  the  coast  farther  south. 


(2)    Ocean  Currents 

The  winds  which  blow  over  the  ocean, 
forming  waves,  also  drift  the  water  before 
Main  cause  of  them.  You  yourself  can  cause 
ocean  currents  sucn  a  movement,  in  a  small 
way,  by  blowing  on  the  surface  of  a  pail  of 


drift  of  water,  pushed  along  by  the  prevail- 
ing winds.  In  this  way  a  great  system  of 
ocean  currents  is  formed  (Fig.  312),  whicl 
have  an  important  influence  on  the  temper- 
ature  of  the  earth. 

In  our  study  of  North  America  it  was 
several  times  necessary  to  refer  to  two  of 
these  currents,  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the 
Labrador  Current.  We  shall  now  study  the 
ocean  currents,  on  each  side  of  our  conti- 
nent, more  fully. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Atlantic,  where 
the  trade  winds  blow,  the  surface  water  on 
the  two  sides  of  the  equator  The  North 
drifts  slowly  in  the  direction  Atlantic  Eddy 
of  the  trade  winds  ;  that  is,  toward  the  belt 
of   calms    (Fig.    293).     The    water    then 


Fig.  312.  —  A  chart  showing  the  principal  ocean  currents  and  ocean  drifts  of  the  world. 


water.  This  starts  a  current,  or  drift,  of 
surface  water  in  the  direction  of  the  moving 
air.  Where  the  winds  blow  steadily,  as  in 
the  trade  wind  belts,  there  is  a  permanent 


ij% 


moves  westward,  as  a  great  Equatorial  Drij 
until  it  reaches  the  coast  of  South  America 
which  interferes  with  its  course  (Fig.  312) 
There  the  drift  of  water  is  divided,  a  pai 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS  AND   THEIR   EFFECTS 


221 


being  turned  southward,  while  the  greater 
portion  proceeds  toward  the  northwest. 

The  part  that  flows  northwest  is  turned 
toward  the  right  by  the  effect  of  rotation, 
as  the  winds  are  (p.  208);  and  the  part 
that  flows  into  the  South  Atlantic  is  turned 
to  the  left,  also  by  the  effect  of  rotation. 
The  northern  drift  keeps  turning  to  the 
right,  and  therefore,  instead  of  continuing 
along  the  American  coast,  swings  out  into 
the  Atlantic  toward  Europe.  Continuing 
to  turn,  it  then  passes  south- 
ward, and  finally  returns  to 
the  trade  wind  belt,  where 
it  started,  having  made  a 
complete  circuit.  This  cir- 
cular drift  of  water  in  the 
North  Atlantic  is  called  the 
North  Atlantic  Eddy  (Figs. 
312  and  313). 

Coming  from  the  equatorial 
region,  the  water  in  this  huge 
eddy  is  warm,  and  in  it  live 
countless  millions  of  animals 
and  floating  plants.  Among  the 
latter,  one  of  the  most  abundant 
is  a  seaweed,  called  Sargassum, 
some  of  which  is  thrown  into  the 
middle  of  the  great  eddy.  There 
it  has  collected  until  it  now 
forms  a  grassy,  or  Sargasso,  sea, 
hundreds  of  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent. Since  the  Sargasso  Sea  lies 
directly  between  Spain  and  the 
West  Indies,  Columbus  was 
obliged  to  cross  it  on  his  first 
voyage  of  discovery ;  and  his 
sailors,  upon  entering  it,  were  much  alarmed  lest 
they  might  run  aground,  or  become  so  entangled  in 
the  weed  that  they  could  not  escape. 

A  portion  of  the  drift  of  water  which 
moves  toward  the  northwest  along  the  north- 
The  Gulf  ern  coast  of   South  America, 

Stream  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea  and 

then  passes  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This 
forms  a  broad,  deep,  gently  flowing  current 
into  these  inclosed  seas,  which  are  so  nearly 
surrounded  by  warm  tropical  lands  that  the 
water  grows  even  warmer  than  it  was  before. 

After  swirling  slowly  round  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  water  escapes  between  Cuba 


and  Florida.  The  current  then  becomes 
known  as  the  Gulf  Stream  (Fig.  313),  be- 
cause it  comes  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Being  forced  to  pass  out  through  so  narrow 
an  opening,  its  rate  of  movement  is  much 
increased,  as  water  in  a  hose  is  made  to  in- 
crease its  speed  by  passing  through  the 
nozzle.  Measure  the  distance  from  Key 
West  to  Havana  (Fig.  205).  Near  here 
the  Gulf  Stream  flows  as  fast  as  four  or  five 
miles  an  hour. 


Fio.  313.  —  A  diagram  to  show  the  currents  of  the  North  Atlantic.  In  order  to 
illustrate  the  currents  clearly  it  has  seemed  necessary  to  make  them  as  if 
they  were  sharply  bounded,  like  a  river  in  its  channel.  However,  the  bound- 
aries of  these  great  currents  and  drifts  are  so  indefinite  that  one  would  not 
be  able  to  detect  the  boundaries. 

Being  turned  to  the  right  by  the  effect  of 
the  earth's  rotation,  the  Gulf  Stream  soon 
leaves  the  American  coast  and  flows  north- 
east toward  northern  Europe.  It  broadens 
rapidly  and  joins  forces  with  the  western 
part  of  the  great  North  Atlantic  Eddy. 
In  crossing  the  Atlantic,  this  combined 
current,  or  drift,  is  pushed  along  by  the 
prevailing  westerlies,  so  that  it  reaches  the 
shores  of  northern  Europe,  and  even  enters 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  In  this  part  of  its  course 
the  current  is  called  the  West  Wind  Drift. 
Some  idea  of  its  volume  may  be  gained  from 
the  fact  that  it  carries  many  times  as  much 


222 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


water  as  all  the  rivers  of  the  world  to- 
gether. 

Some  of  this  water  returns  in  a  cold  sur- 
face current,  called  the  Labrador  Current, 
The  Labrador  which  flows  southward  along 
Current  our    northeastern   coast   (Fig. 

313).  Starting  from  among  the  islands 
of  northern  North  America,  the  Labrador 
Current  flows  past  the  coast  of  Labrador, 
Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Eng- 
land as  far  as  Cape  Cod.  Like  all  ocean 
currents  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  it  is 
turned  toward  the  right ;  that  is,  since  it 
flows  southward,  toward  the  west.  This 
causes  it  to  follow  our  coast  very  closely, 
keeping  nearer  our  shore  than  the  Gulf 
Stream  does. 

Since  there  are  two  currents  near  together,  a  cold 
one  from  the  north,  and  a  warm  one  from,  the  south, 
a  vessel  sailing  from  Boston  to  England  must  cross 
both.  In  winter,  during  a  storm,  a  ship  often  be- 
comes covered  with  snow  and  ice  while  in  the  cold 
Labrador  Current ;  but  soon  after  entering  the  warm 
current  this  all  melts  away. 

Where  the  cold  and  warm  currents  approach  each 
other,  dense  fogs  are  common.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  warm,  humid  winds  from  the  Gulf  Stream 
are  chilled  in  crossing  the  Labrador  Current.  This 
causes  some  of  the  vapor  to  condense  and  form  fog 
particles.  The  region  near  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  Newfoundland  is  one  of  the  foggiest  regions  in 
the  world,  and  therefore  dangerous  to  vessels. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean,  as  in  the  Atlantic 
(Fig.  312),  the  water  is  driven  before  the 
Currents  in  the  trade  winds.  Thus  a  broad 
North  Pacific  drift  is  formed,  moving  west- 
ward in  the  belt  of  calms.  Then  a  warm 
current  swings  to  the  right  past  Japan, 
crossing  the  ocean  toward  Alaska.  This 
is  called  the  Japanese  Current.  Continu- 
ing to  turn  to  the  right,  this  ocean  drift 
passes  southward  to  complete  the  vast 
eddy.  There  is  also  a  cold  current  from 
the'  north,  between  the  Japanese  Current 
and  the  coast  of  Asia,  corresponding  to  the 
Labrador  Current  in  the  Atlantic,  though 
smaller  and  not  so  cold. 

From  what  has  been  said,  we  see  that 
the  northeastern  coasts  of  both  North  Amer- 


ica and  Asia  are  swept  by  ocean  currents 
from  the  cold  north.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  northwestern  coasts  of  Europe  and  North 
America  are  approached  by  warm  drifts  of 
water  from  the  south. 

In  the  South  Atlantic,  South  Pacific,  and  Indian 
oceans,  there  are  eddies  similar  to  those  of  the  North 
Atlantic    and    the    North    Pacific.  . 

There   is   one  very    important    dif-   Eddies  of  the 
ference,  however.     In  the  southern 
hemisphere  the  currents  are  turned 
to  the  left,  instead  of  the  right,  by  the  effect  of  rota- 
tion.    Some  of  the  water  of  these  eddies  joins  the 
broad    West    Wind   Drift    of   the    distant   southern 
ocean;   but  much  of   it   turns    northward   until   it 
once  more  reaches  the  trade  wind  belt,  thus  com- 
pleting the  eddies  (Fig.  312). 

The    cold  Labrador   Current  greatly  in- 
fluences the  temperature  upon  the    neigh- 
boring  land ;    for   winds  that  _„    .     ,. 
,  ,        °  ,       _    .       .        _  Effects  of  ocean 

blow  over  the  Labrador  Our-  currents  on 

rent  are  cooled,  and  carry  the  North  America 
chill  far  inland.     This  is  one  1.  Effects  of 
of  the  reasons  why    the    east  £abrador 
winds  of  New  England  are  so 
cool,  and  why  the   New  England    coast  is 
such  an  agreeable  summer  resort. 

The  Labrador  Current  bears  with  it  much  ice 
from  the  Arctic  region.  Some  of  this  is  sea  ice, 
or  "floe  ice,"  which  has  been  frozen  during  tlie 
preceding  winters,  and  some  of  it  is  in  the  furm  of 
gigantic  icebergs  which  have  broken  off  from  the 
Greenlaud  Glacier.  Seals  are  commonly  seen  in  the 
floe  ice,  and  occasionally  a  polar  bear,  which  preyi 
upon  the  seal  (Fig.  314). 

Most  of  the  sea  ice  melts  before  reaching  New- 
foundland ;  but  the  icebergs  may  be  carried  south- 
ward one  or  two  thousand  miles  before  the  air  and 
water  melt  them  away.  (See  limit  of  icebergs  on 
Figure  312.)  Indeed,  some  icebergs  float  even  as 
far  south  as  the  paths  followed  by  vessels  which  cross 
the  Atlantic.  Since  many  of  these  bergs  are  larger 
than  a  large  building,  collision  with  one  means  ship- 
wreck; therefore  sailors  need  to  use  great  caution, 
especially  when  a  ship  is  in  the  fog. 

While  winds  from  over  the  Labrador 
Current  are  chilly,  those  that  blow  from 
over  the  Gulf  Stream  are  2.  Effects  of  the 
warm.  They  are  also  humid.  Gulf  stream 
During  cyclonic  storms,  winds  from  the 
warm  waters  off  our  southern  coast  often 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS  AND    THEIR   EFFECTS 


223 


8.  Effects  of 
warm  currents 
in  the  North 
Pacific 


carry  both  warmth  and  moisture  far  into 
the  interior  of  the  country.  These  winds 
greatly  temper  the  climate  of  our  Eastern 
and  Central  states,  so  that  the  Gulf  Stream, 
as  well  as  the  Labrador  Current,  has  an 
important  influence  on  our 
climate. 

The  winds  that  blow  over 
the  warm  waters  of  the  North 
Pacific  cause  the 
climate  of  the 
Alaskan  coast  to 
be  far  warmer 
than  that  of  southern  Labrador 
in  the  same  latitude.  These 
prevailing  west  winds  also 
bring  an  abundance  of  vapor 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  all  the  way 
from  California  to  Alaska. 

Where  these  winds  blow,  the 
winters  are  mild  and  the  rain 
heavy  ;  but  the  summers  are 
cool,  because  the  ocean  water, 
though  warmed,  does  not  be- 
come greatly  heated.  On  a  globe  notice 
that  the  state  of  Washington,  with  its 
pleasant  climate,  is  in  about  the  same  lati- 
tude as  the  bleak  island  of  Newfoundland, 
whose  shores  are  bathed  by  the  Labrador 
Current. 

The  warm  West  Wind  Drift  of  the 
North  Atlantic  is  of  special  benefit  to  the 
Old  World.  When  Nansen 
started  on  his  famous  journey 
toward  the  north  pole,  he 
entered  the  Arctic  Ocean 
where  this  current  does.  He 
was  able  to  proceed  much  farther  north 
than  would  have  been  possible  along  any 
other  route,  because  the  warm  drift  of 
water  keeps  this  part  of  the  Arctic  free 
from  ice  in  summer.  Notice,  on  Figure  312, 
how  much  farther  north  the  limit  of  ice- 
bergs is  on  the  coast  of  Europe  than  on  the 
American  coast. 

The  west  winds,  warmed  in  passing  over 
-   „  the    West    Wind    Drift,   have 

l.   On  western  , 

Europe  made  possible  the  great  civil- 


ized nations  of  northern  Europe.  Notice  on 
a  map,  how  many  large  cities  of  northern 
Europe  are  in  the  same  latitude  as  desolate 
Labrador.  How  different  these  two  regions 
are  !     One  is  highly  civilized  and  densely 


Effects  of  cur- 
rents in  other 
regions 

1.  On  the  Arctic 
Ocean 


Fig.  314.  —  A  polar  bear  hunting  seal  on  the  floe  ice  that  is  floating 
southward  in  the  Labrador  current. 


settled ;  the  other  is  occupied  only  by 
scattered  savages.  This  difference  is  due 
largely  to  the  ocean  currents  and  the  winds 
that  blow  over  them. 

When  our  first  settlers  came  from  England,  they 
expected  to  find,  in  the  New  World,  a  climate  like 
their  own  in  the  same  latitude.  They  were  not  pre- 
pared for  the  severe  winters  which  they  did  find ; 
and  largely  for  that  reason  the  first  settlements  on 
the  Xew  England  and  Canadian  coasts  were  failures. 

The  cold  current  off  the  northeastern  coast  of 
Asia  affects  that  region  much  as  the  Labrador  Cur- 
rent does  northeastern  Xorth  Amer- 


3.   On  north- 
eastern Asia 


ica.  The  winds  that  blow  over  it 
chill  the  Siberian  coast,  and  cause 
the  harbors,  like  that  of  Vladivostok,  to  be  icebound 
in  winter.  This  explains  why  Russia  desired  to  hold 
the  Chinese  harbor  at  Port  Arthur,  south  of  Korea, 
as  a  terminus  of  the  Siberian  railway,  —  so  that  her 
commerce  and  war  ships  might  not  be  shut  up  in 
winter  by  ice. 

2.    Distribution  of  Temperature 

As  a  rule,  the  farther  north  one  travels 
from  the  equator,  the  colder  it  grows  ;  but 
this  is  by  no  means  ahvays  the  case.     As 


224 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


we    have   seen,   there    are    several    causes 

m. ....     .      which  interfere  with  this  regu- 

Why  places  in  ° 

the  same  lati-    lar    decrease    in    temperature 
tude  may  have   toward  the  poles. 

The  presence  of   highlands 
is   one   cause.     It   is   a   well- 


different  tem- 
peratures 


in  northern  Minnesota  is  more  than  65° 
while  at  New  York  City  it  is  not  over  50°, 
The  winds  are  a  third  cause  greatly  in 
fluencing  the  temperature.  Where  the  pre^ 
vailing  winds  are  from  the  ocean,  they  cause 
an  equable  climate,  as  in  California,  near  San 
Francisco  and  farther  north. 
Where  they  blow  from  the 
land,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
are  cool  or  cold  in  winter,  and 
warm  or  hot  in  summer. 

A  fourth  cause  for  such 
difference  in  temperature  is 
found  in  the  ocean  currents, 
as  you  have  just  seen.  Give 
several  examples  of  the  influ- 
ence of  ocean  currents. 

If,  therefore,  we  were  to 
draw   a   line    across   the    con- 


tinent   of    North 


Fig.  315.  —  Isothermal  chart  of  the  United  States  for  January.  Why  is  it 
colder  in  the  interior  than  on  the  east  coast?  Why  so  warm  on  the  west 
coast?    Can  you  notice  any  influence  of  mountains? 

known  fact  that  high  mountains  have  a  cold 
climate,  even  though  in  the  torrid  zone ; 
and,  for  the  same  reason,  plateaus  may  be 
colder  than  the  lowlands  farther  north. 

A  second  cause  is  the 
fact  that  land  warms  and 
cools  much  more  rapidly 
than  water  (p.  217).  This 
is  the  reason  why  land  be- 
comes hotter  than  the  ocean 
in  summer,  and  colder  in 
winter.  Thus,  in  northern 
Minnesota,  far  from  the 
ocean,  the  average  tempera- 
ture in  January  is  below 
zero,  while  in  July  it  is 
about  65°  (Figs.  315  and 
316).  In  New  York  City, 
on  the  seacoast,  the  average 
in  January  is  about  25°  and 
in  July  not  quite  75°.  Thus 
the  difference  between  the 
summer  and  winter  months 


Meaning  of 
isothermal 
lines,  and 
their  value 


America,     con- 
necting     several 
points  that  have 
the  same  average  temperature 
during  any  one  month,  or  dur- 
ing the  entire  year,  it  would  need  to  be  a 
very  irregular  one,  with  some  parts  reach- 
ing much  farther  north  than  others.     Such 
lines  tell  so  much  about  temperature,  in  so 


Fio. 


31G.  —  Isothermal  chart  of  the  United  States  for  July, 
the  west  coast  than  on  the  east  coast  ? 


Why  is  it  cooler  on 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS  AND   THEIR   EFFECTS 


225 


little  space,  that  it  is  the  custom  to  make 
maps  to  show  them,  as  in  Figures  315  and 
316.  Since  these  lines  connect  the  places 
that  have  the  same  temperature,  they  are 
called  isothermal  lines,  or  isotherms  (iso 
means  equal  ;  thermal,  heat).  A  map  or 
chart,  showing  the  isotherms,  is  called  an 
isothermal  chart  (Figs.  315  and  316). 


which    is    cold    in    winter    and    warm    in 
summer. 

Figures  317  and  318  show  similar  isotherms  for 
the  whole  world.  Observe  how  these  bend  toward 
the  equator  where  they  cross  mountain  chains. 
Comparing  these  two  figures,  you  will  notice  that 
the  winter  isotherms  of  the  north  temperate  zone 
bend  toward  the  equator  over  the  continents.  This 
is  because  the  land  is  colder  than  the  ocean.     Dur- 


Fig.  317.  —  An  isothermal  chart  of  the  world  lor  July. 


Trace  several  of  the  isotherms  across  the 

United  States  and  explain  why  they  bend 

-..„  .       as  they  do.     Note  that  the  iso- 

Differences  be-  J 

tween  January  therms    on   the  western    coast 
and  July  iso-      extend  north  and  south,  almost 

therms  on  land,    parallel  to  the  coast.      This  is 
with  reasons       i  ,,  ... 

because  the  prevailing  wester- 
lies bring  the  nearly  uniform  temperature 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  land.  There 
is  only  about  20°  difference  between  the 
winter  and  summer  temperatures  on  the 
western  coast  ;  but  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  United  States  the  difference  be- 
tween summer  and  winter  is  much  greater. 
Here,  while  some  of  the  winds  are  from 
the    oceau,  still  more   are    from   the   land, 


ing  the  summer,  on  the  contrary,  the  isotherms 
curve  poleward  on  the  continents.  On  what  conti- 
nent are  these  bends  most  striking?  Why?  What 
effect  of  the  West  Wind  Drift  do  you  find  in  Figure 
318? 

Notice  also  that  the  isotherms  of  the  North  Atlan- 
tic are  close  together  as  they  leave  America,  but 
spread  apart,  like  a  fan,  toward  the 
Old  World.  On  the  American  side, 
the  ocean  currents  approach  eacli 
other,  one  from  the  north,  bearing 
Arctic  cold,  the  other  from  the  warm 
south.  This  causes  a  great  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  our  northern  and  southern  coasts. 
On  the  European  side  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  other 
hand,  one  part  of  the  warm  West  Wind  Drift  passes 
northward,  raising  the  temperature  and  bending  the 
isotherms  far  northward.  Another  part  of  the  cur- 
rent turns  southward.     This  water,  flowing  into  a 


Their  differ- 
ences on  the 
oceans,  with 
reasons 


226 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


warmer  region,  is  somewhat  cooler  than  the  sur- 
rounding water.  It  therefore  lowers  the  tempera- 
ture and  causes  the  isotherms  to  bend  southward. 
Thus  the  isotherms  are  spread  apart. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  where  there  is  less 
land,  these  differences  are  not  nearly  so  striking. 
You  can,  however,  find  some  bends  of  the  isotherms 
near  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia.  But 
south  of  these  continents,  where  it  is  all  water,  the 


and  what  is  their  value?  21.  What  are  isothermal 
charts?  22.  Trace  some  of  the  isothermal  lines 
across  the  United  States  for  January  and  for  July, 
and  explain  their  differences.  23.  Explaiu  the  direc- 
tion of  isotherms  on  the  North  Atlantic.  24.  Find 
on  the  maps  other  bends  of  the  isotherms  in  crossing 
the  ocean,  and  account  for  them.  25.  Why  are  the 
isotherms  so  much  more  nearly  parallel  in  the  south- 
ern than  in  the  northern  hemisphere? 


Fig.  318.  —  Au  isothermal  chart  ol  the  world  for  January. 


isotherms  run  nearly  east  and  west,  almost  parallel 
to  the  circles  of  latitude. 

1.  What  are  the  three  principal    movements   of 
ocean  water?  2.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  wind 
.  waves.     3.  What  are  tides?    4.  Ex- 

n      ..  plain   their  cause.     5.  What   about 

their  height  ?  6.  Mention  some  of 
their  important  effects.  7.  Explain  the  main  cause 
of  ocean  currents.  8.  Describe  the  North  Atlantic 
Eddy.  9.  The  Gulf  Stream.  10.  The  Labrador 
Current.  11.  The  currents  in  the  North  Pacific. 
12.  The  eddies  of  the  southern  oceans.  13.  Explain 
the  effects  of  the  Labrador  Current  on  North  Amer- 
ica. 14.  Of  the  Gulf  Stream.  15.  Of  the  warm 
currents  in  the  North  Pacific.  16.  State  the  effects 
of  ocean  currents  on  the  Arctic  Ocean.  17.  On  west- 
ern Europe.  18.  On  northeastern  Asia.  19.  Give  four 
reasons  why  places  in  the  same  latitude  may  have  dif- 
ferent temperatures.     20.  What  are  isothermal  lines, 


1.  If  your  home  is  upon  the  seacoast.  find  out 
about  the  high  and  low  tides  there.  2.  What  course 
might  a  vessel  take  in  order  to  be    _  . 

carried  from  Europe  to  America,  and         ss 
back  again  by  ocean  currents?    3.  How  do  vessels 
try  to  avoid  running  into  one  another  in  dense  fogs? 

4.  Learn  more  about  Nansen's  voyage.  5.  Which 
of  the  isothermal  lines  on  Figures  315  and  316  is 
nearest  to  your  home?  6.  Which  isotherm  on 
Figure  315  runs  near  New  York  and  northern 
New  Mexico?  7.  On  Figure  31G,  what  isotherm 
runs  through  northern  Maine  and  San  Francisco? 

5.  How  about  the  distance  of  these  points  from 
the  equator?  9.  Locate  the  cold  ocean  currents  of 
the  world;  the  warm  currents.  10.  Estimate  the 
length  of  the  circumference  of  the  great  eddy  in 
the  North  Pacific.  11.  How  does  Figure  318  show 
the  effect  of  the  warm  current  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Russia  ? 


PLANTS,   ANIMALS,   AND  PEOPLES   OF  THE  EARTH 


227 


V.   Plants,  Animals,  and   Peoples  of 
the  Earth 

i.    Plants  and  Animals 

In  our  study  of  North  America  (p.  14) 
we  found  that  there  was  little  plant  and 
Life  in  the  animal    life    in    the    northern 

frigid  zone         part  0f  the  continent.      Give 
the  reasons.      What  plants  are  found  there  ? 
What  about  insect  life  ?     What  large  land 
animals  are  found,  and  how 
do  the)'  manage  to  live? 

The  life  upon  the  tundras 
of  northern  Europe  and 
Asia  corresponds  closely  to 
that  on  the  barrens  of  North 
America  ;  and  the  few  people 
found  there  live  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  Eskimos  of 
North  America.  Besides 
the  dog,  however,  the  people 
of  the  tundras  have  the  rein- 
deer as  a  domestic  animal 
(Fig.   319). 

What  countries  of  the 
New  World  are  at  least 
Life  in  the  partly  included 

torrid  zone  within  the  tor- 

rid zone   (Fig.  285)?     De- 


like  the  ants,  which  swarm  in  vast  numbers, 
are  very  troublesome. 

There  are  many  birds,  too,  including  hum- 
ming birds,  parrots,  paroquets,  birds  of  para- 
dise, and  other  species,  which  are  far  famed 
for  their  beauty.  Among  the  mammals 
there  is  less  variety  and  abundance.  Some, 
like  the  monkeys  and  sloths  (Fig.  339), 
are  tree  dwellers  ;  others,  like  the  tapir,  live 
in  the  swampy  undergrowth.  Some  very 
large  animals,  such  as  the   rhinoceros  and 


Fig.  319. 

for  drawin 


From  BatzePs  History  of  Mankind. 
A  camp  in  the  tundra  of  northern  Asia.     The  reindeer  are  used 


scribe  the  climate  of  this 
part  of  North  America  (p.  19).  What 
about  the  plant  life  found  there  (p.  19)  ? 
The  animal  life  (p.  22)  ? 

What  portions  of  the  Old  World  lie  in 
the  torrid  zone?  Extensive  and  dense  for- 
1.  in  the  rainy  ests  are  found  in  the  rainy 
section  section    of    this    zone    in    the 

Old  World,  as  in  the  New.  Animal  life  is 
abundant,  too,  since  there  is  so  much 
food. 

Among  the  animals  insects  are  especially 
common.  Some,  like  the  beautiful  butter- 
flies, thrive  because  of  the  great  number  and 
variety  of  tropical  flowers  ;  others,  like 
many  species  of  ants,  live  in  the  decaying 
wood  ;  and  still  others  have  their  homes  in 
the  ground.     Some  are  harmless ;  but  many, 


the  sleighs  and  also  as  a  source  of  milk  and  meat. 

elephant  (Fig.  460),  still  live  in  the  dense 
forest,  where  it  is  difficult  to  hunt  them. 
Occasionally,  too,  fierce  animals,  such  as  the 
tiger  (Fig.  320),  lurk  in  the  densely  grow- 
ing vegetation,  ready  to  pounce  upon  the 
more  defenseless,  plant-eating  animals. 

Reptiles  also  thrive  in  the  warmth  and 
dampness  of  the  forests.  Great  boa  con- 
strictors twine  themselves,  like  huge  vines, 
among  the  trees  and  underbrush  ;  and  poi- 
sonous serpents  are  common.  The  bodies 
of  standing  water  encourage  water  life,  —  for 
example,  the  turtle  and  alligator  among  rep- 
tiles, and  the  hippopotamus  and  manatee 
among  mammals. 

The  labor  required  to  clear  away  the  dense 
tropical    forest,  and   to  keep  it   clear   for 


228 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY 


farming,  is  far  greater  than  in  the  temperate 
region  of  our  country.  This  difficulty  is 
increased,  too,  by  the  extreme  heat,  and  by 
the  damp,  unhealthful  climate.     For  these 


ata 

r 

i;:  ■ 

I  mtw 

. 

■'iJBtjk 

^  l 

Fig.  320.  —  The  tiger  whicli  lurks  in  the  jungles  of  India. 

reasons,  in  spite  of  the  very  fertile  soil,  the 
zone  of  dense  tropical  forests  is  almost 
everywhere     sparsely    inhabited ;     and    in 


nearly  every  case  its  inhabitants  are  in- 
dolent savages.  They  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  climate,  and  they  easily  secure 
an  abundant  supply  of  food  from  the  sur- 
rounding trees  and  bushes.  Thus  they  find 
little  work  necessary. 

On  either  side  of  the  tropical  forest  there 
is  a  belt  where  the  temperature  is  always 
high,  but  where  the  rainfall  2.  In  the 
varies  with  the  season.  Here  savannas 
abundant  rain  falls  in  one  season,  while  the 
climate  is  very  dry  in  the  opposite  season 
(p.  214).  Owing  to  the  lack  of  rain  dur- 
ing one  season,  dense  forests  are  impossible; 
but  some  plants,  such  as  grasses,  thrive. 
These  are  therefore  grass-covered  lands,  and 
are  known  as  savannas. 

The  downs  of  northern  Australia,  the  park  lands 
lying  both  north  and  south  of  the  equator  in  Africa, 
the  campos  of  Brazil,  and  the  llanos  of  Venezuela  and 
Colombia,  are  all  examples  of  savannas.  They  are 
dry  and  barren  in  one  season,  fresh  and  green  in  the 
other.  Trees,  such  as  palms,  line  the  streams;  but 
elsewhere  the  land  is  open  prairie.  Plant-eating 
animals  roam  about ;  in  Africa,  for  example,  the  an- 
telope, gazelle,  zebra,  giraffe,  buffalo,  elephant,  and 


Fig.  321.  — The  lion,  sometimes  called  the  king  of  animals 


PLANTS,  ANIMALS,   AXI)  PEOPLES  OF  THE  EASTS 


229 


rhinoceros.  In  addition,  there  are  some 
flesh-eating  animals,  such  as  the  lion 
(Fig.  321). 

While  tropical  forests  are  suited  only 
to  the  life  of  indolent  savages,  the  open 
savannas  invite  human  inhabitants,  in 
spite  of  the  heat.  They  also  compel  in- 
dustry, because  men  must  make  provision 
for  the  period  of  drought.  Therefore, 
even  those  African  negroes  who  inhabit 
the  grass  lands  keep  flocks  and  carry  on 
rude  forms  of  agriculture.  'Where  settled 
by  white  men,  these  savannas  are  to-day 
mainly  grazing  lands. 

The  savannas  grade  into  tropical 
forests  on  the  side  next  to  the 
<>    r   «.   a     ^  equator,     but     they 

3.   In  the  desert        "■  J 

gradually  change  into  fig.  32 
deserts  on  the  other  side.  Locate 
these  deserts  in  Australia  south  of  the 
equator  ;  in  Asia  north  of  the  equator  ; 
and  in  Africa  and  America  on  both  sides 
of  the  equator  (Figs.  296,  298,  299  and  300). 
Explain  the  causes  of  their  arid  climate. 

In  the  desert  there  are  vast  areas  in  which  the 
sand  is  drifted  before  the  wind  and  piled  into  sand 
hills,  or  sand  dunes  (Fig.  322).  There  are  also  tracts 
glistening  with  salt  where  the  water  of  lakes  has 
evaporated  and  left  salt  upon  the  surface.  Parts 
of  the  desert  are  broad  plains ;  but  there  are  also 
stony  plateaus,  deep  valleys,  and  mountain  ranges. 


Fig.  323. —  A  camel  on  the  desert  of  northern  Africa. 


—  Sand  dunes  on  the  edge  of  an  oasis  in  the  Sahara  desert. 

Throughout  most  of  the  desert  there  is  such  a  lack 
of  rain  that  the  surface  is  barren  and  desolate  at  all 
times. 

Even  in  such  a  region,  however,  plants  and 
animals  are  not  entirely  lacking.  In  some  sections 
there  are  scattered  clumps  of  coarse  grass;  and 
there  are  prickly  plants,  like  the  cactus,  in  which 
the  leaves  and  stems  are  as  compact  as  possible  to 
prevent  evaporation.  In  place  of  a  dense  tropical 
foliage,  like  that  of  the  tropical  forest,  there  is  a 
notable  absence  of  leaves.  Indeed,  a  large  part  of 
the  plant  is  under  ground.  This  is  because  the 
roots  must  struggle  hard  to  find  the  necessary 
moisture,  and  the  portion  above  ground  must  use 
as  little  moisture  as  possible,  and 
waste  none ;  for  years  may  pass 
before  rain  comes. 

That  the  desert  soil  is  usu- 
ally fertile  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  vegetation  thrives 
wherever  there  is  fresh  water, 
as  along  a  stream.  Such 
watered  spots  in  the  desert 
are  called  oases.  They  make 
beautiful  gardens  in  the  midst 
of  the  barren  desert. 

One  of  the  few  large  animals 
native  to  the  deserts  of  the  Old 
World  is  the  ostrich.  Another, 
much  used  by  man,  is  the  camel 
(Fig.  323).  The  camel  well  illus- 
trates how  animals  become  adapted 
to  their  surroundings.  Each  foot  has 
a  broad  sole  which  aids  the  camel  in 


230 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


traveling  by  preventing  the  feet  from  sinking  into 
the  sand.  The  nostrils  can  be  closed  when  neces- 
sary, and  the  eyes  are  protected  by  thick  lashes. 
Both  of  these  devices  help  to  keep  out  the  sand, 
which  is  so  often  blown  about.  The  camel  is 
further  provided  with  pouches  in  which  enough 
water  may  be  stored  to  serve  its  needs  for  two  or 
three  days.  It  also  has  a  fatty  hump,  which 
furnishes  nourishment  to  the  body,  so  that  the 
camel  can  go  without  food  longer  than  most  other 
animals. 

Human  beings  naturally  shun  the  desert. 
Permanent  homes  can  exist  only  on  the 
oases  (Fig.  322)  ;   but  wandering  tribes,  or 


Fig.  324.  —  A  family  of  nomads  and  their  tent  on  the  Sahara  desert 
iu  Morocco. 


nomads,  roam  about  over  the  desert.  Thejr 
live  in  tents  (Fig.  324),  and  are  engaged 
either  in  herding,  or  in  driving  caravans  of 
camels  laden  with  articles  of  trade. 

What  part  of  North  America  is  included 
within  the  north  temperate  zone  ?  What 
Life  in  the  part    of      the      Old      World  ? 

temperate  What      countries      of     South 

zones  America  are  at  least  partly  in- 

cluded within  the  south  temperate  zone  ? 
What  part  of  Africa  ?     Of  Australia  ? 

The  land  of  the  temperate  zones  is  in 
large  part  forest-covered.  Thus  a  broad 
1  in  the  well-  f01'est  belt  crosses  the  north- 
watered  sec-  era  interiors  of  both  North 
tions  America  and  Eurasia.     Owing 

to  the  moderate  rainfall  in  some  parts,  and 
to   the  rigor  of  the  climate  in  others,  the 


forest  is  more  open   than  in   the  tropical 
zone. 

In  the  forests  near  the  torrid  zone,  the 
trees  are  for  the  most  part  tropical  in  kind, 
In  the  cooler  parts,  however,  they  are 
mainly  of  two  sorts :  (1)  the  evergreens,  in- 
cluding the  pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock, 
which  have  needle-like  leaves  that  remain 
green  throughout  the  winter;  and  (2)  the 
deciduous  trees,  like  the  oak,  maple,  elm, 
and  chestnut,  whose  leaves  are  much  larger, 
but  fall  when  frost  comes.  The  temperate 
forest  was  the  home  of  many  wild  animals, 
but  these  have  now  been  greatly 
reduced  in  number.  Name 
some  of  those  of  North  America 
(p.  17).  Owing  to  the  cold- 
ness of  the  climate  in  the  north- 
ern sections,  these  animals  are 
protected  by  fur,  which  men 
find  of  much  use. 

There  are  some  treeless 
plains  even  in  those  parts  of  I 
the  temperate  zone  where  the  1 
rainfall  is  heavy  enough  for 
tree  growth.  Examples  of 
these  are  the  prairies  in  the 
United  States  and  some  of  the 
plains  in  southern  Russia. 
What  has  been  said  about  the 
cause  of  prairies  (p.  19)  ? 

In  the  temperate  zones  of  the  northern 
and  southern  hemisphere  both  the  cleared 
forest  lands  and  the  humid,  grass-covered 
plains  have  become  the  seats  of  extensive 
agriculture.  In  fact,  the  temperate  zones 
are  the  agricultural  regions  of  the  world, 
and  they  might  almost  be  called  the  zones  of 
grain  (Figs.  535,  53G).  Make  a  list  of  the 
grains  that  are  cultivated;  also  of  the  fruits. 
It  is  in  the  temperate  zones,  too,  where 
man  has  developed  most  highly.  The  sim- 
ple life  of  the  savage  in  the  tropical  forest, 
and  of  the  Eskimo  in  the  cold  regions,  offers 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  varied  life  of 
the  agricultural  people  in  the  temperate 
belt.  Not  only  are  the  latter  more  highly 
civilized,    but    they    have    so    increased    in 


100°  120°  140"  lUt)"  18U"  160°  140"  120"  100"  30°  GQJ 40" 20" 0° 20°  40" CO 80° 


I  ]  North  American  Region         \^~~j£urasian  Region 

]     \&mth  American, Region  |  \0riental  Region 

J  |JJmtfroiia«.igggtVn  j   _j£flitop(an  Region 


100°  120°  140°  lOO"  1S0°  1603  140c  120°  100° 


00° 40° 20" 0°  20u  40°  G0C 


FIG.    325. 


160°  1S0°  140°  120"  100  "J  gSla.      °°°        '■^'l0°  20° Q"  20'  40°  60' 


100'  120'  1-10°  160°  180° 


180°  160°  140°  120°  100° 


CO*  40°  20° 0° 20°  40°  50°  80°  100°  120"  140°  100° 


FIG.    326 


PLANTS,   ANIMALS,   AND   PEOPLES   OF  THE  EARTH 


231 


numbers  that  the  temperate  zone  is  the 
most  densely  populated  belt  in  the  world. 
Suggest  some  reasons  for  this. 

In  addition  to  the  prairies  there  are 
other  treeless,  grass-covered  lands  in  the 
2.  in  the  arid  temperate  belts.  These  are 
lands  usually  in  the  interior  of  con- 

tinents, on  the  border  of  the  deserts,  where 
the  rainfall  is  light.     In  the   Old  World, 
where    these   arid    tracts   are   called 
steppes,    there    is    a    broad    strip    of 
treeless  land  extending  from  south- 
eastern    Europe    to    central     Asia. 
The  Great  Plains  of  western  North 
America,  and  the  treeless  plains, 
or  pampas,  of  Argentina  are  also 
steppes  (Fig.  346). 

On  these  steppes   the  melting  snow 
and  the  spring  rains  cause  the  grass  to 
be  green  in  spring  and  early  summer; 
but  drought  then  changes  it  to  gray 
and  yellow.     There  are   no  trees 
excepting  along  the  streams;  and 
there  is  too  little  rainfall  for  agri- 
culture without  irrigation. 

The   wild  animals  are  mainly 
grass  eaters.    Formerly  the  steppes 
supported  great  herds  of  deer, 
antelope,  and  bison  ;  but  cattle, 
sheep,  horses,  and  camels  have 
now  largely  taken  their  place. 
Iu  the  Old  World  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  steppes  have  for 
many  centuries  led  a  pastoral 
life,  and  have  become  nomads. 
They  wander  about,  living  in 
tents    during    the    summer; 
but    in     winter    they    build 
more   permanent    homes    for 
the  sake  of  protection  against 
the  weather. 


Fig.  327.- 


The  kinds  of  plants  and  animals  are  not 
the  same  in  different  sections  of  the  world. 
Distribution  of  Thus,  the  native  animals  and 
animals  and  plants  of  Australia  are  quite 
plants  different  from  those  of  Asia  or 

America.  There  are  several  reasons  why 
they  do  not  naturally  spread  all  over  the 
earth.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these 
is  that  the  ocean  is  in  the  way.  It  is  a 
barrier    that     they     cannot     easily    cross. 


Mountains  and  deserts  are  other  barriers. 
Thus,  lands  that  are  separated  by  such  bar- 
riers are  quite  apt  to  have  different  kinds  of 
animals  and  plants ;  while  lands  that  are 
connected,  or  that  were  formerly  connected, 
have  animals  (fauna')  and  plants  (flora) 
more  nearly  alike.  The  map  (Fig.  325) 
shows  the  different  zones  of  animal  life  in 
the  world.     What  are  their  names? 

2.    Peoples 

Man,  like  plants  and  animals,  varies  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.      He  is  in- 
fluenced by  his  surroundings,  as  they 
*\  are,  and  in  the  course  of   time  has 
developed  differently  in  the  various 
lands    of    the    earth.     People  hold 
different   views    about    the    origin 
i      of  the  human  race  and  its  divi- 
sions, but  mankind  in  general 
may  be  divided  into  the  four 
great  groups  described  below. 

All  together  there  are  over 
one  and  one  half  billion  human 
beings  upon  the  prinCipai  <jivi- 
earth,  or  nearly   sions  of  man- 
twenty  times  the  kind 
number      in  x-  Ethiopians 

the  United  States.  Of 
these,  over  one  hundred 
and  eighty-five  million 
are  negroes  (Figs.  326 
and  327),  or  Ethiopians. 
This  is  often  called  the 
black  race.  There  are 
many  divisions  of  this 
group,  but  they  all  have 
a  deep  brown  or  black  skin ;  short,  black, 
woolly  hair  ;  broad,  flat  noses  ;  and  promi- 
nent cheek  bones. 

The  home  of  the  Ethiopians  is  Africa,  south  of 
the  Sahara  Desert  (Fig.  326),  though  many  have 
been  carried  to  other  lauds  as  slaves,  and  have  there 
mingled  more  or  less  with  the  other  races.  The 
negroes  in  Africa  are  either  savages,  or  barbarians 
of  low  type  ;  but  in  other  lands  they  have  often  ad- 
vanced to  a  civilized  state. 

The  native  Australians  (Fig.  523),  the  Papuans  of 
New  Guinea,  the  Xegritos  of  the  Philippines,  and 


•A  Zulu,  one  of  the  tribes  of  Airicau 
negroes. 


232 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


the  blacks  on  some  other  islands  in  that  part  of  the 
world,  resemble  the  negroes  most  closely,  though 
differing  from  them  in  some  important  respects. 
They  are  shorter ;  their  hair  is  less  'woolly,  their 
noses  straighter,  and  their  lips  less  thick. 

A  second  great  division  of  the  human 
race  is  that  of  the  American  Indians,  often 
2.  American  called  the  red  race  (pp.  22-24). 
Indians  it    is    the    smallest    of     the 

four  groups,  numbering  only  about  fifteen 


3.   Mongolians 


a    copper-colored    skin,    prominent    cheek 

bones,  black  eyes,  and  long,  coarse,  black 

hair  (Figs.  326  and  328). 

The    third    division,    the    Mongolian,    or 

yellow   race,   numbers   about    six    hundred 

and  thirty  million.     They  ai'e 

mainly  Asiatic  people,  though 

some,  like   the  Finns,    Lapps,  and  Turks, 

have  migrated  to  Europe. 

The  Mongolians,  as  represented  by  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  (Figs. 
326  and  330),  have  a  yellowish, 
or  in  some  cases  even  a  white, 
skin,  prominent  cheek  bones, 
small  oblique  eyes,  a  small 
nose,  and  long,  coarse,  black 
hair.  The  Malays  are  a  divi- 
sion of  the  yellow  race.  The 
great  majority  of  Mongolians 
are  civilized,  although  their 
kind  of  civilization  differs 
from  that  of  the  white  race 

By  far  the  largest  and  most 
civilized  of  the  four  divisions 
of     mankind 


is 


4.   Caucasians 


Fig.  328.  —  A  North  American  Indian,  one  of  the  red  race. 


million.  These  people,  who  in  some  re- 
spects resemble  the  Mongolians,  were  in 
possession  of  both  North  and  South 
America  when  Columbus  discovered  the 
New  World.     They  are  distinguished   by 


the  white,  or 
Caucasian,  race,  which  num- 
bers about  six  hundred  and 
ninety  million.  They  are" 
also  the  most  widely  scattered, 
being  found  now  in  great 
numbers  on  all  the  continents. 
Their  original  home  is  not 
known. 

While  they  differ  greatly 
from  one  another,  two  main 
branches  are  recognized : 
(1)  the  fair  type,  with  florid 
complexion,  light  brown, 
flaxen,    or    red    hair,    blue    or 

r       ,  ,;,, r,  recm^tSogy!    gray  e3'es'   anc*   height   above 

the    average  ;     (2)    the    dark 
type,    with,  fair    skin,    dark 
brown  or  black  hair,  often  wavy  or  curly, 
and  black  eyes. 

The  leaders  among  these  races  are  the 
whites,  who,  having  learned  the  use  of 
ships    in    exploring    distant    lauds,    have 


PLANTS,  ANIMALS,  AND  PEOPLES  OF  THE  EARTH 


233 


spread  with   great  rapidity.     Being   more 

advanced   than   the   other  races,  the  white 

__.  race  has  conquered  the  weaker 

Extent  to  J  . 

which  the  Cau-   people  and  taken  their  lands 

casians  are  from  them,  so  that  now  they 
leaders,  with  ruie  almost  the  whole  world 
reasons  (pig     g26)       Th(j    Qnly    diy._ 

sion  that  has  held  out  against  them  is  that 
of  the  Mongolians,  whose  very  numbers 
have  in  large  measure  served  to  protect 
them. 

Every  race  has  some  form  of  religion. 
Among  ignorant  savages  it  is  little  more 
than  superstition.  They  are 
surrounded  by  nature,  which 
they  do  not  understand.  The)' 
seek  a  cause  and,  seeing  none, 
are  led  to  believe  in  spirits. 
Some  of  these  are  supposed  to  be  evil, 
others  good.  Believing 
that  these  spirits  have  great 
influence  over  their  lives, 
they  try  to  win  favor  with 
them  by  offering  sacrifices 
and  worshiping  them. 


Forms  of  re- 
ligion, and 
their  distribu- 
tion 

1.   Superstition 


M 


\ 


I 


H 


Such  religion  —  if  it  may  be 
so  called  —  takes  many  forms. 
Some  races  believe  in  witch- 
craft ;  and  among  them  the 
witch  doctor  is  sometimes  more 
powerful  than  the  ruler  himself. 
To  ward  off  evil  influences, 
charms  are  worn,  curious  rites 
are  observed,  and  images  or 
other  objects,  called  fetishes 
(Fig.  328),  are  worshiped  be- 
cause they  are  believed  to  possess 
some  magic  power.  Among 
these  objects  are  included  fire, 
the  sun,  the  earthquake,  and 
many  animals.  They  have  little 
or  no  idea  of  God. 

All   people   with    some    such 

Fig.  320.  —  A  negro   views  as  these  are  often  said  to 

fetish  from  Africa,     have    no    religion.      From    our 

point  of  view  they  have  no  true 

religion ;  but  they  have  something  related  to  it. 

Among  the  civilized  races  there  are 
forms  of  belief  in  which  the  idea  of  God 
is  much    higher,   and   in   which   the   doc- 


TtatztV*  HihUiry  of 
Mankind. 


trine  of  future  reward  and  punishment  is 

taught.     Of    these    religions   five    call   for 

special  mention. 

Buddhism,  followed  especially  in  eastern 

Asia  (Fig.  332),  was  established  in  India 

five  or  six  hundred  years  be-  „    _  .... 

-  2.   Buddhism 

fore  the    time  of   Christ.     It 

was  the  result  of  the  work  and  teachings 


Fig.  330.  —  Japanese  women,  belonging  to  the  Mongolian 
or  yellow  race. 

of  Buddha  (Fig.  331).  There  are  many 
differences  in  the  religious  beliefs  and  cus- 
toms of  the  people  who  follow  Buddha, 
and  in  consequence  there  are  many  sects. 
Brahmanism  is  one  of  the  most  common 
forms  of  belief  in  India  and  other  parts  of 
Asia.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  correctly  describe  the  reli- 
gions of  the  Asiatic  people  in  a  few  words ; 
but  idolatry,  or  the  worship  of  idols,  is  com- 
mon among  them.  Ancestor  worship  is  com- 
mon in  China  ;  and  the  doctrine  of  caste  in 
India,  —  that  is,  the  doctrine  of  class  dis- 


3.   Brahmanism 


234 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  331.  —  A  great  statue  of  Buddha. 

tinction.     Both  of   these   doctrines,  which 
are  a  part  of  their*"religion,  are  opposed  to 


progress,  as  you  will  learn  later  (pp.  35£ 
and  363>. 

The   Jeivish   religion,    still    followed   by 
large  numbers  of  people,  upholds  the  wor- 
ship of  one  righteous  God  as  4.  The  Jewish 
taught  in  the  Old  Testament ;   religion 
but  they  reject  the  New  Testament. 

The  prophet  Mohammed  lived  about  six 
centuries  after  Christ,  and  the  Koran  con- 
tains his  teachings.  Moham-  5.  Mohamme- 
medans  deny  that  Christ  was  danism 
divine.  This  religion  has  spread  by  the 
sword  with  wonderful  rapidity,  especially 
among  the  half-civilized  people  of  Asia  and 
Africa  (Fig-.  332).  Many  of  its  followers 
became  fanatics  who,  believing  that  they 
thus  obtained  future  happiness,  willingly 
died  if  they  could  die  killing  a  Christian. 

The  Christian  religion,  the  common  belief 
in  America  and  most  of  Europe,  has  spread 
far  and  wide,  until  it  now  6.  Christianity, 
numbers  nearly  four  hundred  and  its  value 
and  eighty  million  followers.  Its  success, 
however,  must  not  be  measured  by  numbers 
alone  ;   for  nearly  all  of  the  most  civilized 


Fia.  332.  —  Map  of  religious  of  the  world. 


PLANTS,  ANIMALS,   AND  PEOPLES  OF  THE  EARTH 


235 


nations  of  the  world  are  Christian  nations 
(Fig.  332).  It  is  no  accident  that  this  is 
so,  for  Christianity  lias  been  one  of  the 
chief  factors  in  making  civilization  possible. 
Religious  belief  has  had  much  to  do  with 
inventions  and  the  growth  of  industry. 
The  Chinese,  for  example,  have  long  opposed 
new  inventions  because  their  ancestor  wor- 
ship led  them  to  have  too  much  reverence 
for  past  customs.  Partly  for  such  reasons, 
our  stud}r  of  geography  is  chiefly  concerned 
with  Christian  countries  ;  for  there  it  is  that 
we  find  the  most  varied  and  extensive  uses 
of  the  earth  in  the  service  of  man. 

1.   What  are  the  conditions  of  plant  and  animal 
_  life  in  the  frigid  zone?     2.    In  the 

Review 

_       ..  rainy   portion    of   the   torrid  zone? 

3.  In  the  savannas?  4.    In  the  desert 

portions  of  the  torrid  zone?    5.   In  the  well-watered 


portions  of  the  temperate  zones?  0.  In  the  arid  lands 
of  the  temperate  zones?  7.  What  about  the  distri- 
bution of  animals  and  plants?  8.  Tell  what  you  can 
about  the  Ethiopians ;  their  characteristics  and 
distribution.  9.  Do  the  same  for  the  American 
Indians.  10.  Mongolians.  11.  Caucasians.  12.  To 
what  extent  are  the  Caucasians  leaders  among  these 
races?  Give  reasons.  13.  Name  the  principal  forms 
of  religion.  14.  Give  some  facts  about  religious  super- 
stition. 15.  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism.  16.  Jew- 
ish religion.  17.  Mohammedanism.  18.  Christianity. 
1.  Make  a  collection  of  different  kinds  of  wood. 
2.  Notice  how  some  of  them  are  polished  for  use  as 
furniture.  3.  Visit  a  museum  to  „ 
see  specimens  of  tropical  animals. 
4.  Examine  a  cactus  closely.  5.  Examine  and  com- 
pare the  foliage  of  some  evergreens  and  deciduous 
trees.  6.  Collect  pictures  of  animals  belonging  to 
different  parts  of  the  world.  7.  How  many  of  the 
four  divisions  of  mankind  are  represented  in  your 
own  neighborhood?  8.  Collect  pictures  for  the 
school,  showing  the  kinds  of  dress  worn  by  the  dif- 
ferent races  of  mankind. 


PART   III.     SOUTH   AMERICA 


In  -what  zones  does  South  America  lie  ?    2.    What 
climate  would  you  expect  in  the  northern  part?     In 
the  central  part?    In   the  southern 


Map  Study 


part  ?     3.    During  what  months  does 


winter  come  in  the  extreme  south  ?  4.  What  large 
rivers  drain  the  continent  ?  5.  Do  you  find  many 
lakes  ?  Suggest  a  reason.  6.  To  what  extent  is  the 
coast  line  irregular?  7.  Draw  an  outline  map  and 
locate  upon  it  the  mountains  and  rivers.  Add  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  principal  countries.  8.  Where 
are  most  of  the  islands?  9.  Find  Cape  Horn.  It 
is  south  of  what  island?  What  strait  separates  this 
island  from  the  mainland  ?  10.  Which  country  has 
most  railways?  What  does  this  indicate  about  the 
people  there?  11.  In  what  zone  is  that  country? 
How  may  the  climate  there  have  influenced  the 
building  of  railways  ? 

I.    General  Facts 

Recall  the  shape  of  North  America.     Lo- 
cate   its    two    main    highland 
urace  masses.  What     are     their 

,  _  b]  names?  Which  is  the  higher 
between  North    and   more   extensive  ?      What 

and  South  about   its  volcanoes  ?     Where 

America  .      .  0 

are  its  principal  plains  I 

As  you  can  see  from  the  map,  South 
America  is  quite  like  North  America  in  its 
surface  features.  South  America,  like 
North  America,  is  triangular  in  shape, 
being  broad  at  the  north  and  tapering 
toward  the  south.  Its  principal  highlands 
are  on  the  two  sides,  as  in  North  America 
(Fig.  10).  The  western  highlands,  called 
the  Andes  (Fig.  334),  form  one  of  the  loft- 
iest mountain  systems  in  the  world;  and 
between  the  ranges  are  many  deep  valleys 
and  some  lofty  plateaus,  as  in  our  western 
Cordillera.  From  the  northern  to  the 
southern  end  of  South  America,  those  moun- 
tains rise  from  the  very  seacoast,  and  ex- 
tend far  inland. 


Many  of  the  highest  peaks  are  volcanic  cones,  one 
of  them,  Aconcagua,  in  Argentina,  reaching  an  eleva- 
tion of  nearly  twenty-three  thousand  feet.  This  is  one 
of  the  loftiest  peaks  in  the  world.  Several  of  the 
volcanoes  are  still  active,  and  some  of  the  eruptions 
have  been  terribly  violent.  Earthquakes,  too,  are 
frequently  felt  in  this  region. 

The  most  extensive  highlands  on  the 
eastern  side  of  South  America  are  in  east- 
ern Brazil  (Fig.  334).  Like  New  England, 
this  is  a  region  of  high  hills  and  low  moun- 
tains. The  highest  point  is  a  little  over 
ten  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
Guiana  highland  (Fig.  334),  between  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco  rivers,  resembles  the 
upland  of  Brazil,  but  is  separated  from  it 
by  the  Amazon  Valley.  The  remainder  of 
the  continent  is  lowland  (Fig.  335),  and 
mainly  a  vast  plain,  extending  from  south- 
ern Argentina  to  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Although  the  surface  features  of  the  two 
continents  are  so  much  alike,  there  are  two 
important  differences.     In  the  2   Differences 
first   place,  their   large  rivers  between  North 
flow    in     different    directions  and  South 

America 


from  those  of 
Describe    the 


our   continent, 
three    principal 


river    sys- 


tems of  North  America  (Fig.  9).  Make  a 
sketch  of  the  three  largest  rivers  of  South 
America.  One  of  these  is  the  largest  in 
the  world.  Which  is  it  ?  Which  one  most 
nearly  corresponds  to  the  Mississippi  iu 
position  and  direction  of  flow  ? 

A  second  important  difference  between 
the  two  continents  is  found  in  the  coast 
lines.  It  will  be  remembered  that  much 
of  the  North  American  coast  has  been  made 
irregular  by  the  sinking  of  the  land.  Thus 
many  good  harbors  have  been  formed. 
Much  of  the  South  American  coast,  on  the 


286 


tNGn*Vinaco.,n.Y. 


fig.  333. 
The  boundary  of  Ecuador  is  in  dispute. 


FIG.  334. 


GENERAL  FACT 8 


237 


Fig.  335.  —  Relief  map  of  South  America. 


238 


SOUTH  AMEBIC  A 


other  hand,  has  been  rising.  This  has 
made  the  coast  line  straight,  because  the 
raised  sea  bottom  is  so  level.  The  west- 
ern coast  of  South"  America  is  the  most  reg- 
ular coast,  of  long  extent,  in  the  world. 
For  a  distance  of  three  thousand  miles  there 
are  very  few  good  natural  harbors.      What 


Fig.  336.  —  A  view  in  the  lofty  snow-covered  Andes 


effect  must  this  have  upon  the  development 
of  the  continent  ? 

What  portion  of  South  America  has  a 
tropical  climate  ?  How  do  you  know  ? 
Climate  Where    does    the    Tropic    of 

1.  Temperature  Capricorn  cross  the  continent? 
What  countries  of  South  America  are  partly 
or  wholly  in  the  temperate  zone  '?  During 
what  months  do  they  have  summer  ?  What 
effect  on  temperature  are  their  north  winds 
likely  to  have?  What  part  of  South  Amer- 
ica has  a  climate  much  like  that  of  the 
United  States? 

The  winds,  together  with  the  highlands, 
are  the  key  to  the  rainfall.     On  the    map 

2.  Rainfall  (Fig.  294)  it  is  seen  that  the 
(1)  The  winds  belt  of  calms  extends  across 
the  continent  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
equator.     North  of  this  belt  the  northeast 


trade  winds  blow  (Fig.  294),  while  south 
of  it  is  the  zone  of  southeast  trade  winds. 
Still  farther  south  are  the  horse  latitudes, 
and  then  come  the  prevailing  westerlies 
(Fig.  293),  which  blow  across  the  southern 
end  of  the  continent. 
'  As  one  would  expect,  there  is  heavy  rain- 
fall (Fig.  296)  in  the  belt  of 
calms.         The   ,»,  „       .  .  „ 

(2)  Theramfall 

northern       coast  in  the  tropical 

must     also     re-    zone  east  of  the 
,         ,       ,     mountains 

ceive  abundant 
rains,  because  the  trade  winds 
blow  from  the  ocean  and  are 
forced  to  rise  in  passing  over 
the  slopes.  The  highlands  of 
eastern  Brazil  must  likewise 
be  well  watered  by  the  vapor^ 
laden  southeast  trades  (Fig. 
296).  The  trade  winds  los 
much  of  their  moisture  in., 
traveling  across  the  continent, 
but  on  approaching  the  Andes 
they  are  forced  to  a  still 
greater  height.  Accordingly, 
the  eastern  side  of  this  range 
is  wet  by  frequent  rains. 

You  have  learned  (p.  214)  that 
the  belts  of  rainfall  shift  northward 
and  southward,  each  year,  as  the  season  changes 
(Figs.  294  and  295).  Therefore,  there  is  a  belt,  on 
each  side  of  the  equator,  where  the  land  is  dry  at 
one  time  of  year  and  well  watered  in  the  opposite 
season.  These  belts  of  grass  lands,  or  savannas 
(p.  228),  lie  on  both  sides  of  the  equatorial  forest. 
They  are  called  llanos  in  the  Orinoco  Valley,  and 
campos  in  Brazil. 

South  of  the  belt  of  calms,  in  Peru  and 
northern  Chile  (Fig.  296),  the  western  slopes 
and  valleys  of  the  Andes  are  (3)  Inthetropi. 
far  too  arid  for  agriculture  cal  zone  west  of 
without  irrigation,  and  some  the  mountain* 
portions  are  true  deserts  (Fig.  337).  This 
region  is  arid  because  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains prevent  the  trade  winds  from  reach- 
ing it.  Here  the  prevailing  winds  blow 
from  the  south  ;  that  is,  parallel  to  the 
coast.  For  this  reason  they  have  little 
vapor  ;    and   since    they    are    blowing    to- 


GEXERAL   FACTS 


239 


ward  the  equator,  and  therefore  becoming 
warmer,  they  do  not  give  up  their  mois- 
ture. Thus  there  are  deserts  even  on  the 
very  coast. 

Farther  south,  in  Chile,  the  influence  of 
the  prevailing  westerlies  is 
(4)  Inihe south  felt.  In  this 
temperate  zone  parfc  0f  the  Con- 
tinent, therefore,  it  is  the 
western  side  that  receives  the 
rain,  while  the  eastern  part 
is  dry  (p.  212).  In  rising 
over  the  land  these  west 
winds,  from  the  ocean,  cause 
abundant  rainfall  in  central 
and  southern  Chile  ;  but, 
being  robbed  of  their  vapor 
as  they  cross  the  mountains, 
they-  descend  as  dry  winds 
upon  the  plains  of  Argen- 
tina. With  what  portion  of 
the  United  States  may  the  climate  of 
western  Argentina  be  compared? 

From  the  above  we  see  that,  while  most 
of   South    America    is   well    supplied    with 


humidity     and     high     temperature     favor 
luxuriant      plant      life      (Fig-    Plant  and 
338).     So  dense  are  the  vast  animal  life 
jungles   of  the    Amazon   that  1.  Plant  life 
travel    through  them   is   almost  impossible 


Fig.  337 


A.  view  in  the  desert  of  Bolivia  in  the  Andes, 
are  llama. 


The  animals 


A  view  in  the  dense  jungle  of  South  America. 


(p.  243),  and  immense  areas  have  never 
been  explored.  In  the  desert  of  the  west 
coast,  on  the  other  hand,  plant  life  is  very 
scanty  (Fig.  337).  There  are  some  parts — 
for  instance,  the  Desert  of 
Atacama  in  northern  Chile 
—  where  there  is  almost  no 
life  of  any  kind. 

In  the  south  temperate 
zone,  and  on  many  of  the 
mountain  slopes  of  the  tor- 
rid zone,  where  the  climate 
is  cool,  and  the  rainfall 
moderate,  the  land  is  forest- 
covered  ;  but  these  forests 
are  much  more  open  than 
the  tropical  jungle.  The 
extreme  southern  part  of 
the  continent  has  a  climate 
so  cold  that  the  plants  be- 
come dwarfed,  as  in  north- 
ern Canada. 


rain,  two  extensive  areas,  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  Andes,  are  arid.  Locate  them 
(Fig.  299). 

In    the    warm,     rainy    belt    the    great 


In  the  tropical  forest  are  many  insects  and  beau- 
tiful birds.     Among  the  larger  ani-    _ 

,  ,  f.         ,    ,,6    ,     .,     2.   Animal  life 

ma  Is   may   be  mentioned  the   truit- 

eating    monkey,    the    fierce    jaguar    '.  '  *™  '  e 

(Fig.  339),  which  preys  upon  other    Juns  e 


THtMNC0.,BuFfAL0      LLAMA 


ARMADILLO 


Fig.  339. —  Some  of  the  South  American  animals. 


GENERAL   FACTS 


241 


animals,  and  the  sloth  (Fig.  339),  a  creature  which 
sleeps  suspended,  back  downward,  from  the  branches 
of  the  trees.  There  are  also  many  reptiles,  including 
serpents  and  the  iguana,  a  tree  lizard  which  grows 
to  a  length  of  several  feet.  Some  of  the  serpents 
are  small  and  poisonous ;  others,  like  the  boa  con- 
strictor (Fig.  339),  are  large,  and  powerful  enough 
to  crush  a  deer  in  their  coils. 

The  many  beautiful  butterflies  and  the  ants  are 
especially  interesting.  The  termites,  commonly 
called  white  ants,  live  in  colonies,  and  build  houses 
of  earth.  With  so  many  insects  there  are,  naturally, 
numerous  kinds  of  insect  eaters.  One  of  the  most 
peculiar  of  these  is  the  ant-eater  (Fig.  339).  With 
its  long  claws  it  digs  the  ants  from  their  earth}'  or 
woody  dwelling  places,  while  its  sharp-pointed  snout 
and  long  tongue  aid  in  finding  and  devouring  its 
food. 

The  tapir  (Fig.  339),  a  large  animal  five  or  six 
feet  in  length,  wanders  about  at  night,  feeding  along 
the  water  courses.  The  armadillo  (Fig.  339),  a  bur- 
rowing animal  covered  with  an  armor,  rolls  itself 
into  a  ball  when  attacked  by  an  enemy,  thus  pro- 
tecting its  soft  under  parts.  In  the  river  waters 
and  swamps  are  fishes,  turtles,  and  alligators  (Fig. 
339).  The  fish  and  the  turtle  eggs  are  among  the 
chief  foods  of  the  forest  Indians.  The  manatee 
(Fig.  339),  or  sea  cow,  lives  in  both  fresh  and  salt 
water,  and  ascends  the  Amazon  even  as  far  as 
Ecuador. 

On  the  grassy  plains  herds  of  deer  roam  about, 

and  also  the  rhea  (Fig.  339),  —  often 

(^l  On  the  called   the  American  ostrich,  — one 

'     .  of  the  few  large  running  birds.     It 

among  the  h.  ,  -     8       ■     -a  . 

mountains  lives  on  the  open  plains,  as  m  1  ata- 

gonia,   where   herds   of   guanaco,   a 
kind  of  wild  llama,  are  also  found. 

Among  the  crags  and  peaks  of  the  Andes,  dwells 
the  condor  (Fig.  339),  the  largest  of  flying  birds,  — 
so  large  that  it  kills  and  carries  off  small  deer.  In 
the  mountain  valleys  live  the  llama  (Fig.  339)  and 
two  related  species,  the  vicuna  and  alpaca,  both 
wild  and  domesticated  (Figs.  337  and  353).  Like 
other  mountain  dwellers,  the  llama  is  so  sure-footed 
on  the  rocks  that  it  is  of  great  use  as  a  beast  of 
burden ;  and  the  cold  climate  causes  it  to  have  a 
thick  coat  of  wool  which  is  of  value  to  man.  Be- 
cause of  its  usefulness  the  llama  is  sometimes  called 
the  American  camel. 

When  South  America  was  discovered  by 
Theinhab-  Columbus,  it  was  inhabited 
itants  only    by  red  men.     Many    of 

1.  The  natives  these  were  savages;  and  even 
(1)  Savages         to-day  some  of  the  forest  In- 

and  barbarians     d[ans  are  Bavages  Hying  almost 

solely  upon    fish,  game,  and  the  abundant 


\ 


fruits.  It  is  unsafe  for  white  men  to  go 
among  some  of  them,  and  indeed  there  are 
forest  tribes  which  are  still  cannibals. 

The  red  men  whom  the  early  explorers 
found  along  the  eastern  coast  and  some  of 
the  larger  rivers,  were  in  the  lower  stages 
of  barbarism  like  most  of  the  North  Amer- 
ican Indians.  They 
cultivated  the  soil  in  a 
crude  way,  and  manu- 
factured a  few  simple 
implements.  Many 
Indians,  in  the  more 
remote  districts,  still 
live  in  this 
primitive  fash-  [ 
ion,  though 
large 
numbers 
have 
mixed 


Fig.  340.  —  Savage  Indians  who  live  in  the  tropical  forest 
of  eastern  Peru,  east  of  the  Andes. 

with  the  white  settlers  and  adopted  their 
customs. 

Among  the  Andes,  especially  in  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  the  Spanish  expilorers 
found  tribes  of  Indians,  called 
Inoas,  who  had  developed  far 
beyond  their  neighbors.  Indeed,  like  the 
Pueblo  and  Aztec  Indians  of  North  Amer- 
ica (p.  23),  they  had  reached  the  early 
stages  of  civilization.  Such  advance  was 
favored  by  the  temperate  climate  of  their 
mountain    valley    homes,  and   by  the    arid 


(2)   The  Incas 


242 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  341.  —  A  stone  bridge  in  Bolivia,  built  by  the  Incas  before 
South  America  was  discovered  by  white  men. 


country  and  the  mountain  barriers,  which 
served  to  protect  them  from  the  inroads  of 
their  more  savage  neighbors. 

By  the  aid  of  irrigation  the  Incas  tilled  the  soil, 
cultivating  the  potato,  corn,  and  Peruvian  cotton, 
all  of  which  they  had  improved  from  wild  plants. 
They  domesticated  the  llama  and  alpaca  for  their 
wool,  and  for  use  as  work  animals.  They  organ- 
ized armies,  built  roads  (Fig.  341),  and  had  a  rude 
postal  and  express  system  by  swift  -runners.  Al- 
though they  had  not  invented  writing,  they  kept 
records  by  means  of  knotted  strings.  Their  em- 
pire, which  extended  for  more  than  two  thousand 
miles  along  the  Andes,  and  from  the  Pacific  coast 
to  the  trackless  forests  of  the  Amazon,  was  gov- 
erned by  a  powerful  chief  whose  capital  was  Cuzco 
tn  Peru.  The  stage  of  advancement  reached  by 
these  red  men  was  wonderful. 

The  Spaniards,  attracted  by  the  discovery 
of  rich  deposits  of  gold  and  silver,  seized 
2    The  Span-       almost  all  of  South  America, 

iards  and  their  except  Brazil,  which  was  Set- 
influence  tled  by  the  Portuguese.     They 

treated  the  natives  with  great  cruelty,  espe- 
cially the  Incas,  whom  they  robbed  of  their 
treasures  and  reduced  to  slavery. 

As  in  North  America,  the  Spaniards  in- 
termarried freely  with  the  Indians,  so  that 
the  present  inhabitants  of  South  America 
are,  to  a  large  extent,  of  mixed  blood.  The 
introduction  of   negro  slaves  has  led  to  a 


still  greater  mixture  of 
peoples.  Therefore,  while 
there  are  still  pure-blooded 
Indians  and  negroes,  and 
also  pure-blooded  white,  men, 
especially  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese, the  greater  number  of 
the  South  Americans  are  a 
mixture  of  two  or  more  of 
these  very  different  races. 

Of  late  there  have  been  many 
immigrants  from  European  coun- 
tries, especially 
from  Germany  and 
southern  Europe. 
They  have  gone  mainly  to  southern 
Brazil,  Argentina,  and  Chile,  and 
have  helped  greatly  in  the  develop- 
ment of  these  countries. 

Spain   maintained  her  control  in  South 

America  for  fully  three  hun-   _ 

J  Government 

dred  years.     In  the  early  part 

of    the    nineteenth    century,    however,    the 


Recent 

immigrants 


LLUMS   UN.  CO. 


Fig.  342. 


BRAZIL 


243 


Its  extent 
of  Europe 


colonies  became  so  dissatisfied  with  Spanish 
rule  that  they  fought  for  independence. 
They  were  successful  and  formed  indepen- 
dent republics,  modeled  after  the  United 
States.  Brazil  also  became  independent  of 
Portugal,  and,  after  being  for  a  long  time 
ruled  by  an  emperor,  established  a  repub- 
lican form  of  government  in  1889.  Every 
country  of  South  America  is  now  an  inde- 
pendent republic  except  Guiana,  which  is 
divided  among  three  European  nations,  as 
shown  on  the  map. 

IL    Brazil 

This    is    the    largest    country    in    South 

America.     It  is  even  larger  than  the  United 

States    without    Alaska,     and 

nearly  as  large  as   the   whole 

While  extending  north  of  the 

equator    on    one  side,    it   reaches    into   the 

south  temperate  zone  on  the  other.     How 

many  degrees  of  latitude  does  it  include  ? 

Since  so  large  a  part  of  Brazil  is  on  the 

eastern  slope  of  the  continent, 

in  the  torrid  zone,  its  climate 

is   not    only  warm,  but   moist.      Why    the 

latter  (Fig.  296)? 

Eastern    Brazil    is    a    highland    region. 

Numerous    streams    drain    this    upland    in 

various  directions.      Point  out 
Itsdramage        gome     q{     ^&m     (pig_     ^ 

What  is  the  name  of  the  largest  river  not 
tributary  to  the  Amazon  ? 

The  northern  third  of  Brazil  is  mainly 
a  vast  level  jjlain,  drained  by  the  Amazon 
River.  The  rainfall  in  the  Amazon  Valley 
is  so  heavy,  and  the  slope  of  the  land  so 
gentle,  that  the  river  and  its  larger  tribu- 
taries are  swollen  to  great  breadth.  At 
times  of  flood  these  rivers  overflow  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  change  it  to  an  im- 
mense swamp  crossed  by  many  channels. 
In  some  places  the  Amazon  is  several  miles 
wide,  and  resembles  a  lake  rather  than  a 
river. 

The  Amazon  is  navigable  for  steamboats 
nearly  to  the  base  of  the  Andes,  a  distance 


Its  climate 


of  twenty-two  hundred  miles  from  the  sea- 
coast.  Some  of  the  tributaries  also  are 
navigable.  Along  this  water  Navigation  on 
way  there  are  a  few  small  the  "vers 
settlements,  such  as  Manaos,  which  are 
reached  by  ocean  steamers  ;  but  away  from 
the  river  there  is  nothing  but  an  almost 
unknown  wilderness. 

The  Amazon  forest  is  a  good  type  of  the 
tropical  forest,  where  plants,  encouraged  by 
the  heat  and   dampness,  grow  ^he  tropical 
luxuriantly    in    the    rich   soil,    forest 
Not  only  is  the  rainfall  heavy,   l.  its  appear- 
but  evaporation  is  checked  by  ance 
the  dense  vegetation,  so  that  the  forest  reeks 


-  SBBSbWBS'v-'  •/ 

.:rJg||||P 

jfiEpSEswyWSKafi 

"■.-v3.        .'/si 

Fig.  843. —  Cutting  a  road  in  the  dense  tropical  forest  of 
the  Amazon  Valley.  Notice  the  wavy  vines  hanging 
from  the  trees. 

with  moisture.  Therefore,  at  night,  when 
the  temperature  falls,  such  heavy  dews  col- 
lect that  the  plants  are  wet,  as  by  a  rain. 

In  these  woods  there  is  an  occasional  giant  tree 
reaching  to  a  height  of  from  one  hundred  and 
eighty  to  two  hundred  feet,  and  with  a  circum- 
ference of  from  twenty  to  forty  feet.  The  lower 
limbs  may  be  as  much  as  a  hundred  feet  from  the 


244 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


ground.  Between  these  giant  trees  are  smaller  ones 
struggling  to  rise  out  of  the  somber  shade  into  the 
sunlight.  There  are  also  many  shrubs,  bushes, 
ferns,  and  vines,  the  latter  twining  about  the  tree 
trunks  or  hanging  from  the  lower  limbs  (Fig.  343). 
The  woods  present  much  the  same  appearance 
throughout  the  year.  There  is  no  time  when  all  the 
trees  send  forth  their  leaves  and  blossoms  ;  nor  is 
there  a  time  when  all  the  leaves  change  color  and 
fall  to  the  ground.  Some  of  the  trees  blossom 
throughout  the  year;  others  have  their  blossoms  at 
regular  seasons  ;  thus  flowers  and  fruits  may  be  seen 
at  all  times  of  the  year. 

In  such  a  forest  there  is  dense  gloom  and 
silence,  broken  now  and  then  by  the  crash 


RatzeVs  History  of  Jfankiml. 
Fig.  344.  —  Savage  Indians  who  live  in  the  interior  of 
Brazil,  far  away  from  the  region  where  white  men 
live. 

of  a  falling  tree,  or  the  sorrowful  notes  of 
birds,  or  the  howling  of  monkeys,  or  per- 
chance the  shrill  scream  of  an  animal  which 
has  fallen  a  prey  to  the  boa. 

Some  of  the  trees  of  the  forest  produce 
fruits  and  nuts,  others  valuable  timber  or 
dyewoods.  In  fact,  the  word 
Brazil  comes  from  the  name  of 
a  dyewood  found  in  the  Ama- 
zon forests.  Another  valu- 
able plant  is  the  vanilla,  whose 
beans  are  of  value  in  making  perfumes  and 
flavoring  extracts.     Many  of  the   Indians 


2.  Its  products 
(1)  Fruits, 
nuts,  dye- 
woods,  and 
vanilla 


(3)  Rubber 


near  the  rivers  make  long  journeys  into  tb 
forest  to  collect  the  products,  both  for  their 
own  use  and  for  shipment  down  the  Amazon, 

The  Indians  still  cultivate  the  mandioca, 
which  was  one  of  their  principal  foods  when 
white  men  appeared.  The  root  (2)  Mandioca 
of  this  plant  is  somewhat  like  and  yerba-mate 
a  long  sweet  potato,  and  a  dish  of  dry  meal, 
or  farina,  made  from  it  is  commonly  seen  on 
Brazilian  tables.  To  these  people  mandioca 
is,  in  a  measure,  what  wheat  is  to  those  who 
live  in  temperate  climates.  It  is  from  this 
plant  that  tapioca  is  made.  The  leaves  of  a 
tropical  plant  called  yerba-mate,  or  Paraguay 
tea,  are  also  obtained  in  the  Brazilian  for- 
est. Brazil  produces  far  more  of  this  than 
Paraguay. 

The  natives  are  also  engaged  in  obtaining 
rubber,  a  product  of  great  importance  be 
cause  of  its  many  uses.  When 
gathering  rubber,  the  natives 
encamp  in  the  forest  in  lightly  built  hut 
from  which  paths  lead  through  the  dense 
undergrowth  to  the  rubber  trees.  Holes 
are  made  in  the  trees,  so  that  the  sap  oozes 
forth,  when  it  is  collected  in  bamboo  dishes. 
It  is  then  smoked  and  dried  before  being 
shipped  down  the  river  to  Para.  Find 
this  city  on  the  map  (Fig.  333). 

Besides  the  trees  in  the  forest,  there  are 
many  rubber  plantations  in  which  the  rubber 
tree  is  carefully  planted  and  cultivated. 
Rubber  ranks  second  among  the  exports 
from  Brazil,  and  one  of  the  principal  markets 
for  it  is  the  United  States.  What  are  some 
of  its  important  uses? 

The  coffee  tree  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia 
in  Africa.     It  was  introduced  into    Brazil 
long  ago,  and  has  proved  so  Agriculture 
valuable  that  Brazil  now  pro-   1.  Coffee 
duces  more  than  one  half  of  all  the  coffee . 
used  in  the  world.     It  is  cultivated  all  the 
way  from  southern  Brazil  to  the  Amazon, 
and  there  are   fully  five  hundred   million 
coffee  trees  in  that  country.     They  grow 
best  at  altitudes  of  from  fifteen  hundred 
to  forty-five  hundred  feet,  and  are  there- 
fore   very    common    on    the    highlands    of 


ARGENTINA 


245 


eastern  Brazil.  Each  tree  produces  from 
thirty  to  forty  pounds  of  coffee  a  year. 
Between  April  and  September  the  berries 
are  picked,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  hulled 
by  machinery. 

After  being  sorted  in  the  cities,  the  coffee 
is  shipped  in  bags.  Formerly  most  of  the 
Brazilian  coffee  left  tbe  port  of  Rio  DE 
Janeiro  ;  but  now  more  than  half  of  it  is 
sent  from  Santos.  Coffee  is  the  prin- 
cipal export  of  Brazil,  and 
much  of  it  comes  to  the 
United  States. 

Cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
fruit,  and  corn  are  also  raised 
2.  other  agri-  extensively  on 
cultural  prod-  the  highlands  of 
ucts  Brazil.        Much 

cocoa  is  cultivated  in  the 
tropical  section,  and  in  the 
extreme  south  many  cattle 
are  raised. 

The  rocks  of  the  highlands 
produce    some   valuable   miri- 
Mining  and        erals,    especially 
manufacturing    gold     and     dia- 
monds.     Indeed,   before    dia- 
monds   were    discovered     in 
South  Africa,  Brazil  was  the 
principal     diamond-producing    country    in 
the   world.     Both   coal   and  iron  are  also 
found,  though  they  are  not  yet  extensively 
mined. 

Manufacturing  has  begun  to  be  impor- 
tant in  Brazil,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
progressive  of  the  South  American  coun- 
tries. Cotton  manufacturing  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing, and  there  are  also  woolen  mills, 
flour  mills,  and  other  manufacturing  plants, 
chiefly  in  southern  Brazil.  Why  should 
this  be  the  most  progressive  part  of  the 
country  ? 

The  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  Re- 
public is  Rio  de  Janeiro  (Fig.  345),  a 

_  .  .  .      city    with    a  population   of    a 

Principal  cities        .\,.  i  i  xi  i 

million  people,  and  the  second 

in  size   in  South  America.     It  is  situated 

upon  a  fine  harbor  and  is  surrounded  by  an 


excellent    farming    country    dotted    with 
coffee  plantations. 

Several  other  Brazilian  cities  are  seaports, 
connected  with  the  interior  by  short  rail- 
way lines  which  bring  the  coffee  and  other 
products  for  shipment.  The  most  impor- 
tant are  Sao  Paulo,  Bahia,  and  Pernam- 
buco,  the  chief  port  for  the  export  of  sugar 
and  cotton,  and  Santos,  the  seaport  of 
Sao  Paulo. 


Fig.  345.  — A  view  of  part  of  Rio  de  Jaueiro. 

III.    Argentina 

This  is  the  most  advanced  of  South  Amer- 
ican countries.  One  reason  for  this  is 
that  Argentina  extends  from  why^e^t 
just  within  the  torrid  zone  to  progressive 
the  extreme  southern  end  of  country  in 
South  America.  Thus  the  South  America 
country  is,  for  the  most  part,  within  the 
temperate  zone,  which  has  the  climate  most 
favorable  to  the  development  of  energetic 
people. 

Besides  this,  there  are  many  different 
kinds  of  climate,  arid  in  one  part,  rainy  in 
another ;  tropical  here,  warm  temperate 
there,  and  cool  temperate  elsewhere.  Such 
a  variety  of  climate  makes  it  possible  to 
raise  a  great  variety  of  products. 

A  third  reason  for  rapid  progress  is  the 


246 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


fact  that  much  of  the  country  consists  of 
pampas  (Fig.  346).  These  open,  treeless 
plains  have  made  it  easy  for  settlers  to 
move    about    and    to    carry    on    the    indus- 


Fig.  346.  —  A  view  on  a  cattle  ranch  in  the  pampas  of  Argentina. 

tries  of  farming  and  ranching.  The  ease 
of  settlement  on  these  open  plains  con- 
trasts strikingly  with  the  unfavorable  con- 
ditions in  the  dense  tropical  forest  of  the 
Amazon  Valley,  but  may  be  compared  with 
the  conditions  on  the  plains  and 
prairies  of  the  United  States. 

There  are,  however,  extensive 
forests  in  the  north,  and  lofty 
mountains  in  the  west,  and 
because  of  these  the  industries 
of  the  country  are  even  more 
varied. 

Such  favorable  conditions 
have  served  to  attract  many 
immigrants  from  Europe,  and 
there  is,  therefore,  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  pure-blooded  whites 
here  than  in  other  countries  of 
South  America.  Largely  for 
this  reason  the  government  of 
Argentina  is  better  than  that  in  most  South 
American  countries.  That,  alone,  has  had 
much  to  do  with  the  progress  of  Argentina. 

In  many  parts  of  Argentina  the  climate 
Agriculture  and  soil  are  favorable  to  agri- 
l.  Farming  culture.  In  the  warm  north- 
ern portion  sugar  cane,  coffee,  and  tobacco 


are  produced  ;  in  the  more  temperate  part, 
wherever  the  rainfall  is  sufficient,  grains 
and  alfalfa  are  raised.  There  is  also  much 
fruit  raising,  especially  grapes,  from  which 
wine  and  raisins  are 
made. 

Wheat  is  the  most 
important  agricultural 
product,  for  the  humid 
part  of  the  Argentine 
plains  is  one  of  the 
greatest  wheat-produ- 
cing sections  of  the 
world.  The  climate  is 
favorable,  the  soil  fer- 
tile, and  the  land  level 
or  gently  rolling,  as  in 
our  Red  River  Valley. 

The  extreme  south  is 
too  cold  for  farming, 
but  sheep  raising  is  carried 
on  even  in  Patagonia  and  on 
the  stormy  islands  beyond  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  The  arid,  open  plains  are  so 
well    adapted   to   ranching,  that  there  are 


2.   Ranching 


Fig.  347.- 


Indiaus  living  in  the  cold  southern  region  on  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 

many  millions  of  sheep  and  cattle  in  this 
country. 

There  is  some  lumbering  and  mining  in 
the  mountainous  portion.     From  the  words 
Argentina  and  Plata,  both  of  Lumbering 
which  mean  silver,  one  might  and  mining 
conclude  that  this  is  a  great  silver-produ 


URUGUAY  AND  PARAGUAY 


247 


cing  region.  This  is  not  so,  however,  for 
those  names  are  clue  merely  to  the  fact 
that  the  natives  wore  silver  ornaments. 
Argentina  is  not  important  as  a  mineral- 
producing  region,  though  some  gold,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  coal,  and  petroleum  are  found. 

In  the  large  cities  there  are  many  in- 
dustries, largely  connected  with  the  raw 
Manufacturing  products  of  the  country.  The 
and  commerce  leading  kinds  are  dairying  and 
the  manufacture  of  wool,  flour,  sugar,  wine, 
leather,  and  cotton.  A  large  portion  of 
the  raw  products,  however,  is  sent  abroad, 
particularly  wool,  hides, 
wheat,  corn,  and  meat. 
Machinery  and  many 
other  manufactured 
articles  must  still  be 
imported. 

In  a  country  so  pro- 
gressive as  this,  it  is 
natural  that  there  should 
be  means  of  read}'  trans- 
portation. The  broad 
Parana  River,  which 
empties  into  the  Plata 
Estuary,  forms  an  im- 
portant water  way  to  the  interior  ;  and 
railways  cross  the  well-settled  portions  of 
the  country,  connecting  all  the  important 
cities.  In  fact,  there  are  more  railways 
here  than  in  any  other  South  American 
country.  In  resources,  industries,  govern- 
ment, and  education,  Argentina,  of  all  the 
South  American  countries,  most  closely 
resembles  the  United  States. 

By  far  the  most  important  city  is  Buenos 

Aires.     With  over  a   million  inhabitants, 

L  .    .    .  .„      it  is  the  largest  city  in  South 
Principal  cities     .  .  °.  J.     , 

America,  and  one  of  the  great 

cities  of  the  world.     It  is  growing  rapidly 

and  has  much  manufacturing  and  commerce. 

Just  below  Buenos  Aires,  on  the  Plata  Estuary,  is 
the  seaport  of  La  Plata  ;  and  upstream,  on  the 
Parana  River,  is  the  rapidly  growing  city  of  Rosario, 
which  is  an  important  railway  center  as  well  as  a 
river  port.  In  the  interior  are  a  number  of  towns  and 
cities,  among  which  Cordoba  is  one  of  the  largest. 


IV.    Uruguay  and  Paraguay 

Like  so  much  of  Argentina,  this  is  a  re- 
gion of  plains,  and  since  a  large  part  of  the 


country  is  well  watered,  it  is 


Uruguay 


suited  to  the  production  of  the 
same  crops  as  northern  Argentina.  But 
there  has  been  much  less  development  in 
Uruguay  than  in  Argentina.  One  reason 
is  that  it  has  been  very  badly  governed, 
for  a  few  men  have  often  controlled  the 
army  and  made  and  unmade  presidents 
almost  at  will. 


Fig.  318.  —  A  ranch  bouse  on  a  cattle  ranch  in  Uruguay. 


In  late  years  there  has  been  great  im- 
provement, and  agriculture  is  being  ex- 
tended, —  such  crops  as  wheat  and  other 
grains,  tobacco,  and  fruits  being  important 
products.  Cattle  and  sheep,  are,  however, 
of  even  greater  importance. 

The  principal  manufactured  products 
and  exports  are  those  connected  with  cat- 
tle and  sheep;  namely,  dried  beef,  corned 
beef,  ox  tongues,  hides,  tallow,  horns,  and 
wool.  The  capital  and  largest  city  is  the  sea- 
port, Montevideo,  on  the  Plata  Estuary. 

This  little  country,  like  Bolivia,  is  with- 
out a  seacoast,  though  it  is  connected  with 

the  sea  by  the  Parana  River.    „„„„„„„ 
T,     .  J      .  *    i.-ii  q    Paraguay 

It    is    a    region    of    hills    and 

plains,    partly    covered    with    forests,    but 

with  much  pasture  land  upon  which  large 

herds   of   cattle  feed.     The   climate   is   hot 

and  in  many  parts  dry,  with   most  of  the 

hot  winds  from  the  north. 


248 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


The  Guianas 


The  agricultural  products,  besides  cattle, 
are  those  of  the  warm  temperate  and  trop- 
ical zones.  These  include  tobacco,  rice, 
sugar  cane,  and  oranges.  Rubber,  dye- 
woods,  and  valuable  timber  are  obtained 
from  the  forests.  Another  product  is 
yerba-mate,  or  Paraguay  tea.  Although 
not  used  so  extensively  as  our  tea,  which 
comes  mainly  from  Asia,  the  Paraguay  tea 
is  very  popular  in  South  America,  where 
its  use  was  learned  from  the  red  men. 

The  capital,  Asuncion,  is  connected  with 
Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  the  sea  coast  by 
rail. 

V.    The  Guianas  and  Venezuela 

North  of  Brazil  are  three  small  countries, 
the  only  portions  of  the  South  American 
continent  now  under  control 
of  European  nations.  They 
belong  to  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and 
France,  respectively,  and  are  known  as 
British  Guiana,  Dutch  Guiana  or  Surinam, 
and  French  Guiana.  Find  the  capital  of 
each. 

In  these  countries  a  large  part  of  the  surface  is 
still  a  forest  wilderness,  inhabited  chiefly  by  In- 
dians. This  tropical  forest,  like  that  of  the  Amazon, 
which  it  closely  resembles,  supplies  rubber  and  valu- 
able timber ;  but  its  resources  are  only  slightly  de- 
veloped. Near  the  coast  there  is  a  strip  of  cultivated 
land  on  which  sugar  cane,  bananas,  cotton,  and  a 
few  other  products  are  raised.  Of  late,  especially  in 
Dutch  Guiana,  attention  has  been  turned  to  the  pro- 
duction of  cocoa  and  coffee.  Some  gold  is  found  in 
each  of  the  Guianas.  The  Guianas  have  but  one 
short  railway,  and  in  most  sections  there  are  almost 
no  roads.  There  are  scarcely  any  exports  except 
sugar,  molasses,  and  rum  —  all  made  from  sugar 
cane. 

This  name,  which  means  "little  Venice," 
Venezuela  was  give.n  in  1499  because  the 

l.  Character  of  explorers  found  an  Indian  vil- 
country,  and  lage  built  on  piles,  or  posts,  in 
products  £]ie  water  al011g  ilie  .shore  of 

Lake  Maracaibo. 

Venezuela  includes  one  of  the  spurs  of 
the  Andes,  and  also  a  portion  of  the  Guiana 
highland;  but  a  large  part  of  the  country  is 


iCO 


occupied  by  the  broad  plains  of  the  Orinoc 
Valley.  Some  of  these  plains,  the  treeless 
llanos  (p.  228),  are  the  seat  of  extensive 
cattle  raising,  as  is  the  case  on  the  pampas 
of  Argentina.  There  is  some  farming, 
Hardy  crops,  like  potatoes,  beans,  and  bar- 
ley, are  raised  even  at  altitudes  of  eight 
thousand  feet;  but  below  five  thousand  feet 
are  found  such  semitropical  and  tropical 
products  as  sugar  cane,  bananas,  cocoa, 
and  coffee.  Coffee  is  the  chief  export ;  in. 
fact,  Venezuela  is  one  of  the  leading  coffee- 
producing  sections  of  South  America. 

In  parts  of  Venezuela  there  are  vast  for 
ests  which  produce  valuable  dyewoods  an 
rubber ;  and  among  the  mountains  are  rie 
mineral  deposits,  especially  gold. 

The  capital,  Caracas,  five  or  six  miles 

from  the  sea,  is  situated  upon  „    _ .  .  .. 

'       .  ,         v    ,    2.  Chief  city 

a  plateau,  over  three  thousand 

feet  above  sea  level.     It  is  connected  with 

its  seaports  by  a  short  railway. 

In  1812  Caracas  was  visited  by  one  of  the  most 
terrible  earthquakes  ever  recorded.  It  being  Ascen- 
sion Day,  a  great  part  of  the  population,  which  i 
Catholic,  was  at  church.  The  first  shock  causei 
the  bell  to  toll ;  but  after  all  danger  was  thought  to 
be  past,  there  came  a  terrible  noise  from  under- 
ground, resembling  the  rolling  of  thunder,  though 
louder  and  longer.  Then  followed  a  shaking  of  the 
earth,  so  tremendous  that  churches  and  houses  were 
overthrown,  and  the  inhabitants  were  buried  beneath 
their  ruins.  On  that  day  fully  twelve  thousand  per- 
sons perished. 


VI.    Tropical  Andean  Countries 

These  countries  —  Colombia,  Ecuador. 
Peru,  and  Bolivia  —  are  all  crossed  by  the 
lofty  Andes,  and  are  therefore  Resemblances 
very  mountainous.  Each  of  to  one  another 
them  extends  eastward,  beyond  1-  i°  surface 
the  mountains,  to  the  plains  of  the  upper 
Amazon  and  Orinoco  valleys.  The  head- 
waters of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries, 
in  the  region  of  the  equator,  have  never 
been  fully  explored,  and  for  that  reason  the 
exact  boundaries  of  these  countries  of  this 
section  have  been  in  dispute. 


TROPICAL  ANDEAN  COUNTRIES 


249 


In  such  a  mountainous  country,  there  is, 
of  course,  great  variety  of  climate.     Tropi- 

2.  in  variety  of  cal  heat  prevails  throughout 
climate  and  of  the  lowlands  (Fig.  349);  but 
farm  products      on  tiie  mountain  slopes  there 

are  temperate  and  even  frigid  climates. 

The  farm  products  vary  accordingly.     Up  to  an 
elevation  of  three  thousand  to  four  thousand  feet, 
bananas,  sugar  cane,  cocoa,  and  other  plants  of  hot 
climates  flourish.     Above  this,  to  an 
elevation  of  six  or  seven  thousand 
feet,  tobacco,  corn,   and   coffee   are 
cultivated.     From  this  height  up  to 
about  ten  thousand  feet,  wheat  and 
our  Northern  vegetables  and  fruits 
do   well;    but   above   ten   thousand 
feet  the  bleak  mountain  peaks  are 
too  cold  for  farming. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
rainfall,  as  well  as  in  temperature. 
Near  the  equator  the  rainfall  is 
heavy;  but  in  southern  Peru,  which 
lies  in  the  belt  of  the  southeast 
trade  winds  (p.  21'2),  the  climate  is 
arid.  On  this  account  the  tropical 
forest  gradually  dwindles  toward 
the  south,  being  replaced  first  by 
arid  plains,  and  then  by  deserts. 

The  fact  that  this  section  is 
so    mountainous    explains    its 

3.  in  abundance  importance  as  a 
of  minerals  mineral  region. 
Gold  and  silver  ores,  and 
other  minerals  as  well,  are 
found  from  the  northern  to 
the  southern  limit  of  the 
Andes,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
great  mineral-producing  re- 
gions of  the  world. 

None  of  the  capitals  of  the  Andean  coun- 
tries are  on  the  coast,  and  several  are  in  the 

4.  in  location  interior  at  a  considerable  ele- 
of  chief  cities  vation  above  sea  level.  Find 
examples.  In  choosing  such  sites  the  inhab- 
itants have  had  the  example  set  them  both 
by  their  Spanish  ancestors  and  by  the  In- 
cas ;  for  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the  Incas,  and 
Madrid,  the  Spanish  capital,  are  both  at  a 
considerable  elevation  above  sea  level,  and 
many  miles  from  the  coast.  The  principal 
objects  in  the  selection  of  such  sites  were 


to  be  near  the  mines,  to  secure  a  cooler  and 
more  healthful  climate,  and  to  obtain  pro- 
tection from  attack  by  sea.  Doubtless  the 
absence  of  good  harbors  (p.  238)  was  an- 
other reason  why  these  capitals  were  not 
located  on  the  coast. 

It  has  been  very  difficult  to  carry  on  a 
republican  government  in  these   . 

...  ,  j,    5.   Government 

countries,  where  a  large  part  of 


Fig.  319.  —  Tropical  foliage  on  the  lowlands  of  Ecuador  near  the  coast. 


the  population  can  neither  read  nor  write, 
and  where  there  are  so  many  Indians  and 
half-breeds.  In  each  of  them  ambitious  lead- 
ers, usually  generals  in  the  army,  have  again 
and  again  overturned  the  government.  This 
has  greatly  interfered  with  the  development 
of  industry  and  commerce ;  for  neither  life 
nor  property  has  been  safe.  It  has  also  pre- 
vented settlers  from  coming.  Of  late,  how- 
ever, there  has  been  great  improvement. 

Colombia,    named    after    Columbus,    has 
seacoast  on  both  oceans.     The  western  part 


250 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  350.  —  A  village  in  Panama. 

is  very  mountainous,  for  several  of  the 
Andean  ranges  terminate  there.  Much 
mineral  is  found  here,  gold 
and  silver  being  most  impor- 
tant, though  emeralds  of  excellent  grade 
are  also  obtained. 

In  the  eastern  portion,  on  the  other  hand, 


Colombia 


are  treeless  llanos  on  which 
large  numbers  of  cattle  are 
raised,  as  in  Venezuela, 
Coffee  is  the  principal  farm 
product  and  the  chief  export ; 
but  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and 
cocoa  are  also  produced.  On 
the  mountain  slopes  the  grains, 
fruits,  and  vegetables  of  tem- 
perate climates  are  grown. 

Bogota,   the    capital    and 
largest  city,  is  situated  far  in 
the  interior,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  above 
sea  level.     It  has  an  agree- 
able    climate,     even     though 
within  the  tropical  zone. 
The  small  republic  of  Panama  was  for- 
merly a  part  of   Colombia,  but  it  revolted 
and   became    an    independent        ama 
country     a     few    years    ago. 
What  have  you  learned  about  it  (p.  177)? 
What  can  you  tell  about  the  Panama  Canal 
zone  (p.  154)  ? 


Fig.  351.  —  A  house  in  Ecuador  raised  above  the  ground  because  of  the  dampness. 


TROPICAL   ANDEAX   COUNTRIES 


251 


Why  should  Ecuador,  the  Spanish  word 
for  equator,  be  given  to  this  country  ?     In 
;    the  Andes  of  Ecuador  there  are  many  vol- 
canoes, including  Cotopaxi,  the 
Ecuador  °   .         r   .        , 

loftiest   active   volcano   in  the 

world,  and  Chimborazo,  which  is  still  higher, 
Ihough  no  longer  active.  Describe  the  cli- 
mate (p.  212). 

The  principal  occupations  are  farming 
and  cattle  raising.  The  chief  farm  prod- 
ucts are  wheat  and  barley  on  the  high- 
lands, and  coffee,  sugar  cane,  and  cocoa 
on  the  lowlands.  Cocoa  is  the  most  im- 
portant product  of  Ecuador,  and  fully  one 
sixth  of  all  that  is  produced  in  the  world 
comes  from  here. 

The  cocoa  tree,  which  grows  in  the  shade  of  the 
larger  forest  trees,  has  small  pink  and  yellow,  blos- 
soms which  spring  directly  from  the  main  trunk  and 
branches.  Its  leaves  are  always  green  and  it  blos- 
soms throughout  the  year.  From  each  blossom 
there  develops  a  golden-colored  pod,  several  inches 
in  length,  inclosing  a  number  of  seeds,  or  beans, 
which  are  about  the  size  of  a  large  almond.  After 
being  washed,  dried,  and  roasted,  the  beans  are  ready 
to  be  made  into  cocoa  and  chocolate.  What  are 
some  of  their  uses?  By  what  routes  might  they  be 
shipped  from  Guayaquil  to  Xew  York? 

Another  product  of  Ecuador,  and  of  some  other 
South  American  countries,  is  sarsnparilla.  The  rub- 
ber industry  is  also  well  developed. 

There  is  an  almost  total  absence  of  roads 
in  this  country,  making  the  transportation 
of  heavy  machinery  very  difficult.  This 
fact  interferes  greatly  with  mining  among 
the  mountains.  Therefore,  although  there 
are  known  to  be  many  minerals,  there  is 
little  mining  except  of  the  richest  gold  de- 
posits. There  is  almost  no  manufacturing 
in  the  country. 

Guayaquil,  the  seaport  and  the  western- 
most of  the  large  cities  of  South  America, 
is  first  in  size.  It  is  in  W.  Long.  80°.  Does 
it  lie  east  or  west  of  Washington,  D.C.  ? 
Quito,  the  capital  and  the  second  city  in 
size,  is  situated  among  the  mountains  of  the 
interior  at  an  elevation  of  about  nine  thou- 
sand feet. 

There  is  abundant  rainfall  in  northern 
Peru  and  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes; 


but  in  southern  Peru  the  climate  is  arid 
and  there  are  deserts  (Fig.  296).  Recall  the 
cause  of  this  arid  climate  Peru 
(p.  212).  So  little  rain  falls  1.  Climate 
in  southwestern  Peru  that  in  some  parts, 
even  close  by  the  sea,  there  is  an  average 
of  but  one  shower  in  seven  years. 

Peru  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources 


2.   Mining 


of  gold  and  silver  for  the 
Spanish  conquerors.  The 
Incas,  who  dwelt  there,  had  collected  gold 
for  ornaments, 
and  this  the 
Spaniards  seized. 
Then,  opening 
mines,  they 
forced  the  In- 
dians to  work  in 
them  as  slaves. 
Since  that  time 
vast  quantities  of 
gold  and  silver 
have  been  ob- 
tained in  this 
country ;  and 
valuable  deposits 
of  coal,  petro- 
leum, and  copper 
have  also  been 
found. 

There  is  much 
agriculture  in 
Peru,  the  prin- 
cipal crops  being 
corn,  wheat,  and 
potatoes     among 

the    mountains,    and    sugar    cane,    cotton, 
tobacco,  cocoa,  and  coffee   in 

,         .  -.  3.    Agriculture 

the  lower  and  warmer  sec- 
tions. Even  in  the  desert  portion  there  is 
some  farming  by  irrigation,  as  in  southern 
California.  Large  numbers  of  sheep  and 
cattle  are  raised,  and  also  the  llama  and 
alpaca  for  their  wool  (Fig.  353). 

An  unusual  product  is  coca,  from  which 
cocaine  is  made;  and  another  is  cinchona, 
or  Peruvian  bark,  from  which  quinine  is 
made.      These    plants    were    cultivated   by 


Fig.  352.  —  An  Iuca  Indian  of 
Peru. 


252 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


4.    Manufactur- 
ing and  trans- 
portation 


Fig.  353.  —The  South  American  llama. 

the     Incas     before     the     coming     of    the 
Spaniards. 

There  is  some  manufacturing  in  Peru,  especially 
of  sugar  and  cotton  goods.  One  great  difficulty, 
however,  has  been  that  of  transpor- 
tation. The  rugged  Andes  extend 
the  entire  length  of  the  country, 
separating  the  Pacific  coast  from  the 
broad,  forest-covered  plains  of  eastern  Peru.  To 
overcome  this  difficulty,  the  Peruvians  have  built 
several  railways,  one  of  which  deserves  special  men- 
tion. Beginning  at  Callao  this  line  passes  through 
Lima;  then  it  climbs  the  mountains,  crossing  deep 
gorges,  by  means  of  high  trestles,  winding  about  on 
the  very  edge  of  precipices,  tunneling  through  the 
mountain  rock,  and  finally  crossing 
the  western  range  of  the  Andes  at 
an  elevation  of  over  fifteen  thousand 
feet. 

Lima,  the  capital  (Fig.  354), 

founded  by  the  Spanish  con- 
querors in  1535, 
is  situated  at  the 

base  of  the  Andes.     Callao, 

the  seaport  of  Lima,  is  about 

seven  miles  from  the  capital. 

Its  harbor   is   but  little  more 

than  an  open  roadstead  partly 

protected  by  an  island  on  the 

southwest      side.       However, 

since    the    winds    and    ocean 

swells    are    from     the    south, 


while  the  coast  is  seldom 
visited  by  storms,  this  slight 
protection  is  sufficient. 

Akequipa,  at  an  elevation  of 
seven  thousand  feet,  is  separated 
from  the  sea  by  sixty  miles  of 
desert.  Cuzco  is  on  an  interior 
table-land,  at  an  elevation  of  over 
eleven  thousand  feet.  The  ruins  of 
the  Inca  citadels  and  "  palaces"  are 
still  to  be  seen,  and  many  pure- 
blooded  and  half-breed  Incas  still 
dwell  in  and  near  this  ancient 
capital. 

This  country,  named  after 
General  Bolivar,  the  great 
South  American 
leader  in  the  re- 
volt against  Spain,  was  robbed 
of  its  seacoast  by  Chile.  Its  surface  is 
mountainous,  with  broad  and  very  high 
plateaus  between  the  mountain  ranges. 
In  one  of  these  valleys  lies  Lake  Titicaca 
(Fig.  355),  partly  in  Peru  and  partly  in 
Bolivia.  This  lake,  the  greatest  in  South 
America,  is  about  a  third  the  size  of  Lake 
Erie.  It  is  the  most  elevated  great  lake  in 
the  world,  lying  over  twelve  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea. 

The  Incas  occupied  this  region  also,  and 
mined  much  gold.  Besides  gold,  the  Span- 
ish discovered  veins  of  copper,  tin,  and  sil- 


Bolivia 


5.   Chief  cities 


Fig.  354.  —  A  view  of  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru. 


TROPICAL   AXDEAX   COUNTRIES 


253 


ver,  so  that  mining  has  been 
one  of  the  most  important  in- 
dustries of  the  country.  It  is 
said  that  over  three  billion 
dollars'  worth  of  silver  has 
been  mined  in  Bolivia  since 
the  Spaniards  first  visited  the 
country. 

Both  the  mining  and  the  work  of 
obtaining  the  metals  from  the  ore  are 
done  very  crudely.  For  example, 
instead  of  using  costly  machines  for 
crushing  the  ore,  as  in  the  United 
States,  one  method  is  to  roll  bowlders 
around  on  the  ore.  Since  there  are 
very  few  railways,  goods  are  carried 
for  the  most  part  by  trains  of  pack 
mules,  donkeys,  alpacas,  or  llamas 
(Fig.  337).  The  llama  here,  as  in 
Peru,  is  of  great  value  to  the  in- 
habitants, not  merely  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  but  also  as  a  source  of  wool 
for  clothing. 

Like   eastern  Peru  and   the   Amazon   Valley   of 
Brazil,  much  of  eastern  Bolivia  is  an  almost  unknown 


Fig. 


5.  —  Indians  in  their  grass  boats  on  Lake  Titicaca. 

forest  wilderness.     In  the   mountain  valleys,  how- 
ever,   there    are    settlements   where    agriculture   is 


Fig.  3oti.  —  La  Paz,  the  largest  city  of  Bolivia,  situated  in  an  arid  valley  among  the  lofty  Andes. 


254 


SOUTH  AMEBIC  A 


carried  on,  with  products  similar  to  those  of  Peru. 
Name  them.  Most  of  these  are  consumed  at  home, 
though  some  coffee  is  exported. 

A  railway  line  connects  western  Bolivia  with  the 
sea;  but  there  is  great  need  of  others.  Another 
need  is  the  improvement  of  the  water  ways  to 
permit  river  transportation  to  the  Atlantic.  Through 
what  rivers  could  boats  pass  to  the  sea? 

Find  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  La  Paz  (Fig.  35G), 
the  largest  city,  has  more  than  three  times  as  many 
inhabitants  as  the  capital. 

VII.    Chile 

The  eastern  boundary  of  Chile  is  the 
divide  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Surface  drainage  ;   and  since  this  runs 

features  along  the  Andes,  the  country 

is  very  mountainous,  and  narrow  in  an  east 


reaches  far  into  the  bleak  south  temperate 
zone  ;  and  on  the  mountain  slopes  there  is 
every  climate,  from  torrid  to  frigid.  The 
very  name,  Chile,  is  derived  from  an  Indian 
word  for  snow. 

There  is  also  great  difference  in  rainfall ; 
for  northern  Chile  is  arid,  and  in  some  por- 
tions an  absolute  desert  ;  while  central  and 
southern  Chile  reach  into  the  rainy  belt  of 
prevailing  westerlies  (p.  212).  The  best- 
developed  section  of  the  country  lies  in  the 
middle  part,  between  the  hot,  arid  north 
and  the  bleak,  rainy  south. 

There  is  much  mineral  wealth,  including 
gold,  silver,  coal,  and  copper. 
Of    these    copper    is    one    of      ining 


Fig.  357.  —  The  shipping  in  Valparaiso  harbor. 


and  west  direction.  Measure  its  length  ; 
also  its  width.  Except  in  the  south,  the 
coast  line  is  regular,  like  that  of  the  rest  of 
South  America. 

The  climate  varies  more  than  that  of  any 
other  South  American  country. 
The   northern    part    is   within 
the    torrid    zone,   while    the    southern    end 


Climate 


the  most  valuable  minerals,  and  Chile, 
like  the  United  States,  is  one  of  the 
great  copper-producing  countries  of  the 
world.  Even  more  important  than  the 
copper  are  the  beds  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
which  yield  many  million  dollars"  worth 
of  nitrate  every  year.  This  substance  is 
one  of  the  chief  exports. 


ISLANDS  NEAR    THE  CONTINENT 


255 


Agriculture 


The  nitrate  beds  lie  in  the  midst  of  the  Desert  of 
Atacama,  in  which  rain  seldom  falls.  The  sub- 
stance occurs  in  layers  from  a  few  inches  to  one  or  two 
feet  in  thickness,  over  an  area  thirty  or  forty  miles  in 
breadth.  After  being  dug  out,  the  pure  nitrate  is 
dissolved  and  separated  from  its  impurities,  and 
then  sold.  Its  chief  use  is  as  a  fertilizer,  for  which 
purpose  large  quantities  are  shipped  from  the  port 
of  Iq.uiq.ue. 

Agriculture  is  extensively  carried  ,011  in 
Chile,  especially  in  the  rainy  middle  por- 
tion, as  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  principal 
crops  are  the  various  grains,  tobacco,  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  More  wheat  and  barley  are 
produced  than  are  needed  at  home,  so  that 
Chile  helps  to  supply  other  nations  with 
these  grains.  Large  herds  of  cattle  are 
reared  ,  and  sheep"  raising  is  one  of  the 
chief  industries  in  southern  Chile.  Hides, 
leather,  and  wool  are  exported. 

There  is  more  manufacturing  than  in 
most  South  American  countries,  the  princi- 
m  f  ft  •  Pa^  kinds  being  flour  milling, 
cheese  making,  tanning,  and 
shoemaking.  Manufacturing  is  rapidly 
increasing,  but,  as  in  other  South  American 
countries,  it  is  still  necessary  to  import  from 
Europe  and  the  United  States  much  of  the 
machinery  and  other  manufactured  articles 
used. 

Chile  is  one  of  the  most  progressive 
nations  in  South  America.  Its  government 
Progress  of  is  good,  and  its  industries  are 
the  country  well  developed.  This  progress 
is  doubtless  in  large  part  due  to  the  tem- 
perate climate,  which  requires  energy  on 
the  part  of  its  inhabitants,  and  invites  set- 
tlers from  the  temperate  climate  of  Europe. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  two  most 
advanced  nations  of  South  America  lie  side 
by  side  in  the  temperate  zone,  while  the 
next  most  progressive  country,  Brazil,  is 
partly  in  that  zone. 

The  principal  cities  of  Chile  are  San- 
tiago, the  capital  and  largest  city,  situated 

Chief  cities       inland'  and  Valparaiso,   its 
seaport  (Fig.  357).     The  har- 
bor   of    Valparaiso,    like     that    of    Callao 


(p.  252),  is    open    to    the    north;    but    the 
wind  seldom  blows  from  that  quarter. 

VIII.    Islands  near  the  Continent 

Just  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  is  the  low  island  of  Trinidad, 
a  British  possession.     This  island  is 


On  the  north 
side 


especially  noted  for  its  pitch  lake, 
from  which  asphaltum  is  obtained 
for  use  in  making  asphalt  pavements.  The  as- 
phaltum oozes  slowly  from  the  ground ;  and,  as  it  is 
dug  out,  more  takes  its  place,  showing  that  there  is 
a  very  large  supply  beneath  the  surface. 

Just  east  of  the  southern  tip  of  South  America 
are  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  belong  to  Great 
Britain.     Still  farther  east  are    the 

islands  of  S.ufh  Georgia,  also  British.    0n }he  south- 

east 
They  are  cold,  bleak  lands,  with  no 

permanent  inhabitants.     Yet  they  are  110  nearer  the 

south  frigid  zone  than  parts  of  Great  Britain  are  to 

the  north  frigid  zone.     This  difference  in  climate  is 

due  to  the  fact  that   Great  Britain  is  affected  by  a 

warm  ocean  current,  while  South  Georgia  is  swept 

by  cold  currents  from  the  Antarctic. 

West  of  Chile,  and  belonging  to  that  country,  is 

the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.     This    is    the  island 

where  Selkirk  was  wrecked,  and  bv    ~     ., 

■     1 1.       i.t   t     u     t-u      •  1      ",    On  the  west 
some   is    thought   to  be   the   island 

home  of  Robinson  Crusoe.     It  seems  quite  certain, 

however,  that  Defoe  described  Tobago,  just  north  of 

Trinidad,  instead  of  Juan  Fernandez. 

The  Galapagos  Islands,  about  six  hundred  miles 
west  of  Ecuador,  on  the  equator,  are  a  group  of 
small  volcanic  islands  owned  by  Ecuador.  They 
are  too  far  from  the  continent  to  show  on  our  map 
(see  Fig.  2). 

1.  What  striking  resemblances  in  surface  features 
are  there  between  North  and  South  America? 
2.  What  differences?     3.  Show  how    _     . 

K6V1C\7 

the  temperature  varies  from  place  to  _  . 
place,  i.  The  rainfall.  5.  Describe 
the  plant  and  animal  life.  6.  What  can  you  tell  about 
the  native  inhabitants  ?  7.  The  Spaniards  and  recent 
immigrants  ?  8.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  govern- 
ment? 9.  Compare  Brazil  with  the  United  States  in 
area.  10.  What  about  its  climate  and  drainage? 
11.  Navigation  on  its  rivers.?  12.  Describe  the  tropical 
forest.  13.  What  valuable  products  are  obtained 
there  ?  14.  What  are  the  agricultural  products  of 
Brazil?  15.  What  is  the  condition  of  mining?  Of 
manufacturing?  16.  Xame  and  locate  the  principal 
cities.  17.  Give  some  reasons  why  Argentina  is 
the  most  progressive  country  of  South  America. 
18.  What  about  its  agriculture?  19.  Lumbering  and 
mining?  20.  Manufacturing  and  commerce? 
21 .  Xame  and  locate  its  principal  cities.  22.  Give  one 


256 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


reason  for  the  slower  development  of  Uruguay. 
23.  What  are  its  products?  24.  Name  and  locate 
its  chief  city.  25.  What  kind  of  country  is  Paraguay? 
Tell  about  its  products  and  chief  city.  2G.  Name 
the  Guianas.  What  about  their  products  and  com- 
merce ?  27.  What  are  the  surface  features  of  Vene- 
zuela? 28.  What  are  its  products?  29.  Locate  the 
chief  city.  30.  How  do  the  tropical  Andean  coun- 
tries resemble  one  another  in  surface  features? 
31.  In  variety  of  climate  and  of  farm  products?  32.  In 
abundance  of  minerals  ?  33.  In  location  of  principal 
cities?  34.  In  character  of  their  government? 
35.  What  about  the  surface  features  and  the  products 
of  Colombia?  36.  What  is  its  leading  city  ?  37.  De- 
scribe the  surface  and  climate  of  Ecuador. 
38.  What  are  its  agricultural  products  ?  39.  What 
about  mining  and  manufacturing?  40.  Name  and 
locate  the  principal  cities  of  Ecuador.  41.  What 
climate  has  Peru?  42.  What  about  mining  there? 
43.  Agriculture?  44.  Manufacturing  and  transpor- 
tation? 45.  Name  and  locate  its  chief  cities. 
46.  Describe  the  surface  features  of  Bolivia.  47.  Tell 
about  mining  in  that  country.  48.  Agriculture. 
49.  Commerce  and  chief  cities.  50.  Describe  the 
surface  of  Chile.  51.  The  climate.  52.  What  about 
mining  there  ?  53.  Agriculture  ?  54.  Manufactur- 
ing? 55.  Why  has  Chile  made  such  progress? 
56.  Locate  the  chief  cities.  57.  Name,  locate,  and  tell 
the  principal  facts  about  the  islands  near  South 
America. 

1.  Which  of  the  two  Americas  has  the  advantage 

in  regard  to  latitude  ?  Show  how.     2.  Tell  about  the 

effects  of  the  trade  winds  in  each 

^"IT       continent    (Fig.  296).      3.    Of    the 
with  North  ...        v     °    ,.    '_.       „„_        , 

.        .  prevailing  westerlies  (rigs.  297  and 

299).  4.  Locate  the  arid  sections 
in  each  continent,  and  give  the  reasons  for  the  lack 
of  rain  (Figs.  296,  297).  5.  Point  out  the  rainiest 
section  in  each,  and   state   the   causes.     6.   Which 


of  the  two  continents  has  the  better  position  for 
world  commerce?  Why?  7.  Into  what  ocean  do  the 
principal  rivers  of  South  America  flow?  Of  North 
America?  8.  What  can  you  say  about  the  regularity 
of  the  coast  of  the  two  continents?  Which  has  the 
advantage  in  this  respect?  How?  9.  Locate  the 
five  principal  coast  cities  of  South  America ;  of 
North  America.  State  the  main  advantages  of  the 
location  in  each  case.  10.  What  about  the  number 
of  lakes  in  each  continent  and  their  value  for  com- 
merce ?  11.  What  about  the  number  of  large  cities 
in  the  interior  of  each  continent  ?  12.  Compare  both 
Brazil  and  Argentina  with  the  United  States  in  area; 
in  population.  13.  Compare  Chile  with  Texas  in 
these  two  respects.  14.  Make  a  list  of  the  important 
farm  products  common  to  South  America  and  the 
United  States.  15.  Name  some  products  that  are 
extensively  raised  in  one  and  not  in  the  other. 
16.  Which  parts  of  each  continent  are  especially 
noted  for  cotton?  Coffee?  Wheat?  Cattle  and 
sheep?  Copper?  Precious  metals?  17.  What  is 
the  prevailing  kind  of  government  in  North  and  in 
South  America  ?  What  sections  have  adifferent  kind 
of  government? 

1.  Give  several  reasons  why  South  America  has 
been  much  less  rapidly  settled  than  North  America. 
2.  How  does  the  Spaniards'  treatment 
of  the  Incas  compare  with  their  treat- 
ment of  the  North  American  Indians?  3.  Find  out 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  coffee  is  often  adulterated. 

4.  Make  a  drawing  of  South  America ;  a  sand  model. 

5.  If  you  were  expecting  to  emigrate  there,  in  what 
country  would  you  prefer  to  settle?  Why?  6.  What 
products  of  South  America  are  you  probably  seeing 
and  using  from  week  to  week  ?  7.  Is  Brazil  likely  to 
rival  the  United  States  in  importance  in  the  future? 
Why  ?  8.  Is  it  an  advantage  or  disadvantage  for 
South  America  that  it  is  divided  into  so  many  more 
countries  than  North  America?     Why? 


Suggestions 


PART  IV.    EUROPE 


Map  Study 


1.  On  the  map  (Fig.  358)  trace  the  boundary  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia.  2.  What  peninsulas  are 
there?  3.  What  countries  are  wholly 
or  partly  on  peninsulas  ?  4.  How 
does  Russia  compare  in  area  with  the  other  countries 
of  Europe?  With  the  United  States?  (See  Appen- 
dix, p.  424.)  5.  Where  are  the  principal  moun- 
tains? 6.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  rivers. 
7.  The  40th  parallel  of  latitude  crosses  what  coun- 
tries of  Europe?  Through  or  near  what  cities  in 
the  United  States  does  it  pass? 


I.    General  Facts 

The  continent  of  Europe  was  named  when 
only  the  southern  part  of  it  was  known. 
Why  called  a  As  people  learned  more  about 
continent  it,  they  found  that  Europe  was 

great 


connected  with  Asia,  being,  in  fact, 
peninsula  extending  westward.  We  now 
know  that  Europe  and  Asia  together  really 
form  a  single  continent,  which  is  called 
Eurasia.  But  since  Europe  has  been  long 
considered  a  separate  continent,  and  has 
been  so  important  as  the  home  of  the  civilized 
races,  it  is  still  the  custom  to  class  it  as  a 
continent. 

As  in  the  case  of  North  America,  the 
growth  of  the  continent  of  Europe  has  re- 
quired millions  of  years.  Far 
back  in  time  mountains  ap- 
peared above  the  sea  in  several 
places,  as  in  the  northwestern 
portion  of  the  continent.  Al- 
though greatly  worn  away,  these  mountains 
may  still  be  seen  in  Finland,  Scandinavia, 
and  Scotland  (Figs.  359  and  360),  as  well 
as  in  Germany,  Belgium,  and  other  sections. 
They  resemble  the  mountains  of  New  Eng- 
land and  eastern  Canada. 

Other  mountain  ranges  were   formed  in 
southern  Europe ;  but,  like  those  of  west- 

s  257 


Story  of  the 
continent 

1 .  Formation  of 
mountains  in  the 
northwest 


their  direction 


height. 


ern  America,  they  are  younger  and  are 
far  less  worn  away  than  the  older  moun- 
tains   mentioned.       Therefore   2.  Later  moun- 

the  Pyrenees  (Fig.   391),  Alps    tain  ranges,  and 

(Fig.  430),  and  Caucasus  (Fig, 
361)  mountains  are  still  of  great 
Find  each  on  Figure  359.  Besides  the 
mountains  named,  there  is  a  long,  low 
chain,  known  as  the  Urals,  which  extends 
north  and  south  along  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Europe.  Other  highlands  are  shown  on 
Figure  360.  Where  are  they  mainly 
situated  ? 

The  highest  mountains  in  Europe  are  in 
the  south,  and  they  extend  in  various  direc- 
tions, though  mainly  east  and  west.  How 
does  this  arrangement  promise  to  affect  the 
climate  ?  Next  to  the  Caucasus  (Fig.  361), 
the  loftiest  of  all  are  the  Alps  (Figs. 
430,  434).  The  rains  and  snows  of  the 
Alps  find  their  way  to  the  sea  through  sev- 
eral of  the  large  rivers  of  Europe.  What 
are  the  names  of  the  largest  (Fig.  359)? 
Headwaters  of  four  of  them  —  the  Po, 
Rhone,  Rhine,  and  Danube — are  within 
forty  miles  of  one  another  in  the  Alps. 

Europe  owes  much  of  its  very  irregular 
outline  to  the  fact  that  the  mountains  are 
not  continuous,  and  consist  of  chains  ex- 
tending in  various  directions.  How  does 
Europe  compare  with  North  America  in 
this  respect  ?     With  South  America  ? 

Between  the  mountains  of  the  north- 
west, the  east,  and  the  south  there  is  an  ex- 
tensive lowland  (Fig.  360).  3  Thelow 
A  part  of  this  has  been  lowered  plain  between 
beneath  the  sea  by  the  sinking  these  mountains 
of  the  land,  thus  forming  the  shallow  Baltic 
Sea.  This  plain  extends  from  southern 
England,   through    Belgium   and   Holland, 


GENERAL   FACTS 


259 


or  the  "  Low 
Germany  (Fig. 
It  broadens 
toward  the 
east  until  it 
includes  al- 
most all  of 
Russia.  Esti- 
mate its  length 
from  east  to 
west.  About 
two  thirds  of 
Europe  is  in- 
cluded in  this 
plain. 

While  the 
mountains  and 
plains  were  be- 
ing made,  coal 
beds  were  also 

forming'. 


Countries,"  entirely   across 
420)  and  Russia  (Fig.  360). 


found  ?     Most   of    the   coal   is   bituminous, 
though    there    is    some    anthracite.       In    a 


Fig.  361.  —  A  view  over  the  crests  of  the  lofty  snow-covered  Caucasus  Mountains, 
in  the  front  is  filled  with  clouds. 


The  valley 


4.  Formation  of 
coal  beds ;  also 
kinds  of  coal 

coal    was 


5' 

America 


as   was   the   case   in 

during      the      Coal 

Period.     State  once  more  how 

formed    (p.     2).      Figure    362 


shows  the   parts 
beds   occur.     In 


Map  of  the  coal  fields  of  Europe 


of   Europe  in  which  coal 
what    countries    are    they 


number  of  sections  lignite,  or  brown  coal, 
is  mined ;  and  peat  is  also  dug  for  fuel  in 
western  Europe. 

At  the  same  period  that  eastern  North 
America  was  invaded  by  a 
great  ice  sheet  5.  The  great 
from  the  north,  *«  Age 
snow  gathered  on  the  high- 
lands of  northwestern  Europe 
and  spread  outward  in  all 
directions.  Figure  363 
shows  the  extent  of  the  Euro- 
pean ice  sheet.  It  made  the 
same  changes  in  Europe  as 
in  our  country.  State  what 
these  changes  were  (p.  9). 

The  irregular  coast  of 
northwestern  Europe,  like 
that    of    north-   „    _ 

6.   Character  of 

eastern     .North  the  coast  line, 

America,  is  due    and  advantages 

to  the  sinking  1  glves 
of  the  land.  The  Baltic  Sea 
and  its  gulfs  are  old  land 
valleys,  sunk  beneath  the^ 
sea ;  and  the  hills  of  this 
sunken  land  form  either  islands,  peninsulas, 
or  shallow  banks  where  food  fish  abound. 


260 


EUROPE 


During  the  growth  of  the  mountains  of 
southern  Europe,  the  rising  and  sinking  of 
small  areas  of  land  has  made  many  penin- 
sulas, with  bays,  gulfs,  islands,  and  seas  be- 
tween. The  Mediterranean  Sea  occupies  a 
basin,  thousands  of  feet  in  depth,  formed 
by  the  sinking  of  this  part  of  the  earth's 
crust.     Some   of   the  islands  in  the  Medi- 


boundary    of    western    United    States,    it 
passes   entirely  south  of   England,  crosses 
France    near    Paris,    and    ex-  climate 
tends   through  southern   Ger-   1.  The  lati- 
many  and  Russia.     From  this  tude  0I  Europe 
it   is   seen  that  by  far  the    larger    part   of 
Europe  lies  farther  north  than  the  United 
States,    and   due   east   of    Canada.     Petro- 


or 40 

T      I       CN       \0      C      E     A\    N 


Fig.  363.  —  The  iee  sheet  of  Europe. 


terranean  Sea  were  partly  or  wholly  built 
up  by  volcanic  action. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  movements  of  the 
land,  Europe  has  the  most  irregular  coast 
of  all  the  continents.  Name  the  larger 
peninsulas,  gulfs,  and  seas  that  border 
Europe.  How  about  the  number  of  fine 
harbors  ?  Show,  by  examples,  how  such  an 
irregular  coast  is  of  advantage  in  allowing 
vessels  to  sail  far  into  the  interior  of  the 
continent. 

Trace  the  50th  parallel  of  latitude  on  a 
globe  or  map  of  the  world.  Notice  that 
while  the  49th  parallel  forms  the  northern 


grad  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  northern 
Labrador ;  and  the  tips  of  the  peninsulas  of 
southern  Europe  reach  no  farther  south 
than  the  southern  boundary  of  Virginia. 

In  spite  of  this  latitude,  and  of  the  fact 
that  Europe  is  much  less  than  half  the  size 
of  North  America,  that  conti-  2.  The  popuia- 
nent  supports  over  three  times  t""1  and  cr°Ps 
as   many   inhabitants    as    our 
own,  or  over  four  hundred  million  persons. 

It  is  true  that,  in  the  Far  North,  near  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  the  climate  is  bleak,  and  there 
are  barren,  frozen  tundras.  But  south  of 
this  is  a  belt  of  fir,  spruce,  pine,  and  other 


GENERAL  FACTS 


261 


trees.  Within  the  forest  belt,  and  south  of 
it,  the  climate  permits  the  growth  of  the 
grains  and  fruits  that  flourish  in  southern 
Canada  and  northern  United  States.  Far- 
ther south,  in  southern  Europe,  in  the 
latitude  of  central  United  States,  such  semi- 
tropical   fruits    as    oranges,  lemons,  olives, 


possible  for  crops  to  be  raised  nearer  the 
pole  in  Europe  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe.  Without  such  winds,  much  of  that 
densely  populated  continent  (Fig.  364) 
would  be  a  barren  waste,  like  Labrador. 

In  North  America,  where  high  mountains 
extend   north  and   south    along   the    entire 


lb 

EUROPE 
Density  of  Population 


O '  10°  20°  30°  •U3"  50*      ^ 

ARVTICo^0CEA     N  ~        A  f- 


^1 


Fig.  361.  —  What  reasons  can  yon  suggest  for  the  fact  that  certain  parts,  like  central  Spain,  northern  Russia,  and  Scan- 
dinavia, and  the  country  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  are  not  densely  populated  1 


and  figs  are  cultivated.  That  is  to  say, 
the  products  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe 
are  such  as  grow  several  hundred  miles  far- 
ther south  in  eastern  North  America. 

The  prevailing  westerlies  are  felt  in 
northern  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States  (p.  212).  Blowing  from 
across  the  warm  ocean  waters 
(p.  223),  they  bring  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  heat  to  the 
land.  It  is  these  west  winds, 
more   than   any  other  thing,  that   make  it 


3.  Explanation 
of  these  surpris- 
ing facts 

(1)  The  prevail 
ing  west  winds 


western  side  of  the  continent,  the  warm, 
damp  air  soon  loses  its  moisture  as  it 
moves  eastward  (p.  211).     In 

t-,  . ,  , ,         .  ,         ,      (2)   The  absence 

Europe,    on    the    other    hand,   ofnorthand 
where   the   higher  ranges   ex-  south  mountain 
tend  nearly  east  and  west,  the  rcmf s  in  the 
mountains  interfere  much  less 
with  the  movement  of  vapor  to  the  interior. 
For   that    reason    the  west  winds  give  up 
their  moisture  little  by  little,  and  over  a 
wide  area.     This  is  the  chief   reason   why 
there  is  no  arid  land  in  the  belt  of  wester- 


262 


EUROPE 


lies,  from  western  Ireland  to  eastern  Russia. 
Another  reason  is  that,  in  this  cool  north- 
ern climate,  the  soil  loses  little  of  its  water 
by  evaporation. 

The  effect  of  the  ocean  winds  is  naturally  greatest 
near  the  coast,  as  in  western  North  America.  There- 
fore, England  has  a  mild,  rainy  climate ;  but  the 
farther  east  one  goes,  the  less  the  influence  of  the 
ocean  is  felt.  Thus,  in  eastern  Russia  there  are 
great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  there  is  danger 
of   serious    droughts.     Compare    the    summer    and 


in  eastern  United  States  and  Canada.  Tou  will 
recall  that  the  east  winds  of  the  cyclonic  storms 
bring  much  rain  to  eastern  United 

States    (p.   215).     They   cannot   do  W^  c^lomc 
.  i  .       .  ,           -^               ,  storms  bring 
this     in  eastern     Europe,     because  ,.,.,        .     .6 
,,          .  r                   .  little  ram  to 
there    is  no    great    ocean    near    at         .        „ 
,       ,   ,  f     ..                    „,,  eastern  Europe 
hand  to  supply  the  vapor.     1  here- 
fore  the  rainfall  here  is  light. 


10'       20J        30-       '40^         50'  GO' 


s 


Southern  Europe,  like  southern  Califor- 
nia, is  not  reached  by  the  westerlies  in 
summer,  for  it  then  lies  within  WJly  southern 
the  belt  of  the  Europe  has  a 
horse  latitudes,  dry,  mild 
This  accounts  for  climate 
the  fact  that  southern  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Greece  receive  ver; 
little  rain  in  summer.  Examine 
Figure  365  to  see  where  the 
rainfall  in  Europe  is  light. 

The  eastwest  direction  of  the  lofty 
mountains  exerts  a  great  influence  on 
the  climate  of  the  countries  that  lie  to 
the  north  and  south  of  them.  Rising 
like  great  walls,  these  mountains  pre- 
vent south  winds  from  bearing  north- 
ward the  heat  of  the  Mediterranean 
basin;  and  they  also  interfere  with  the 
passage  of  cold  north  winds.  Northern 
Florida,  much  farther  south  than  south- 
ern Europe,  is  sometimes  visited  by  cold 
waves  and  frosts ;  but  such  winds  can- 
not reach  portions  of  southern  Europe 
that  are  protected  by  the  mountains. 


(3)   The  inland 
seas 


Fig.  365.  —  Rainfall  map  of  Europe. 

winter  temperature  (Figs.  317  and  318)  and  the  rain- 
fall (Fig.  365)  of  these  two  sections. 

The  numerous  inland  seas  are  another  important 
cause  of  the  mild  climate  of  parts  of  Europe.  Draw 
an  outline  map  of  the  continent, 
locating  these  seas.  How  does  the 
Mediterranean  compare  in  length 
with  Lake  Superior  ?  It  will  be  remembered  that 
our  Great  Lakes  produce  a  distinct  influence  on  the 
climate  of  the  neighboring  land,  reducing  the  heat  of 
summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  (p.  93).  It  is  partly 
because  of  this  influence  that  southern  Italy,  Greece, 
France,  and  Spain  have  such  an  equable  and  semi- 
tropical  climate.  How  must  these  seas  affect  the 
rainfall? 

The  cyclonic  storms  which  pass  over  eastern 
North  America  often  cross  the  ocean  and  continue 
across  Europe  (p.  217),  causing  variable  winds,  as 


gether 


The  people  of  Europe  have 
never  been  bound  closely  te- 
as one  great  nation.  Reasons  for  the 
One  of  the  reasons  for  this  is  many  countries 
the  fact  that  so  many  parts  of  the  continent 
are  separated  from  all  others.  Spain,  for 
example,  is  not  only  a  peninsula,  but  it 
is  separated  from  France  by  lofty  moun- 
tains. The  British  Isles  are  entirely  cut 
off  by  water  ;  Scandinavia  nearly  so  ;  and 
Italy  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Alps, 
and  on  all  other  sides  by  water. 

It  is  natural  that  people  living  in  such 
positions  should  not  feel  a  common  interest 
with  those  who  are  so  separated  from  them. 
Thus  many  different  customs,  beliefs,  and 
languages  have  arisen ;  and  because  of  these 


BRITISH  ISLES 

Scale  of  Miles 
___    l,ilil  1  1 

0  50  100  150 

Cities  with  over  1,000,000 LOND  ON 

CUiea  with  500,000  to  1,000,000 GlaSgOW 

cuiea  with  300,000  to  500,000 Edinburgh 

Cities  with  100,000  to  300,000 Portsmouth 

Smaller  places Inverness 

Capitals  of  Countries  ®  Other  Cities  o 

0 


FRANCE 


Wllllim,  EoewW  Co.,  N.T 


FIG.  306. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES 


263 


differences  there  are  many  more  nations  in 
Europe  than  in  North  America.  Count 
them  (Fig.  358). 

Many  jealousies  and  disputes  have  arisen  between 
the  different  nations.  These  have  often  led  to  war, 
as  a  result  of  which  one  nation  has  sometimes  seized 
territory  from  another.  In  this  way  the  boundaries 
between  the  nations  have  suffered  many  changes. 
Notice  how  irregular  some  of  the  boundary  lines  are. 
Those  of  Germany,  for  example,  have  been  agreed 
upon  only  after  the  loss  of  tens  of  thousands  of 
human  lives  in  war. 

1.  Why  is  Europe  classed  as  a  continent?  2.  In 
the  growth  of  the  continent,  tell  about  the  formation 
_     .  of     mountains    in     the     northwest. 

KeVie\R7  -rrr 

„        .  3.  Where  else  are  mountains  found? 

What  do  you  know  about  them? 
4.  Describe  the  large  plain.  5.  Where  are  the  coal 
beds?  What  kinds  are  found?  6.  Locate  the 
boundaries  of  the  iee  sheet  (Fig.  363).  What  are 
some  of  its  effects?  7.  Explain  the  irregular  coast 
line,  and  state  some  of  its  advantages.  8.  What  is 
the  latitude  of  Europe?  9.  What  about  the  popu- 
lation, and  the  farm  products?  10.  How  is  the 
climate  influenced  by  the  prevailing  westerlies? 
11.  By  the  absence  of  north  and  south  mountain 
ranges  in  the  west?  12.  By  the  inland  seas? 
13.  Why  do  not  the  cyclonic  storms  supply  abundant 
rains  in  eastern  Europie  ?  14.  Why  is  the  climate 
of  southern  Europe  dry  and  mild?  15.  Give  some 
reasons  for  so  many  countries  in  Europe.  Why  are 
the  boundary  lines  often  irregular? 

1.  Compare  Europe  with  North  America  in  re- 
gard to  highlands.  2.  Lowlands.  3.  Rivers.  4.  Dis- 
tribution of  coal  beds  (Fig.  268). 
5.  Extent  of  ice  covering.  6.  Char- 
acter of  coast  line.  7.  Latitude. 
8.  Population.  9.  In  what  respects 
are  the  two  continents  alike  in  climate  ?  10.  In 
what  respects  unlike  in  climate?  11.  Compare  the 
number  of  degrees  of  longitude  in  Europe  with 
the  number  in  North  America.  12.  Where  are  the 
most  densely  settled  parts  in  each  continent?  Why 
this  difference  ? 

1.  What  results  might  follow  if  the  mountains  of 
Europe  extended  north  and  south  near  the  western 
Sueeestions  coast?  2.  Mention  some  of  the  re- 
sults if  the  land  should  rise  near 
Gibraltar,  changing  the  Mediterranean  to  a  closed 
sea.  How  would  the  British  Isles  be  influenced? 
Also  Italy?  3.  Can  you  tell  about  any  of  the  great 
wars  and  generals  of  Germany,  England,  or  France? 
4.  Can  you  tell  of  any  of  the  changes  in  boundary 
lines ;  for  example,  in  Poland  or  between  France 
and  Germany? 


Comparisons 
with  North 
America 


II.    The  British  Isles 

1.  Walk  toward  the  British  Isles.     2.   What  two 
large   islands   do   they   include  ?    3.   What  waters 
separate  these  two  ?    4.    Name   the 
three    divisions    of    Great    Britain.         "  * 

5.  Locate  the  Orkney,  Hebrides,  Shetland,  and 
Channel  Islands.  They  are  included  among  the 
British  Isles.  6.  What  sea  lies  east  of  Great  Bri- 
tain ?  7.  What  country  is  nearest  to  Great  Bri- 
tain (Fig.  358)  ?  What  waters  separate  the  two  ? 
8.  Compare  the  coast  line  with  that  of  Spain  (Fig. 
390)  ;  of  Norway  (Fig.  358). 

London    is    fully    seven    hundred    miles 
farther   north    than    New    York  Cit}',  and 
the    British    Isles   are   in    the  Remarkable 
same    latitude    as     Labrador,    facts  about 
England  itself  is  a  little  smaller  these  isles 
than  Alabama  ;    and  the  British   Isles,   in- 
cluding England,  Wales,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  several  hundred  small  islands,  are  about 
the  size  of  the  state  of  New  Mexico. 

Yet  in  spite  of  their  northern  position 
and  their  small  area,  the  largest  city  in  the 
world  is  located  in  the  British  Isles.  More- 
over, Great  Britain  has  more  manufactur- 
ing than  any  nation  excepting  the  United 
States.  It  has  more  foreign  trade,  a  greater 
number  of  vessels  upon  the  sea,  and  more 
colonies  (Eig.  381)  than  any  other  nation 
on  the  earth. 

The  character  of  the  British  people  doubt- 
less offers  one  important  explanation  of  the 
above   facts.      Being    so    near 

the  mainland,  the  islands  have   .  „„_.jli  " 
-iii  t.     ,     tance  Partly 

been  invaded  by  many  hardy  explained 

people,  among  them  the  Angles  l.  By  the  char- 

and    Saxons,  from    whom    the  acter  of  their 

.  t-,      7 .   7  i        a       7        inhabitants 

words     J^nglish     and     Anglo- 
Saxons  have  been  derived.     The  Normans 
also   entered   Britain,  and  still   earlier  the 
Romans  under  the  lead  of  Julius  Ctesar. 

Although  formerly  divided  into  different 
nations,  England,  Scotland,  Wales,  and 
Ireland  are  now  united  to  form  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

The  inhabitants  of  each  of  these  sections 
are  noted  for  their  energy,  intelligence, 
and  good  character. 


264 


EUROPE 


lu*  8 


The  prevailing  westerly  winds  also 
partly    account    for    the    greatness    of   the 

2.  By  the  pre-  United  Kingdom.  Two  days 
vailing  winds  out  0f  three  these  winds  blow 
across  the  British  Isles ;  and,  since  they 
have  crossed  a  vast  expanse  of  warm  water 
(p.  261),  they  greatly  temper  the  climate. 
Indeed,  the  winter  season  is  milder  than 
that    in    northern 

United  States,  and 
the  summer  is  cooler 
(Figs.  317  and  318). 

The  prevailing 
westerlies,  bearing 
an  abundance  of 
moisture  (p.  261), 
so  distribute  it  over 
the  islands  that  no 
section  suffers  from 
drought.  Yet  the 
western  portions  re- 
ceive more  rain  than 
the  eastern,  because 
the  damp  ocean 
winds  reach  them 
first  (Fig.  367). 

As  already  stated 
(p.  257),  the  moun- 

3.  By  the  char-  tains  of 
acter  of  the  sur-  Great 

face  Britain, 

like  those  of  New 
England,  are  so  old 
that  they  are  worn 
very    low.       While 

these  uplands  rarely  rise  more  than  one 
or  two  thousand  feet  above  sea  level, 
there  are  occasional  higher  peaks  of  hard 
rock.  For  example,  the  granite  peak  of 
Ben  Nevis,  in  Scotland,  the  highest  point 
in  the  British  Isles,  is  forty-three  hundred 
feet  in  elevation.  The  Scottish  Highlands 
(Fig.  368)  are  so  rugged  and  barren  that 
few  people  are  able  to  live  there. 

Where  the  rocks  are  softer,  and  less  dis- 
turbed by  mountain  folding,  there  are  lower 
and  more  level  tracts.  Point  out  the  broad- 
est lowland  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Eng- 


land (Fig.  359).  A  narrow  and  very  small, 
but  important,  lowland  lies  in  southern  Scot 
land,  near  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  There 
the  rocks  are  so  much  softer  than  those  of 
the  highlands  that,  instead  of  a  barren, 
hilly  country,  there  is  a  fertile  lowland 
Upon  this,  called  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland, 
there  are  thriving  industries  and  a  dense 
population,  as  in 
many  parts  of  Eng- 
land. 

A  highland  rim 
extends  around  Ire- 
land (Fig.  359),  in- 
closing a  lower,  more 
level  interior.  Thus 
the  surface  of  this 
island  has  the  form 
of  a  shallow  plate, 
and  much  of  the 
land  can  be  cul- 
tivated. 

A  large  part  of 
these  islands,  there- 
fore, is  either  plain 
or  low,  hilly  land, 
suited  to  agricul- 
ture. Thus  the  sur- 
face features  have 
helped  to  make  the 
British  Isles  an  im- 
portant nation. 

The  coast  line  of 

the  British  Isles  is 

very     irregular,    as 

seen    from    the   map   4    Bytnejj._ 

State  the  reasons  regular  coast 


Rainfall  of  British  Isles 


may   be 
(Fig.  366) 

(p.  259).  How  does  the  coast  Une 
compare  with  that  of  New  England  ? 
Since  the  mountainous  western  portion 
had  more  deep  valle3rs  for  the  sea  to  enter 
than  the  level  plains  of  the  east,  there  are 
more  good  harbors  on  the  west  than  on 
the  east  coast.  On  both  sides,  however,  the 
mouths  of  the  larger  rivers  usually  make 
good  ports.      Why? 

Another  reason  for  the  importance  of  the 
United  Kingdom  is  the  fact  that  these  islands 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES 


265 


have  great  natural  resources,  and  have  there- 
fore developed  important  industries.  In 
5.  By  the  natu-  our  study  of  the  United  States 
rai  resources  we  found  that  the  people  are 
mainly  engaged  in  lumbering,  agriculture, 
fishing,  mining,  manufacturing,  and  com- 
merce. There  is  very  little  lumbering  in 
the  British  Isles  for,  although  in  early  times 
a  large  part  of  the  land  was  wooded,  little 
forest  now  remains ;  and  lumber  is,  there- 
fore, one  of  the  leading  •  imports.  But  all 
of  the  other  indus- 
tries are  important, 
and  some  of  them 
are  remarkably  de- 
veloped. 

Since  no   portion 
of  the  British  Isles  is 

arid,  the 
Agriculture  , 

ranch- 

1.  Live  Stock 

mg  in- 
dustry is  not  devel- 
oped there  as  in 
western  United 
States.  Much  live 
stock  is  raised,  how- 
ever (Fig. 368).  In 
fact,  grazing  has  of 
late  so  increased  in 
importance     that 

there  is  now  twice  as  much  land  in  pas- 
ture as  in  crops,  and  the  British  Isles  are 
noted  for  their  great  number  of  fine  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses.  There  are  about  thirty 
million  sheep  on  the  Isles,  while  there 
are  forty-five  million  people.  The  Shet- 
land Islands  are  famous  for  Shetland  po- 
nies ;  and  on  the  three  Channel  Islands,  — 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Alderney,  near  the 
French  coast,  —  three  breeds  of  cattle  have 
been  developed,  which  are  well  known  in 
the  United  States. 

The  importance  of  grazing  is  partly  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  much  of  the  surface, 
like  that  of  New  England,  is  too  rocky  or 
mountainous  to  be  cultivated  (Fig.  368). 
Besides  this,  some  of  the  plains  in  eastern 
England,  although  too  sterile  for  farming, 


make  excellent  pasture  land  (Fig.  369). 
The  mild  winters  and  the  damp  air,  which 
encourage  the  growth  of  grass,  further 
favor  stock  raising.  In  addition,  the  cheap- 
ness with  which  grain  is  raised  in  other 
countries,  like  the  United  States,  and  car- 
ried to  the  British  Isles,  has  made  it  less 
necessary  for  the  British  to  use  their  land 
in  raising  grain. 

The    cool  summer    climate,  which    is   of 
advantage  in  some  respects,  is  unfavorable 


Fig.  368. —  Sheep  grazing  on  the  mountain  slopes  in  the  Scottish  Highlands. 

to  many  kinds  of  farming.  For  example, 
it  prevents  the  production  of  corn,  cotton, 
tobacco,  and  grapes,  which  re-  2.  Other  farm 
quire  warm  summers.  More  products 
hardy  products,  however,  such  as  oats, 
barley,  and  wheat,  are  easily  raised.  Tur- 
nips, potatoes,  beans,  and  peas  are  other  im- 
portant crops ;  also  hops,  which,  together 
with  barley,  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
beer.  Owing  to  the  many  towns  and  cities, 
truck  farming  is  of  great  importance. 

The  demand  for  farm  land  has  been  so  great  that 
large  areas  of  swamp  have  been  reclaimed  by  careful 
drainage,  and  these  now  make  some  of  the  most 
fertile  farms.  Yet  in  spite  of  the  care  that  has 
been  given  to  cultivating  the  soil,  and  to  raising 
live  stock,  far  less  food  is  produced  in  the  British 
Isles  than  is  needed  by  the  inhabitants.  There  are 
such  vast  multitudes  of   people   engaged    in   other 


EUROPE 


Fig.  .369.  —  An  English  farm  with  a  flock  of  sheep  and  a  herd  of  cattle  grazing  in  the  pasture. 


occupations  that,  if  they  were  deprived  of  food  from 
abroad,  they  would,  it  is  said,  begin  to  suffer  from 
famine  within  a  month.  How  different  that  is  from 
our  own  country,  which  has  so  large  an  area,  and  so 
varied  a  climate,  that  it  not  only  supplies  the  food  we 
need,  but  produces  enormous  quantities  to  be  sent 
abroad ! 

Since  the  early  inhabitants  had  to  cross 
the  sea  in  order  to  reach  these  islands,  and 


Fig.  M70. —  An  English  country  scene.     On  the  left  of  the  r 
hedges,  is  a  field  of  wheat  ;  on  the  right,  watercress  is 


since  most  of  their  descendants  have  lived 
either  on  or  near  the  coast,  it  is  natural  that' 
many    of    the    British    should 
adopt  a  seafaring   life.     This 
sort  of  life  has  also  been  encouraged  by  the 
fact  that  food   fish  abound  on  the  shallow 
banks  of  the  North  Sea  and  of  the  ocean  to 
the  north  and  west  of  the  islands.     More 
than  one  hundred  thousand 
men   and   twenty-five   thou-  J 
sand  boats  from  the  British 
Isles    are    employed    in 
fishing. 

Among  the  fish  caught  are 
cod,  haddock,  and  herring, 
as  off  the  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land and  Newfoundland. 
Another  important  kind  is 
a  flatfish,  the  sole,  which 
resembles  the  flounder  of 
our  eastern  coast.  Salmon 
enter  the  rivers  of  northern 
Great  Britain,  and  oysters 
being  raised.  are  found  along  the  southern 


THE  lililTISn  ISLES 


267 


coast.  Many  fishing  hamlets  are  scattered 
along  the  coast  ;  but  the  fishing  industry 
here,  as  in  our  country,  is  becoming  cen- 
tered more  and  more  in  the  large  towns, 
which  possess  the  capital  for  large  vessels 
and  expensive  fishing  outfits.  The  chief 
fishing  centers,  like  Boston  and  Gloucester 
in  Massachusetts,  are  London,  Hull,  and 
Grimsby  (Fig.  306)  in  England,  and  Aber- 
deen in  Scotland. 

One  of  the  resources  of  the  British  Isles 
which  early  attracted  people  from  southern 
Mining  Europe  was  the  tin  in  south- 

1.  The  less  com-  western  England.  This  metal 
mon  minerals  is  not  mined  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  but  has  always  been  in  great 
demand.  Even  before  the  time  of  Caesar, 
ships  from  the  Mediterranean  came  to  Eng- 
land to  obtain  tin  for  use  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  bronze.  Small  quantities  of  copper, 
lead,  zinc,  and  even  gold  and  silver  ores, 
have  also  been  discovered  in  the  British 
Isles  ;  but  at  present  there  is  little  mining 
of  these  metals. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  abundance  of  two 
other  minerals,  coal  and  iron  ore,  reminds  us 

2.  Coal  and  of  our  own  country  (pp.  3  and 
iron  ore  259).  The  one  small  island 
of  Great  Britain  produces  more  than  half  as 
much  coal  as  all  of  our  states  together  ;  and 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  are 
the  two  leading  coal-producing  countries  of 
the  world.  Figure  371  shows  the  sections 
of  Great  Britain  in  which  coal  is  found. 
While  most  of  the  coal  is  bituminous,  that 
in  southern  Wales  is  more  like  our  anthra- 
cite. Large  numbers  of  miners  in  the 
United  States  are  Welshmen  who  have 
come  from  that  section. 

Iron  ore  is  also  abundant  and  favorably 
situated.  None  of  the  British  iron  ore  is 
far  from  coal ;  and  in  some  places  the  same 
shaft  is  used  to  bring  both  coal  and  iron  to 
the  surface.  Limestone  is  also  abundant 
and  near  at  hand.  This  reminds  us  of  the 
conditions  at  Birmingham,  Ala.  (p.  79), 
which  is  named  after  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land, because  they  resemble  each  other  in 


having  an  abundance  of  coal  and  iron  ore 
near  together.  Find  Birmingham  in  Fig- 
ure 371.  Note  the  other  cities  near  the  coal 
fields.  Why  should  large  manufacturing 
cities  develop  here  ?  The  extent  of  the 
mining  industry  in  the  United  Kingdom  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  more  than  half  a 
million  persons  are  employed  underground. 


COALFIELDS 

OF 

CHEAT  BBITADi 


£XGLISB 


Fig.  371.  —  Map  showing  coal  distribution  in  British  Isles. 

Besides  these  minerals,  various  building 
stones  are  extensively  quarried,  as  granite 
in  Scotland,  and  slate  in  north-  3    other  im 
ern  Wales.     Salt  is  also  found;   tant  mineral 
and  there  is  clay  of  such  ex-  Prodacts 
cellent   quality 'for   earthenware    that   sev- 
eral   towns    have    become    noted    for    their 
potteries,  as  have  Trenton  and  Cincinnati 
in  the  United  States. 

Considering  the  abundance   of    coal  and 
iron  ore  on  the  one  hand,  and   Manufacturing 
of  wool   from  the  millions  of   i    conditions 
sheep  on  the  other,  it  is  clear  favorable  to  its 
that  Great  Britain  has  mate-   a"el°P™nt 
rials    for    extensive    manufacture.       As    in 


268 


EUROPE 


New  England,  the  hilly  sections  have 
abundant  water  power  due  to  the  glacier, 
and  this  also  has  favored  manufacturing. 
Later,  when  the  use  of  steam  became  known, 
the  abundant  stores  of  coal  were  of  great 
importance. 

The  use  of  steam  has  led  to  the  building  of  many 
factories,  and  to  the  growth  of  large  manufacturing 
cities.     Therefore,   the    making   of    cloth    on    hand 


Fig.  372.  —  A  country  road  in  England. 

looms,  at  the  homes  of  the  weavers,  has  been  gener- 
ally abandoned,  although  one  still  sees  it  in  some  of 
the  country  districts. 

Even  in  very  early  times  the  English  were  en- 
gaged in  the  weaving  of  woolen  cloth.  Later, 
owing  to  numerous  wars,  and  to  bad  government 
on  the  continent,  England  became  a  refuge  for 
industrial  people  from  the  mainland.  This  led  to 
rapid  progress  in  manufacturing.  The  peculiar 
energy  and  inventive  genius  of  the  British,  which 
kept  their  machinery  in  advance  of  that  used  by 
other  nations,  must  also  be  considered.  For  ex- 
ample, it  was  a  Scotchman,  James  Watt,  who  in- 
vented the  modern  steam  engine  ;  and  it  was  George 
Stephenson  who  invented  the  first  locomotive. 

The  very  smallness  of  the  country  is  another 
advantage ;  for  no  matter  where  a  factory  may 
be  located,  it  is  sure  to  be  not  far  from  coal  fields, 
and  within  a  few  miles  of  a  shipping  point. 

In  the  mountainous  section  of  northern 
England,  near  both  coal  and  wool,  there  are 


hundreds  of  factories  for  the  manufacture 
of  woolen  cloth.  The  principal  center  of 
this  trade  is  Leeds,  which  has  2  Leading 
the  added  advantage  of  water  kinds 
power.  On  the  western  side  (l)  Woolen 
of  this  hilly  region  is  Bead-  ^nufactuHng 
ford,  noted  for  its  broadcloth  and  worsted 
goods  ;  and  neighboring  cities  manufacture 
woolen  yarn,  hosiery,  carpets,  and  blankets. 
The  woolen  industry  extends 
northward  into  Scotland  and 
southward  to  Leicester, 
where  the  surrounding  plains 
produce  a  breed  of  sheep  that 
yields  a  wool  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  worsted  yarn. 

In  spite  of  the  enormous  number 
of  sheep  in  the  British  Isles,  the 
manufacturing  industry  has  so  far 
outgrown  the  local  supply  of  wool 
that  millions  of  pounds  must  be 
imported  every  year.  This  condi- 
tion resembles  that  of  New  Eng- 
land, where  much  of  the  wool  is 
brought  from  the  West  or  from 
foreign  countries. 


From  the  spinning  and 
weaving  of  wool  it  was  easy 
to    turn    to    the   (2)  Cotton 

manufacture      of    manufacturing 

cotton  goods  ;  and  on  the  western  side  of 
the  northern  mountains  we  find  a  great 
cotton-manufacturing  industry.  Dampness 
is  one  of  the  points  in  favor  of  that  sec- 
tion, for  in  a  dry  air  cotton  is  in  danger 
of  becoming  too  brittle  to  spin  and  weave 
easily.  Another  reason  why  this  work  is 
best  developed  on  the  west  side  of  the 
island  is  the  fact  that  it  is  nearer  the 
United  States,  from  which  so  much  of  the 
raw  cotton  comes. 

Since,  the  British  climate  will  not  permit 
the  cultivation  of  cotton,  it  is  necessary  to 
import  all  that  is  used.  It  requires  over 
two  billion  pounds  a  year  to  supply  the 
mills.  Although  much  cotton  is  now  ob- 
tained from  Egypt,  India,  and  other  parts 
of  the  British  Empire,  our  Southern  States 


TIIE  BRITISH  ISLES 


269 


still  supply  the  greatest  quantity.  The 
center  of  the  cotton  manufacturing  is  MAN- 
CHESTER. What  other  cities  do  you  find 
situated  near  by  ? 

The  central  portion  of  Great  Britain,  in- 
cluding southern  Scotland  and  the  two 
sides  of  the  mountain  range  of  northern 
England,  is  the  seat  of  the  greatest  textile 
industry   in    the    world.     Can    you   name 


manufactures  steel  rails  and  armor  plates 
for  war  ships.  Glasgow  is  a  center  for 
shipbuilding  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
locomotives  and  machinery  of  various 
kinds.  In  the  smaller  cities  and  towns 
near  these  places,  there  are  similar  works. 

As  in  New  England,  many  places  occupied  with 
the  textile  industry  also  produce  textile  machinery 
and  other  iron  and  steel  goods.     The  island  is  so 


Fig.  373.  —  Loch  Lomond,  a  beautiful  lake  on  the  southern  border  of  the  Scottish  Highlands. 


cities  of  New  England  which  are  likewise 
engaged  in  cotton  and  woolen  manufac- 
ture (p.  42) ? 

The    cities   of    Great    Britain    that    are 
most  noted  for  iron  and  steel  products  are 

(3)  Iron  and         BIRMINGHAM  and  SHEFFIELD 

steel  manufac-    in    England,     and    Glasgow 

turmg  jQ      Scorland.        BIRMINGHAM 

manufactures  jewelry,  watches,  firearms, 
bicycles,  steam  engines,  etc.  Sheffield 
has  for  centuries  been  noted  for  its  cutlery, 
the  presence  of  grindstone  quarries  in  the 
neighborhood  being  one  reason  for  this  par- 
ticular   industry.      Why  ?      Shellield    also 


small  that  coal  and  iron  are  cheaply  shipped  to  all 
points;  and  on  this  account,  manufacturing,  though 
best  developed  near  the  coal  fields,  is  not  confined 
to  these  districts. 

Thus  we  see  that  here,  as  in  the  United  States, 
coal  makes  possible  an  enormous  manufacturing  in- 
dustry. There  is  so  much  coal  in  Great  Britain 
that,  in  spite  of  the  forest  of  chimneys  in  England 
and  southern  Scotland,  the  output  of  coal  is  more 
than  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands.  The  raw  ma- 
terials for  manufacture,  however,  are  not  sufficient; 
for  all  the  cotton,  much  of  the  wool,  and  part  of  the 
iron  ore  must  be  imported. 

The  three  industries  connected  with 
cotton,   wool,    and  iron   have    made   Great 


270 


EUROPE 


Britain  one  of  the  great  workshops  of  the 
world.  The  most  important  is  cotton  man- 
ufacturing ;  iron  ranks  next ;  and  wool  is 
third. 

What  has  thus  far  been  said  applies 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain ;  but  Ireland  forms 
a  striking  contrast  to  Great 
Britain  in  several  respects. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  mainly 
a  country  of  farms  instead 
of  manufactures  (Fig.  374). 
The  mild  climate  and  damp 
air  insure  excellent  grass  throughout  the 
year,  and  about  four  fifths  of  the  farm  land 


Contrast  of 
Ireland  with 
Great  Britain 
1 .   In  promi- 
nence of  its 
agriculture 


Fig.  374.  —  A  country  village  in  Ireland,  surrounded  by  pastures  and 
fields  of  grain. 


one  twelfth  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  island.  The 
water  in  these  bogs  protects  the  swamp  vegetation 
from  decay,  so  that  such  vegetation  collects  until  it 
forms  a  sod,  which,  when  dug  up  and  dried,  makes 
a  fairly  good  fuel  (Fig.  8).  It  will  be  remembered 
that  similar  deposits,  in  the  larger  swamps  of  the  Coal 
Period,  were  the  beginning  of  the  coal  beds  which 
are  now  of  so  much  value  (p.  2). 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  fuel,  most  of 
the  manufacturing  in  Ireland  is  done  on 
the  eastern  side,  where  coal  is  3.  inmanufac- 
easily  obtained  from  England  turing 
or  Scotland.  At  one  point  the  two  islands 
are  only  thirteen  miles  apart.  One  of  the 
most  important  manufacturing  industries 
is  the  making  of  linen.  The 
Irish  linens,  which  take  high 
rank  in  our  country,  are  made 
from  the  inner  bark  of  the 
flax  plant.  Flax  is  grown  in 
various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  but  mainly  for  the 
sake  of  the  seed,  from  which 
linseed  oil  is  made  for  use  in 
mixing  paints  and  in  making 
varnish.  In  Ireland,  however, 
flax  is  raised  chiefly  for  its 
fiber.  The  damp  climate  there 
is  favorable  to  its  growth,  and 
the  cheap  labor  makes  possible 
the  great  amount  of  care  re- 
quired in  preparing  it  for  the 
manufacture  of  linen. 


is  in  pasture.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
great  numbers  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses 
are  raised.  As  in  Great  Britain,  the  prin- 
cipal grain  is  oats  ;  but  barley,  wheat,  pota- 
toes, and  turnips  are  also  grown. 

Again,  unlike  Great  Britain,  Ireland  is 
very  barren  of  minerals.  Building  stones, 
„   .      .  .  such  as   o-ranite,   marble,   and 

2.   In  mining  .  &  ,  '  ,        ' 

sandstone,  are  found,  but  there 
is  very  little  coal  or  iron. 

The  lack  of  cnal  for  domestic  use  is  partly  made 
up  by  the  abundance  of  '•  turf,"  or  peat.  Owing  to 
the  deposits  of  glacial  drift,  which  have  formed  dams 
across  the  streams  (Fig.  363),  the  level  interior  is  so 
poorly  drained  that  swamps,  or  logs,  occupy  about 


The  stem  of  flax  is  tall  and  slender,  and  a  field  of 
it  presents  somewhat  the  same  appearance  as  a  field 
of  oats.  Instead  of  being  cut,  like  grain,  it  is  pulled 
up  and  left  lying  upon  the  ground  for  some  time, 
exposed  to  the  weather,  so  that  the  gummy  sub- 
stance, which  holds  the  woody  matter  and  fiber  to- 
gether, may  decay.  Travelers  in  northern  Ireland, 
in  summer,  see  field  after  field  covered  with  flax, 
much  of  which  is  used  in  the  linen  factories  of 
Belfast. 

After  the  fiber  has  been  separated  from  the  woody 
core  by  machinery,  it  is  split  and  combed  out  with  a 
steel  brush,  and  thus  made  ready  for  spinning.  It 
is  made  into  thread  in  much  the  same  way  as  cotton 
and  wool  are,  and  this  is  then  woven  into  napkins, 
tablecloths,  etc.     Name  other  articles  made  of  linen. 

Ireland  offers  a  fourth  contrast  to  Great  Britain 
in  regard   to   population.     Not  only  is  it  far  less 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES 


271 


densely  peopled,  but  the  number  of  inhabitants  is 
decreasing.      Partly    because    of    the    unfavorable 
laws  imposed  by  England,  the  Irish 
.    n  popu  a  have   long  been  discontented  with 

their  lot ;  and  for  many  years  they  have  been  leav- 
ing their  country.  Since 
1*47,  the  number  of  inhab- 
itants has  been  reduced  from 
eight  million  to  four  million 
four  hundred  thousand. 
They  have  sought  refuge 
chiefly  in  the  L'nited  States 
and  Canada. 

The  cities  most  noted 

for  manufacturing  have 

.  .  ,  ...  already  been 
Principal  cities  .         - 

.    „.   .  .  mentioned  : 

1.   Their  loca- 
tion, and  connec- 11  a  iii  e  1  y, 
tion  with  one        LEEDS, 
another  „ 

Bradford. 
Manchester,  Shef- 
field, Birmingham, 
and  Glasgow.  What 
industries  are  developed 
in  each  ?  Tell  where 
each  is  located. 

There  are  other  large 
cities  along  the  coast : 
for  so  much  manufactur- 
ing calls  for  an  enormous 
import  of  raw  materials 
and  food,  as  well  as  the 
export  of  manufactured 
goods.  These  cities 
must,  therefore,  be  the 
gateways  to  and  from 
the  island.  Since  Great 
Britain  lies  far  north, 
between  Europe  and  the 
New  World,  these  ship- 
ping points  are  naturally 
located  on  the  eastern, 
western,  and  southern 
sides,  at  those  points 
where  the  best  harbors 
exist,  and  not  far  from  the 
great  industrial  centers. 

First  among  the  coastal  cities  to  be  noted 
is  London,  on  the  east  side,  with  Bristol 
opposite   it  on  the  west   coast.     North   of 


London  is  Hull,  with  Liverpool  on  the 
opposite  side ;  and  in  southern  Scotland  is 
Edinburgh,  near  the  coast,  paired  with 
Glasgow  on  the  west.     On  the  south  side 


Fig.  375.  —  The  locatiou  uf  Londuu  and  Liverpool. 


the  two  most  important  ports  are  SOUTHAMP- 
TON and  Portsmouth.  What  are  the  two 
principal  cities  of  Ireland?     Locate  each. 


272 


EUROPE 


Steamships,  railway  lines,  and  canals  con- 
nect the  various  cities,  carrying  immense 
quantities  of  freight.  In  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  there  are  nearly  four  thou- 
sand miles  of  canal  and  over  twenty-three 
thousand  miles  of  railway. 

London,  the  capital  of  the  empire  and 
the  largest  city  in  the  world,  is  situated 
2.  London  on   the  Thames   River.     Like 

(1)  Its  location  many  other  British  rivers,  the 
Thames  has  a  wide,  deep  mouth,  owing 
to    the   sinking   of   the   land.     London   is 


Fig.  37C.  —  London  Bridge  across  the  Thames,  over  which  a  stream  of 
people  and  wagons  is  almost  constantly  passing. 


located  upon  its  banks  as  far  inland  as 
high  tide  allows  vessels  to  go,  or  fifty  miles 
from  the  open  sea.  The  advantage  of  this 
position  lies  in  the  fact  that,  while  it  is  in 
the  interior  of  the  island,  it  has  direct  water 
communication  with  foreign  countries. 

New  York,  we  know,  owes  its  greatness 
largely  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  gateway  to 
a  productive  interior,  with  an  enormous 
area ;  but  almost  any  point  in  England 
may  be  reached  by  rail  from  London  in  a 
few  hours.  Although  Great  Britain  is  so 
small,  its  population  is  nearly  one  half  as 
great  as  that  of  the  entire  United  States ; 
and  the  port  of  London  is  the  point  of  en- 
trance for  much  of  its  food. 


Even   before  the  Romans  came  to  Eng- 


land, the  site  of  London  was  a  fortified 
camp,  situated  on  a  low  hill  surrounded  by 
tidal  marshes  and  mud  flats.  ,2%  Early  Ms- 
The  Romans  had  a  ferry  at  toryandpres- 
this  point ;  and  much  later,  ent  size 
over  eight  hundred  years  ago,  the  first 
London  Bridge  was  built  (Fig.  376).  This 
gave  the  city  a  great  start.  Since  that 
time,  it  has  grown  until  Greater  London 
now  includes  over  7,000,000  persons.  How 
does  that  compare  with  the  number  in  Scot- 
land ?     In  Ireland?     In  New  York  City? 

As  in  all  great  cities,  one 
of  the  principal  industries  is 
manufacturing.  (3)  Manufac. 
Nearly  all  kinds  turing  and 
of  goods  are  commerce 
made,  as  in  New  York,  Chi- 
cago, and  Philadelphia.  How- 
ever, the  fact  that  London 
lacks  coal  and  iron  near  at 
hand,  places  it  at  some  dis- 
advantage in  manufacturing 
as  compared  with  Liverpool 
and  Glasgow. 

London  is  the  greatest  ship- 
ping point  in  the  world.  Its 
rows  of  piers  extend  twenty 
miles  down  the  river,  and  its 
railways  radiate  in  all  direc- 
tions (Fig.  375).  It  is  not  | 
so  noted  for  its  export  of  manufactured 
goods  as  are  Liverpool  and  Glasgow,  which 
are  nearer  the  great  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts ;  but  it  is  the  chief  center  for  im- 
ports. For  example,  nearty  all  the  tea  and 
wine  used  in  Great  Britain  enter  through 
London.  The  great  warehouses  are  filled 
with  goods  from  all  climes,  such  as  flour, 
sugar,  meat,  tobacco,  hides,  and  cocoanuts. 


Being  a  very  old  city,  many  of  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  crooked.  On  that  account  transpor- 
tation of  goods,  and  of  people,  is  often  slow  and  diffi- 
cult. Some  of  the  principal  streets  are  too  narrow 
for  street  cars,  so  that,  unlike  American  cities,  the 
people  have  to  be  carried  through  these  streets 
mainly  by  omnibuses  (Fig.  377).  One  of  the  largest 
companies  formerly  ran  as  many  as  thirteen  hun- 
dred buses,  and  employed  rive  thousand   men  and 


' 


THE   BRITISH  ISLES 


273 


fifteen  thousand  horses.  About  a  third  of  the 
omnibuses  are  now  being  run  by  electricity.  As 
in  New  York  and  other  American  cities,  under- 
ground railways  have  been  built  in  various  parts 
of  the  city,  running  under  houses  and  streets. 

London  is  the  capital  of  the  British  Em- 
pire (Fig.  381),  which  is  the  name  given 
(4)  Importance  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  its 
in  other  ways  dependencies.  It  is  a  center 
for  the  publication  of  books  and  magazines, 
and  is  provided  with  noted  picture  gal- 
leries, libraries,  museums,  and  magnificent 
buildings. 

Its  wealth  and  trade  are  so  extensive  that 
it  has  been  the  money  center  of  the  world, 
though  New  York,  the  money  center  of  the 
United  States,  now  rivals  it.  The  leading 
bank,  called  the  Bank  of  England,  is  the  agent 
of  the  government  in  much  of  its  business, 
and  employs  about  a  thousand  persons. 

Just  below  the  city,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river, 
is  the  Greenwich  Observatory  (p.  203),  from  which 
meridians  of  longitude  are  num- 
bered and  time  is  regulated.  A  few 
miles  up  the  Thames  is  Windsor 
Castle,  one  of  the  palaces  of  the 
sovereigns  of  the  empire.  Find  Cambridge  and 
Oxford  (Fig.  366),  the  two  leading  university  towns 
of  Great  Britain. 


(5)  Places  of 
interest  near 
London 


Fig.  377.- 


-Omnibuses  in  one  of  the  narrow 
London  streets. 


i 

T  ■■»»£» ... 

-A 

iff-s  "*i/r 

■  m            -  .             „.    • 

-^;%.:::#K   - 

gJLgjjjT 

VMr 

■  4  ^/m^;^- 

-  ■  *V  'A  >>■-,         W 

i'                   -K  ■■■  ji       i       i 

1   ■■"-.       _.:*■■--:  U.  "i! 

Fig.  37S.  —  The  famous  Westminster  Abbey  in  London 


Southwest  of  London,  on   the    coast,  is 
Southampton,  where  many  ocean  steamers 

from     the    3.  other  Eng- 
United    lish  cities 
States  Stop    0-)  In  the  south 

(Fig.  375),  0f£'^land 
and  where  fast  trains 
wait  to  convey  passen- 
gers to  the  metropolis. 
Close  to  Southampton 
is  Portsmouth,  which 
has  a  great  navy  yard. 

Almost  due  west  of 
London,  near  the  head 
of  Bristol  Channel,  is 
Bristol,  which  is  en- 
gaged in  the  lumber 
trade  and  in  tobacco 
arid  chocolate  manufac- 
turing. It  was  formerly 
next  to  London  in  size, 
but  Liverpool  lias  now 


274 


EUBOPE 


far  outstripped  it.  Can  you  suggest  some 
reason  why  ?  Just  west  of  Bristol  is  Car- 
diff, in  Wales,  the  chief  British  port  for 
the  export  of  coal. 

Knowing    the    occupation    of   the    dense 
population  in  northern  England,  we  can  tell 

the  principal  exports  of  Hull 
(2)  In  the  north  ,K  *■  -117 1  . 

and  Liverpool.  What  must 
they  be  ?  The  former  city  naturally  trades 
mainly  with  Europe,  and  the  latter  with  the 
Americas  and  West  Africa. 

Before  the  discovery  of  the  New  World, 
the  west  side  of  Great  Britain  had   little 


center  and  shipping  point,  for  the  same  rea 
sons  that  Liverpool  is.    State  these  reasons 
What  must  be  some  of  its  principal  imports 
and  exports  ?     Why  ? 

Edinburgh,  unlike  the  other  large  cities 
named,  is  not  very  important  either  as  a 
shipping  point  or  as  a  manufacturing  cen- 
ter. It  is  distinguished  as  the  capital  of 
Scotland,  and  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  in  the  British  Isles.  In  former  days, 
before  Glasgow  developed  commerce  with 
America,  Edinburgh  was  much  more  im- 
portant than  Glasgow ;    for  it  commanded 


. 


Fig.  379.  — The  city  of  Edinburgh. 


commerce,  and  Liverpool  (Fig.  375),  there- 
fore, had  little  business  or  growth.  With 
the  settlement  of  America,  however,  the  city 
grew  until  it  now  has  an  immense  trade  with 
North  and  South  America,  and  is  the  third 
city  in  size  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Many 
passengers  from  America  land  at  this  port 
and  go  to  London  by  rail.  Besides  its  com- 
merce, Liverpool  is  also  important  for  its 
shipbuilding.  Why  is  this  a  favorable  place 
for  such  an  industry  ?  A  ship  canal,  about 
thirty-five  miles  in  length,  has  been  built  to 
Manchester,  at  an  expense  of  175,000,000. 
Glasgow  (Fig.  366),  on  the  west  side  of 
4.  Cities  of  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  is 
Scotland  second  to  London  in  size  among 

British  cities.     It  is  a  leading  manufacturing 


the  entrance  to  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland. 
It  still  has  important  trade,  and  is  a  noted 
educational  center.  The  well-known  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  is  situated  here. 
Leith,  a  short  distance  away,  is  the  port 
for  Edinburgh. 

Farther  north,  on  the  coast,  are  Dundee 
and  Aberdeen  (p.  267).  The  former  sends 
forth  a  number  of  Arctic  whaling  vessels 
each  year,  and  is  also  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linen. 

The  principal  cities  of  Ireland  are  on  the 
east  and  south  sides.     Why  ?    What  has  al- 
ready been  said  about  Belfast   5.  Cities  of 
(p.  270)?      It   is   also   noted  i^nd 
for  its  shipbuilding.     Dublin,  the  capital 
of  Ireland,  and  the  chief  port  for  the  Eng- 


' 


THE  BRITISH:  ISLES 


lish  trade,  ships  farm  and  other  products  to 
England  and  receives  manufactured  goods 
in  return.  Queenstown  has  a  fine  harbor, 
and  is  a  port  of  call  for  vessels  bound  from 
America  to  Great  Britain. 

While  we  have  learned  many  facts  about 
the  British  Isles,  some  important  questions 

Fuller  reasons  are  not  3^  fully  answered, 
for  greatness  For  example,  why  does  this 
of  British  little    country     possess    more 

Empire  colonies  (Fig.  381)  than  any 

other  nation  of  the  earth  '?  Further,  why 
should  it  have  the  greatest  foreign  trade? 
And  why  the  greatest  number 
of  vessels  upon  the  sea? 

Some     of    the    reasons     in 
answer  to  these  questions  are 

1.  Why  so  as  follows  :    The 

many  colonies        fact     that     Great 

Britain  is  so  small  —  no  point 
in  the  island  being  more  than 
seventy  miles  from  salt  water 
—  is  a  reason  why  many  of  the 

I  British    have    become    sailors. 

!;It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that    they    have     been    great 
explorers. 
Nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at 

I  that,    as    these    explorers    dis- 
covered    new     parts     of    the 

I  world,  they  laid  claim  to  them 

j  in  the   name  of   their   mother 

[  country.     In  this  way,  and  by 

i  war,  Great  Britain  came  into 

I  possession    of    the    Thirteen    Colonies    of 

I  North  America,  and  of  Canada,  India,  Aus- 
tralia,   much   of    Africa,    and    many    other 

I  places  (Fig.   381).      At   present   her   ter- 
ritory includes  about  one  fifth  of  the  land 

I  surface  of   the   globe,  and  one   quarter  of 
its  inhabitants. 

These  colonies  and  dependencies  help  to 
explain  Great   Britain's    enormous    foreign 

2.  Why  so  great  commerce;  for  the  colonies 
a  foreign  com-  have  found  it  more  to  their 
merce  advantage  to  trade  with  the 
mother  country  than  with  other  nations, 
which  speak  a  different  language  and  have 


less  understanding  of  them  or  sympathy 
with  them.  The  colonies  sell  raw  products 
and  food  stuffs  to  the  mother  country,  and 
she  sends  to  them  clothing,  steel  goods,  and 
other  manufactured  articles.  It  is  largely 
the  exchange  of  goods  with  these  colonies 
that  has  made  the  foreign  trade  of  Great 
Britain  nearly  twice  that  of  any  other  na- 
tion. Next  to  her  colonies,  Great  Britain's 
greatest  trade  is  with  the  United  States. 

Some  of  the  reasons  why  this  little  island 
owns    more   vessels    than    any   3    wh    go 
other  nation  have  already  ap-   many  ships 


Fig.  380.  —  A  street  scene  in  Dublin. 

peared.  In  fishing,  exploring,  and  making 
settlements,  a  large  number  of  ships  have 
been  needed;  and  many  war  ships  have  been 
required  for  the  proper  defense  of  her 
widely  scattered  colonies.  Another  reason 
for  so  large  a  navy  is  the  fact  that  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  are  cut  off  from  all  other  nations 
by  water.  For  defense,  therefore,  the  Brit- 
ish must  rely  upon  war  ships  rather  than 
upon  a  standing  army. 

Further  than  this,  the  British  are  actually 
forced  to  own  many  ships.  Here  are  over 
forty-five  million  people  living  on  two  small  is- 
lands, from  whose  soil  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 


276 


EUROPE 


the  necessary  food.  They  must  send  ships 
away  for  their  flour,  meat,  sugar,  tea,  coffee, 
etc.  ;  and  they  must  send  abroad  for  much 
of  their  raw  materials  for  manufacture. 
Also,  in  order  to  pay  for  the  raw  materials 
and  food,  their  manufactured  goods  must 
be  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  other- 
wise such  extensive  manufacturing  would 
be  impossible.  From  this  it  is  plain  why  a 
very  large  number  of  vessels  must  be  em- 
ployed ;  and  there  are  two  reasons  why  the 


Fig.  382.  —  The  House  of  Parliament  in  London,  where 
the  House  of  Lords  and  House  of  Commons  meet. 

British,  rather  than  other  nations,  should 
own  them.  In  the  first  place,  such  trade  is 
profitable  ;  and  secondly,  when  they  own 
their  own  vessels,  they  can  send  them  where 
and  when  they  will,  and  are,  therefore,  better 
able  to  secure  food  and  supplies  in  case  of  war. 

These  facts,  coupled  with  the  remarkable 
energy  of  the  British,  are  the  principal 
reasons  why  the  United  Kingdom  greatly 
surpasses  all  other  nations  in  number  of 
war  ships  and  merchant  vessels. 

The  government  of  the  United  Kingdom 
Government  of  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the 
the  United  present     ruler      being      King 

Kingdom  George   V.      We   know   that 


in  the  United  States  our  general  laws  are 
made  at  Washington  by  a  Congress  com- 
posed of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. In  the  United  Kingdom  the 
law-making  body,  which  corresponds  to  our 
Congress,  is  called  Parliament.  It  is  like- 
wise composed  of  two  bodies,  the  House  of 
Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  House  of  Lords  is  made  up  of  members  of  the 
nobility,  or  men  "with  inherited  titles,  who  are  not 
elected  by  the  people.  In  former  times  the  Lords 
were  so  powerful  that  the  people  had  little  control 
of  the  government;  but  for  many  generations  the 
Lords  have  had  much  less  power.  The  House  of 
Commons,  whose  members  are  elected  by  popular 
vote,  is  now  by  far  the  more  important.  Through 
them  the  people  are  able  to  make  their  own  laws, 
and  the  government  is  therefore  one  that  allows 
great  freedom. 

The  sovereign  corresponds  to  our  President;  but 
the  execution  of  laws  is  really  in  charge  of  a  Cabinet, 
composed  of  a  Prime  Minister  and  several  other  Min- 
isters, who  are  responsible  to  the  House  of  Commons 
for  their  actions.  If  the  Ministers  lose  the  support 
of  the  House,  they  are  obliged  to  resign ;  and  then 
others  are  appointed  who  will  carry  out  the  wishes 
of  the  people. 

1.  What  remarkable  facts  can  you  state  about 
the  position,  size,  and  importance  of  these  islands? 
2.  How  does  the  character  of  the  in-  _  . 
habitants  help  to  explain  the  impor-  _ 
tance  of  the  islands  V  3.  How  is  the  " 
importance  of  the  islands  also  partly  explained  by 
the  prevailing  winds?  4.  By  the  character  of  the 
surf  ace  of  the  land  ?  5.  By  the  irregular  coast  line? 
6.  By  the  natural  resources?  7.  Tell  about  the 
raising  of  live  stock  on  these  islands.  8.  What  are 
the  other  leading  farm  products?  9.  Of  what  im- 
portance is  fishing?  10.  What  important  minerals 
are  found?  11.  What  conditions  greatly  favor 
manufacturing?  12.  What  can  you  tell  about  the 
woolen  manufacturing?  13.  Cotton  manufactur- 
ing? 14.  Iron  and  steel  manufacturing?  15.  How 
does  Ireland  compare  with  Great  Britain  in  promi- 
nence of  agriculture?  What  are  the  farm  products, 
of  Ireland?  16.  How  does  Ireland  contrast  with 
Great  Britain  in  mining?  IT.  In  manufacturing?!: 
Describe  the  chief  manufacturing  industry.  18.  What 
about  the  population  of  Ireland?  19.  Name  and 
locate    the    principal    cities    of    the   British   Isles,  i 

20.  Tell    further    about  the   location   of    London. 

21.  Its  early  history  and  present  size.  22.  Its 
manufacturing  and  commerce.  23.  Its  importance 
in  other  ways.  21.  What  places  of  interest  are  near 
London  ?  25.  Locate  and  state  the  important  facta 
about  other  cities  in  the  south  of  England.     26.  In 


THE  NETHERLANDS,   BELGIUM,   AND  LUXEMBURG 


277 


the  north.  27.  Tell  about  the  leading  cities  of 
Scotland.  28.  Of  Ireland.  29.  How  has  the  Brit- 
ish Empire  come  to  have  so  man}'  colonies?  30.  So 
great  a  foreign  commerce?  31.  So  great  a  navy 
and  so  many  merchant  vessels?  32.  Describe  the 
government  of  the  British  Isles. 

1.    Make  a  sketch  map  of  Great  Britain,  showing 

the  position  of  the  highlands  and  lowlands,  principal 

.  rivers    and   cities.      2.    Considering 

°°  the  prevailing  winds,  which  side  of 

the  great  cities  must  be  most  free  from  smoke? 
3.  Why  are  sheep  able  to'  eat  shorter  grass  than 
cattle?  4.  Make  a  list  of  goods  manufactured 
from  flax,  and  place  samples  in  the  school  cabinet. 
5.  'Write  a  short  paper  telling  in  what  ways  the 
people  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  United  States 
depend  on  one  another.  C.  State  ways  in  which 
New  England  and  Great  Britain  resemble  each  other. 
7.  What  names  of  British  cities  have  you  met  in 
your  study  of  the  United  States?  In  what  portion 
of  the  United  States  are  they?  8.  Bead  in  George 
Eliot's  "  Silas  Marner  "  a  description  of  old-fashioned 
manufacturing  by  hand  looms.  9.  Also  in  "John 
Halifax,  Gentleman,"  an  account  of  the  introduction 
of  steam  into  the  factories.  10.  What  books  writ- 
ten by  Englishmen  have  you  read  ?  11.  What  early 
English  explorers  took  part  in  the  exploration  of 
North  America? 


III.   The   Netherlands,   Belgium,   and 
Luxemburg  (Fig.  416) 

1.  Compare  the  area  of  The  Netherlands  with 
that  of  Belgium  (p.  421);  with  that  of  Great 
Britain.  2.  Compare  the  coast  lines 
of  The  Netherlands  and  Belgium. 
3.  What  large  river  crosses  The  Netherlands? 
Through  what  countries  does  it  flow  ?  4.  What 
countries  border  The  Netherlands?  5.  Belgium? 
8.   Make  an  outline  map  of  these  two  countries. 


Map  Study 


i.   The  Netherlands  'Holland; 

Figure  383  shows  The  Netherlands  to  be  a 
peculiar  country.  The  greater  portion  is 
Surface  very  low,  and  some  parts  are 

features  as  muca  as  fifteen  feet  below 

sea  level.  In  fact,  if  protection  against  sea 
and  river  were  not  provided,  about  one  half 
of  the  surface  would  be  under  water  at  least 
a  part  of  the  time.  This  explains  why  the 
country,  sometimes  called  Holland,  is  more 
commonly  known  as  TJie  Netherlands,  mean- 
ing the  low  country. 


The  Rhine  has  brought  much  of  the  soil ; 
some  of  it,  no  doubt,  all  the  way  from  the 
Alps.  A  large  part  of  the  country  is,  in 
fact,  a  delta  of  sand  and  clay  built  by  the 
Rhine.  It  is  so  low  and  level  that,  over 
much  of  the  surface,  the  only  notable  eleva- 
tions are  either  sand  dunes,  thrown  up  by 
the  wind,  or  glacial  moraines  of  sand  and 
gravel  (p.  9).  In  Figure  363  notice  how 
far  the  ice  sheet  advanced  in  this  section. 
Hard  rocks  are  found  only  in  the  extreme 
eastern  and  southeastern  parts,  where   the 


,w  Sea  level 
1  Leee  t nan  35  feet  above  Sea  level 
§Oii-r  5b  feet 


*riuuu>&  ML  C 


Fig.  383.  —  Map  to  snow  the  portion  of  The  Netherlands 
that  is  helow  sea  level. 


highest  point  is  a  little  over  a  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea. 

As  the  population   increased,   and  there 
was  need  for  more  land,  it  was  found  possi- 
ble by  building  embankments,   how  the  low- 
called  dikes,  to  keep  the  high  land  has  been 
tides  and  rivers  from  overflow-  reclaimed 
ing  the  salt  marshes  and  flood  plains.     The 
people  have   even  undertaken   the  difficult 
task  of  reclaiming  the  shallow  sea  bottom 
itself.     Such  drainage  began  in  the  twelfth 
century  and  has  continued  until  the  present 
day.     It  has  already  about  doubled  the  area 
of  The  Netherlands,  and  now  a  scheme  is 
projected  by  which  the  Zuider  Zee  is  to  be 
reclaimed. 


278 


EUROPE 


The  first  step  in  reclaiming  a  section  of  land  is  to 
build  dikes  around  it.  Then  the  water  is  pumped 
from  the  inclosure  and  emptied  into  the  rivers,  or 
into  the  sea.  Windmills  were  formerly  the  only 
means  for  such  pumping,  and  many  are  still  in  use 
(Fig.  384)  ;  but  now  many  steam  pumps  are  also 
used.  These  pumps  must  be  worked  all  the  time  in 
order  to  keep  out  the  rain  water,  as  well  as  that 
which  soaks  through  the  soil. 

There  are  sixteen  hundred  miles  of  sea  dikes, 
some  of  which  are  fully  three  hundred  feet  thick, 


v\ 

m£jgij>. 

^■K9§s$> 

M&&7 

^•£\> 

-  -  jM/%j.  ' 

Ijf     1 

!  HI/ 

^■^J 

i    ■wf'*;'- 

rrr^  w  I  .TBUfflTflj 

■P  ""if  mJmiS 

Fig.  384. 


■A  Dutch  windmill,  used  for  pumping  the  water 
low  lands  behind  the  dikes. 


and  thirty  feet  high.  Some  idea  of  the  need  of 
such  great  walls  may  be  gained  by  standing  behind 
one  of  them  during  a  storm  and  listening  to  the  fierce 
beating  of  the  ocean  waves  on  the  opposite  side, 
several  feet  above  one's  head. 

The  ditches  for  draining  the  land  really  form  ca- 
nals, which,  by  means  of  their  embankments,  inclose 
houses,  gardens,  and  fields,  much  as  fences  or  stone 
walls  inclose  houses  and  gardens  in  other  countries. 
They  are  so  numerous  that  they  extend  over  the 
lowlands  in  a  great  network. 

It  might  seem  that  a  country  so  small  as 

Number  and  this'  and  with  such  a  surface> 
character  of  could  not  support  a  large 
the  people  population.    Nevertheless,  The 


Netherlands  has  about  two  thirds  as  manj 
inhabitants  as  the  remarkably  productive 
state  of  New  York,  which  is  four  times 
large.  They  are  a  very  prosperous  people, 
too. 

Perhaps  the  leading  cause  for  this  prosperity  is  the 
excellent  character  of  the  Dutch  people,  as  the  Neth- 
erlander are  called.  For  centuries  they  have  felt  an 
intense  love  for  civil  and  religious  liberty  ;  but,  being 
a  small  nation,  they  have  suffered  many 
hardships  in  attempting  to  maintain  such 
liberty.  At  one  time  they  were  under 
German  control ;  later  they  came  under 
the  cruel  rule  of  Spain ;  but  finally  they 
obtained  their  independence,  and  their 
form  of  government  is  now  a  limited 
monarchy. 

While  their  efforts  for  freedom  brought 
untold  suffering  to  the  Dutch  people,  it 
helped  them,  in  one  way,  by  causing  people 
of  advanced  ideas  to  seek  refuge  among 
them.  Thus  it  was  to  Holland  that  the 
Pilgrims  first  fled  when  religious  persecu- 
tion drove  them  from  England  ;  and  from 
time  to  time  large  numbers  of  Huguenots, 
Germans,  and  other  persecuted  people  found 
refuge  there.  Such  people  brought  new 
ideas,  and  had  a  great  influence  on  the 
intelligence  with  which  Dutch  industries 
were  developed. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry of  the  Kingdom.  The  lead- 
ing farm  products  are 
grains,  such  as  rye, 
oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  buckwheat. 
Potatoes,  sugar  beets,  beans,  peas, 
and  flax  are  also  grown.  There  are 
many  gardens,  including  flower  gardens 
where  bulbs  are  raised.  The  Dutch  raise 
such  excellent  bulbs  that  they  are  sold  all 
over  the  world. 

More  land  is  devoted  to  pasture  (Fig. 
385)  than  to  all  these  crops.  This  is  partly 
because  much  of  the  higher  land  is  too  sandy 
for  cultivation,  and  partly  because  the  mois- 
ture in  the  lowlands  aids  in  the  growth  of 
excellent  grass.  Cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  raised  in  great  numbers  ;  and 
quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  made. 

Both   the    Zuider    Zee   and 
the  North  Sea,  near  at  hand,  FisMn8 


Agriculture 


from  the 


THE  NETHERLANDS,   BELGIUM,   AND  LUXEMBURG 


279 


contain  many  food  fish  ;  and  this  fact  lias 
made  fishing  an  important  Dutch  industry. 

In  so  level  a  country  there  can  be  little 
water  power  ;  and  little  mineral  wealth  is 
Mining  and  to  be  expected  in  a  land  made 
manufacturing  up  of  soft  clays  and  sands.  A 
poor  grade  of  iron  ore  is  found  in  the  bogs, 
and  a  little  coal  is  mined  in  the  extreme 
southeast. 

Under  the  circumstances,  one  might  not 
expect  much  manufacturing.  Fortunately, 
however,  there  is  an  abundance  of  coal  near 
by   in    Belgium,    Germany,  and    England. 


of  clay,  and  needing  both  bricks  and  tile  in  their 
drainage  work,  they  developed  manufacturing  in 
these  directions.  Some  of  the  Dutch  pottery,  known 
as  Delft  ware,  is  greatly  prized  for  its  beauty.  In 
fact,  manufacturing  now  ranks  next  to  agriculture 
in  importance  here. 

Commerce  is  highly  developed  for  several 
reasons.      In   the   first   place,  _  , 

Rccisoiis  tor 

the  ditches,  built  for  the  pur-  extensive 
pose     of     drainage,    are     also  commerce 
useful    as    canals;    and   these,   !•  Easy  trans- 
together  with  the  rivers,  make   po  a  on 
transportation   by   water   very  easy  to  all 


Fig.  385.  — Cattle  feeding  in  the  rich  pastures  of  Holland.     A  typical  Dutch  scene. 


And,  since  the  Dutch  people  require  quan- 
tities of  cloth,  shoes,  machinery,  etc.,  they 
import  both  coal  and  some  of  the  raw  mate- 
rials in  order  to  manufacture  for  themselves. 

The  strangers  who  fled  to  The  Netherlands  to  es- 
cape persecution  did  much  toward  developing  early 
manufacturing.  Its  growth  has  been  further  aided 
by  the  efforts  of  the  Dutch  to  reclaim  land  from  the 
sea.  The  windmills,  with  their  inclosing  buildings, 
were  valuable  not  merely  as  houses,  storehouses,  and 
pumps,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  grain 
and  doing  other  kinds  of  work.  Thus,  lacking  water 
power,  the  Dutch  learned  to  make  some  use  of  wind 
power.  Besides,  in  order  to  build  the  canals  and 
dikes,  and  to  drain  the  land,  they  needed  imple- 
ments, such  as  plows  and  pile  drivers,  and  these 
they  manufactured.     Again,  having  an  abundance 


sections  of  the  country.  Furthermore,  the 
flat-topped  dikes  make  excellent  wagon 
roads ;  and  the  level  nature  of  the  land 
renders  the  building  of  railways  a  simple 
matter. 

A  second  reason  for  the  importance  of 
commerce  is  the  position  of  Holland.  This 
country  lies  directly  in  the  2.  Position 
path  of  entrance  to  northern  of  Holland 
Europe ;  and  it  is  crossed  by  the  Rhine 
River,  which  is  navigable  for  a  long  dis- 
tance through  German)-.  Therefore,  much 
of  the  American  and  British  trade  with  cen- 
tral Europe  is  carried  on  through  Holland. 

The  Dutch  colonies  (Fig.  417)  furnish  a 


280 


EUROPE 


3.  Its  colonies 


third  reason  for  the  extensive  commerce. 
Since  the  very  earliest  times  the  Dutch 
have  been  in  close  contact 
with  the  salt  water.  Not  only 
have  they  battled  with  the  sea  in  reclaim- 
ing their  land  ;  but  to  visit  some  of  their 
near  neighbors  they  have  been  obliged  to 
go  by  boat.  The  men  have,  therefore,  be- 
come expert  sailors  •,  and  when  discoveries 


, 


Fig.  386.  —  A  caual  in  the  city  of  Amsterdam. 

of  new  lands  were  being  made,  the  Dutch 
sailors  naturally  took  part.  This,  of  course, 
was  followed  by  the  founding  of  colonies  in 
distant  lands. 

The  attempt  of  the  Dutch  to  colonize  our 
Hudson  Valley  was  stopped  by  the  Eng- 
lish ;  but  Holland  retains  possession  of 
other  important  regions.  Of  these,  Dutch 
Guiana  in  South  America  has  already  been 
mentioned  (p.  248);  but  the  most  im- 
portant Dutcli  colonies  are  Java  and  sev- 


eral other  East  India  islands  (Fig.  417) 

The  manufacture  of  raw  products  obtained 

from  the  colonies  forms  one  of  the  principal 

industries  of  the  coast  cities. 

Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  are  the  two 

principal   cities.     The  former,  the  largest 

city  in    The    Netherlands,    is 

about   the    size  of  Baltimore. 

It  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  canal,  and 
is  noted  for  its  university  and 
museums,  as  well  as  for  its  ship- 
ping, manufacturing,  and  dia- 
mond cutting.  The  rulers  of 
Holland  are  crowned  at  Am- 
sterdam, although  the  royal 
family  resides  at  The  Hague, 
where  the  government  build- 
ings are  situated. 

Rotterdam,  next  to  Amster- 
dam in  size,  is  the  chief  seaport 
of  The  Netherlands.  Its  loca- 
tion, near  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhine,  makes  it  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal ports  for  entrance  to  the 
interior  of  the  continent.  This 
explains  why  Rotterdam  is  the 
European  terminus  for  some  of 
the  important  steamship  lines 
from  New  York  and  other  parts 
of  the  world. 

2.  Belgium  (Fig.  416) 
In  much  of  Belgium  the  su 
face  of  the  land  reminds  us  0 
Holland.  The  Comparison  of 
country  is  low  and  surface  with 
flat  in  the  northern  «»at  of  Holland 
and  western  parts,  but  gradually  rises,  and 
grows  more  rolling  toward  the  south  and 
east.  There  is  much  more  of  this  hilly 
land  in  Belgium,  and  the  highest  point 
(2230  feet)  is  more  than  twice  that  in 
The  Netherlands. 

Although  Belgium  is  even  smaller  than 
Holland,  its  population  is  much  larger,  or 
over  seven  million.  How  does  Number  and 
that  compare  with  the  popula-  character  of 
tion  of  New  York  State?  Little  the  people 


THE  NETHERLANDS,    BELGIUM,    AND   LUXEMBURG 


281 


Belgium  is,  in  fact,  the  most 
densely  populated  country  on 
the  earth. 

Like  the  Dutch,  the  Belgians 
have  endured  untold  sufferings  in 
their  long  struggle  for  independence. 
Their  country  has  been,  from  time 
to  time,  a  battlefield  for  the  larger 
countries,  or  Powers,  of  Europe;  for 
example,  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,  by 
which  the  career  of  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte was  ended,  was  fought  here 
in  1S15. 

Belgium,  together  with  parts  of 
France  and  The  Netherlands,  once 
formed  the  country  of  Flanders, 
and  nearly  half  the  Belgian  people 
still  speak  the  Flemish  language. 
Since  1830,  Belgium  has  been  an 
independent  country,  and  the  pres- 
ent form  of  government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

The  intelligence  of  the  Belgians  is  of  the  highest 
order.  Even  during  the  Middle  Ages  their  woolen 
manufactures  were  the  best  in  Europe ;  and  at  vari- 
ous times  the  kings  of  England  induced  Flemish 
artisans  to  move  to  England  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
proving the  manufacturing  there.  Once  the  Great 
Powers  of  Europe  declared  Belgium  neutral  territory, 
thus  prohibiting  further  fighting  there.  The  Bel- 
gians, like  the  people  of  Luxemburg,  have  not  been 


Fig.  .tS8.  —  A  Belgian  woman  working  at  the  spinning 
wheel.    There  is  much  of  this  hand  work  in  Belgium. 


Fig.  387.  —  A  view  in  the  hilly  southern  portion  of  Belgium. 


able  to  maintain  their  neutrality.  They  devoted 
themselves  to  the  industries.  As  a  result,  Belgium 
has  enjoyed  a  wonderful  growth  in  times  of  peace. 

More  than  half  the  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture,  the  chief  products, 
besides  live  stock,  being  grain, 
flax,  hemp,  fruit,  and  sugar  gn  u 
beets.  Among  the  farm  animals,  the 
Flemish  horses  are  especially  noted  for 
their  great  size  and  strength. 

The  Belgian  method  of  farming  forms  a  striking 
contrast  to  that  in  the  U"nited  States.  Instead  of 
farms  with  from  one  hundred  to  several  thousand 
acres,  as  in  our  country,  the  Belgian  farms  usually 
contain  not  more  than  two  or  three  acres.  To  a 
large  extent,  spading  takes  the  place  of  plowing ; 
and  such  hand  labor,  guided  by  the  experience  of 
many  generations,  secures  large  crops  of  the  best 
quality.  In  spite  of  such  careful  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  however,  there  are  so  many  people  in  Belgium 
that  much  food  has  to  be  imported. 

Quite  different  from  the  level  northern 
plain,  close  set  with  farms  and  towns,  is  the 
hilly  region  of  the  southern  Mining  and 
angle,  covered  with  forests,  manufacturing 
The  weathering  of  ages,  which  has  worn 
these  mountains  so  low,  has  brought  to 
light  valuable  mineral  deposits,  especially 
coal  and  iron  ore.  As  in  England,  these 
two  minerals  occur  near  together.  Lead, 
zinc,  and  silver  are  also  found  here  ;    and 


282 


EUROPE 


of    marble    and 


there    is   much    quarrying 
other  building  stones. 

Belgium,  therefore,  possesses  advantages 
for  agriculture  similar  to  those  of  Holland, 
while  the  minerals  give  far  greater  oppor- 
tunity for  manufacturing.  These  facts  help 
to  explain  why  the  population  is  so  dense. 


By  its  position  Belgium  secures  many  of 

the  advantages  that  Holland  enjoys ;  that 

is,  it  is  a  gateway  to  and  from   _ 

'      ■    ,      ■  t    t?  t      Commerce 

the   interior   ot    Europe,      lo 

be  sure,  its  coast  line  is  only  about  forty 
miles  in  length  and  the  water  there  is  shal- 
low; but  Antwerp  has  an  excellent  harbor 


Fig.  389.  —  Some  of  the  quaint  houses  of  Ghent  faeing  one  of  the  canals  on  the  low  plain  of  northern  Belgium 


More  than  one  hundred  thousand  men  are 
engaged  in  mining,  and  coal  and  coke  are 
among  the  leading  exports  of  the  kingdom. 
The  northwest  slope  of  the  hilly  region 
is  one  of  the  world's  busiest  industrial 
regions.  As  in  England,  the  three  most 
important  kinds  of  manufacturing  are  cot- 
ton, wool,  and  iron  and  steel.  Linen  and 
glass  are  also  made.  The  country  is  so 
small,  and  there  are  so  many  water  ways  and 
railways,  that  coal  is  transported  cheaply 
to  all  sections.  Manufacturing,  therefore, 
is  well  distributed  over  the  kingdom,  al- 
though coal  is  found  only  in  the  south. 


. 


on   the   broad    lower   course   of   the   smal 
Scheldt  River. 


There  is  no  large  river,  like  the  Rhine  in  Hol- 
land, but  two  smaller  streams,  rising  in  France,  are 
navigable  for  some  distance  across  the  plain.  There 
is  also  an  extensive  system  of  canals.  Besides  these 
water  ways,  Belgium  has  more  miles  of  railway,  for 
its  size,  than  any  other  country.  For  these  rea- 
sons transportation  of  goods  is  one  of  the  leading 
industries. 

The  Belgians  do  not  possess  such  valuable  colo- 
nies as  the  Dutch,  but  they  have  been  prominent  in 
African  exploration.  It  was  the  Belgian  king  who 
sent  Stanley  to  Africa,  and  the  Belgian  Congo  is 
now  a  Belgian  colony. 


LonglluJp  WcBifroro  (Srccnwloh 


lj.nfiiu.1p  Km*  !>ora  ilroi-imK-h 


FIG.  3iW. 


FUA  NCK 


283 


Cities 


Brussels,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  kingdom.  The 
name  Brussels  carpets  suggests 
one  of  its  industries ;  but  car- 
riage and  lace  making  are  at  present  among 
its  most  important  kinds  of  manufacture. 
Brussels  is  an  educational  as  well  as  a  politi- 
cal and  commercial  center,  having  numerous 
picture  galleries,  museums,  and  schools. 

Antwerp,  next  in  size,  is  some  distance 
inland  on  the  navigable  Scheldt  River. 
Some  of  the  great  steamship  lines  from  New 
York  have  their  European  terminus  here, 
and  the  port  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Europe.  The  leading  kinds  of  manufac- 
turing are  sugar  refining,  distilling,  lace- 
making,  and  shipbuilding. 

Many  other  cities  and  towns  are  important 
manufacturing  centers.  The  largest  are  Liege, 
the  "  Birmingham  of  Belgium,"  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  firearms,  cutlery,  glass,  and  various 
kinds  of  machinery;  and  Ghent  (Fig.  389),  noted 
for  linen  and  cotton  goods,  and  for  machinery. 


3.    Luxemburg 

On  the  southeastern  border  of  Belgium  is  the 
small  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  governed  by  an  heredi- 
tary grand  duchess  and  a  Parliament.  Like  Belgium, 
by  agreement  of  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe,  it  was 
until  1914  neutral  territory.  Agriculture,  iron  min- 
ing, and  manufacturing  are  the  principal  industries. 

The  Netherlands.     1.    Describe  the  surface  of  Hol- 
land.    2.    How   has   the   lowland    been   reclaimed? 
3.   What    about    the    number    and 
character  of    the    people?    4.    Tell 
what  you  can  about  the  agriculture ; 
5.    What    about    mining?     6.   Ac- 
j  count     for     the     importance     of     manufacturing. 
,  7.   What  reasons  can   you   give   for   the   extensive 
commerce   of    Holland  ?     8.    Name  and   locate   the 
•  principal  cities. 

Belgium.     9.    Compare   the   surface   of    Belgium 

with  that  of  Holland.     10.    What  about  the  number 

.and  character  of  the  Belgian  people?     What  kind 

of  government   have  they  now?     11.   What  is  the 

condition    of    agriculture?      12.     Of    mining    and 

.manufacturing?     13.     Of    commerce?     14.     Locate 

1  and  state  important  facts  about  the  cities.     15.   Tell 

about  Luxemburg. 

The  Netherlands.     1.    Why  are  the  winds  likely 
<  to  blow   with  special   force   and   regularity  across 


Review 
Questions 

about     fishing. 


Holland?  2.  Why  is  this  fact  of  special  value  to 
the  Dutch  ?  3.  Find  out  more  about  the  flower 
gardens  of  the  Dutch.  4.  Have  you 
seen  any  Dutch  pottery,  especially  "es  lons 
Delft  wares?  5.  Find  out  why  the  Pilgrims  did 
not  remain  in  Holland  instead  of  coming  to  America. 
6.  Why  should  not  Rotterdam  be  as  large  a  city 
as  New  York?  7.  Find  out  about  the  Peace  Con- 
ferences of  1899  and  1907  at  The  Hague.  8.  What 
reasons  are  there  for  selecting  a  small  country  like 
Holland  for  such  a  conference,  and  for  making 
treaties  between  nations  which  have  been  at  war? 
Belgium.  9.  There  are  greater  extremes  of  tem- 
perature in  Belgium  than  in  England.  Why? 
10.  Find  out  some  facts  about  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo. 11.  Give  several  reasons  for  spading  instead 
of  plowing  land.  12.  Examine  a  piece  of  lace. 
From  what  material  is  lace  made,  and  how  is  the 
work  done  ?  13.  Towns  in  Belgium  are  often  known 
by  two  names.  Why?  14.  Figure  out  the  number 
of  persons  per  square  mile  (see  Appendix,  p.  424) 
in  Belgium  and  compare  it  with  the  number  in 
New  York,  or  in  your  own  state. 


IV.    France 

1.  France  is  the  nearest  country  to  the  British 
Isles.  Estimate  the  distance  between  the  two. 
2.  Compare  the  two  countries  as  to 
area.  3.  As  to  population.  4.  What 
countries  border  France?  5.  What  waters?  6.  In 
what  respects  is  its  position  favorable  to  commerce  ? 
7.  What  do  you  observe  about  the  general  direction 
of  the  rivers?  Name  them.  Locate  the  island  of 
Corsica,  which  belongs  to  France. 

The    early  inhabitants  of  France,  called 
Gauls,  were  conquered  by  the   People  and 
Romans,  who  gave  them  their  government 
language  and  many  of  their  customs. 

After  the  fall  of  Rome,  France  was  di- 
vided into  independent  kingdoms,  which 
were  often  at  war  with  one  another  or  with 
neighboring  countries.  The  natural  bound- 
aries of  France  have,  however,  tended  to 
bring  these  kingdoms  together;  for  the 
country  is  inclosed  on  two  sides  by  the  sea, 
and  elsewhere,  in  large  part,  by  mountains. 
Notice  how  completely  the  Pyrenees  sepa- 
rate France  and  Spain;  and  what  a  bar- 
rier the  lofty  Alps  form  along  the  Italian 
and  Swiss  borders.  Even  north  of  the 
Alps,  a  part  of  the  boundary  is  formed  by 
highlands  (Fig.  360). 


284 


EUROPE 


While  the  inhabitants  were  thus  partly 
protected  from  invasion,  there  were  few 
barriers  within  France  itself  to  keep  the 
people  of  different  sections  apart.  It  was 
not  difficult,  therefore,  to  bring  the  several 
kingdoms  under  one  rule. 

Monaco  in  the  southeast,  and  Andorra  in  the 
Pyrenees  (p.  291),  are  the  only  exceptions.  The 
principality  of  Monaco,  only  eight  square  miles  in 
area,  is  a  noted  winter  resort  because  of  its  fine 
climate. 

France  has  changed  its  form  of  govern- 
ment several  times.     For  a  long  time  it  was 


Temperature 


Fig.  391. 


-  A  road  across  the  rugged  Pyrenees  which  lie  between  France 
and  Spain. 


a  monarchy,  and  over  a  century  ago  it  be- 
came a  republic  ;  but  this  did  not  continue 
long,  for  Napoleon  Bonaparte  became  so 
powerful  that  he  was  made  emperor.  There 
have  been  other  changes  since  then,  the  last 
one  being  in  1871,  when  the  republican  form 
of  government  was  again  established. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  chief  highlands  of 
Surface  tea-  France  are  in  the  south  and 
tures  and  rain-  southeast.  Among  these  the 
fall  loftiest   are   the    Alps,    whose 


highest  peak,  Mont  Blanc  (15,781  feet),  is 
in  France.  Since  there  are  no  mountains  in 
the  western  part  of  the  country,  the  west 
winds  are  able  to  bear  vapor  to  all  parts  of 
France,  thus  supplying  all  sections  with  an 
abundance  of  rain  for  agriculture. 

The  position  of  the  highlands  is  favorable 
to  commerce  as  well  as  to  farming.  Fully 
three  fourths  of  France  is  a  plain,  sloping 
westward  from  the  low  central  plateau.  All 
but  one  of  the  large  rivers  rise  in  this 
plateau,  and  flow  gently  across  the  plain  to 
the  Atlantic.  Thus  navigation  is  possible 
far  into  the  country.  Locate 
and  name  the  four  largest 
rivers.  How  does  the  Rhone 
differ  from  the  other  three? 

As  might  be  expected,  the 
summers  are  warmer  than  in 
England,  since 
France  lies  al- 
most entirely  south  of  that 
country,  and  is  less  under  the 
influence  of  the  ocean.  The 
southeastern  section,  although 
it  lies  as  far  north  as  Boston, 
has  a  semi-tropical  climate 
(Fig.  392).  This  is  because 
of  the  warm  Mediterranean 
waters,  and  the  protection 
from  cold  north  winds  afforded 
by  the  mountains  (pp.  262  and 
283). 

With  so  favorable  a  climate, 
and  so  much  level  land,  France 
has  naturally  be-  Agriculture 
come  a  farming  1.  Crops 
country.  Nearly  half  the  people  are  en 
gaged  in  agriculture.  The  same  grains  are 
raised  as  in  England.  What  are  they 
(p.  265)?  Wheat  is  the  most  important, 
and  more  of  this  grain  is  produced  than  in 
any  other  European  country  excepting 
Russia.  Yet  France  raises  only  about  half 
as  much  wheat  as  the  United '  States,  and 
not  nearly  enough  for  the  needs  of  her 
people. 

Grapes,  not  important  in  the  British  Isle: 


id 

: 


FRANCE 


285 


thrive  in  the  warmer  climate  of  central  and 

southern  France.     This  fruit  is  the  most 

valuable  of   all    French   crops,   and    more 

grapes  are  grown  in  France  than  in    any 

other  country  except  Italy.     In  the  Rhone 

Valley,    and   on    the  warm  Mediterranean 

coast,  there  are  groves  of  olive,  orange,  and 

mulberry  trees.     The  leaves 

of  the  latter  furnish  food  for 

the  silkworm  (p.  286). 

As  in  England  and  other 

countries,  the  highlands  are 

unsuited  to  cul- 
2.  Live  stock        ....  ■■ 

tivation,  and  are 

in  large  part  given  over  to 
grazing.  As  in  England, 
too,  there  are  broad  tracts  of 
lowland  that  are  used  for 
pasture.  These  facts  ex- 
plain why  there  are  more 
than  fourteen  million  cattle 
and  eighteen  million  sheep 
in  France. 

France    is    inferior  to   the 
British  Isles  in  mineral  prod- 
ucts.     Coal    is 
Mining  ,,  , 

the  most  valu- 
able mineral ;  but  while  Great 
Britain,  after  supplying  her 
many  factories,  has  a  large 
amount  of  coal  left  for  ex- 
port, France  has  to  import  some.  The 
principal  coal  beds  lie  close  to  Belgium. 
The)'  are,  in  fact,  a  continuation  of  the 
coal  deposits  of  that  country.  Small  coal 
beds  are  found  at  other  points,  as  near 
St.  Etienxe. 

A  small  quantity  of  iron  is  produced, 
mainly  in  the  northeast  near  the  coal  fields. 
Fine  clays  for  porcelain  are  found  in  central 
France,  and  building  stones  are  quarried  in 
many  places. 

In  spite  of  the  limited  supply  of  fuel, 
France  is  a    great  manufacturing    nation. 

Manufacturing  Tt  ranks  nfth  in  the  production 
1.  Why  very  of  silk,  second  in  the  produc- 
extensive  (-jon  0f  ^nPi  ail(j  there  is  ex- 

tensive manufacturing  of  metal,  cotton,  and 


woolen  goods.  One  reason  for  these  manu- 
factures is  the  fact  that  coal  is  easily  ob- 
tained, either  in  France  or  from  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  England. 

Another  reason  is  found  in  the  nature  of  the 
people  themselves.  Frenchmen  have  a  peculiar  ap- 
preciation of  what  is  graceful,  delicate,  and  elegant. 


Fig.  392. 


■A  view  in  Nice  showing  the  semi-tropical  foliage  of 
southern  France. 

This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  so  many  of  our 
fashions  in  dress  come  from  France ;  and  a  gown,  a 
pair  of  gloves,  or  a  hat  from  Paris  is  expected  to  be 
a  trifle  more  desirable  than  one  bought  elsewhere. 
On  this  account  the  French  have  given  much  atten- 
tion to  the  manufacturing  of  the  finer  kinds  of 
goods.  Thus  their  artistic  taste  has  had  great  influ- 
ence upon  both  the  kind  and  amount  of  their  manu- 
facturing. 

The  northern  part  of  France,  including 
Lille,  Roubaix,  and  Reims,  as  well  as 
cities   near  the   mouth  of  the   „    . 

„    .  ,  ..  ...       2.   Leading 

seme,  is  the  section  especially  tanis 

noted  for  the  woolen  industry.    (i)  Woolen  and 

Here  coal   is    most  easily    ob-  cotton  »«'»«- 

tained ;  and  large  numbers  of 

sheep    are    raised    on  the    hills  and    plains 

near  by,  while  foreign  wool  from  Argentina 


286 


EUROPE 


and  Australia  is  easily  imported  at  Havre 
and  at  the  Belgian  port  of  Antwerp.  Re- 
membering that  the  hosiery,  carpets,  under- 
clothing, and  other  goods  are  of  high 
grade,  and  such  as  wealthy  people  wish,  we 
see  that  this  location,  between  the  two 
wealthiest  capitals  of  the  world,  is  especially 
favorable.  Next  to  silk  goods,  woolen  cloths 
form  the  most  important  French  export  to 
Great  Britain. 

There  is  also  much  cotton  manufacturing 
near  the  coal  fields  of  northern  France.     An 


Flo.  393.  —  Piles  of  silkworm  cocoons  ready  to  be 
unwound. 

important  reason  for  such  work  in  this  sec- 
tion is  the  ease  with  which  American  cotton 
may  be  imported;  and  this  explains  why 
Rouen,  on  the  Seine,  is  a  center  for  cotton 
goods.  There  are  cotton  factories  in  east- 
ern France,  also,  where  water  power  is  used 
instead  of  steam  power.  Why  should  you 
expect  water  power  in  that  section  ? 

Because  the  climate  and  soil  of  the  Rhone 
Valley  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the 
(2)  Silk  manu-  mulberry  tree,  and  because  coal 
facturing  mines  are  near  by,  this  section 

is  a  great  silk-manufacturing  region.  Lyon 
is  the  center,  but  St.  Etienne  and  Paris 
are  also  noted  for  this  industry.     Some  of 


this  manufacturing  is  done  in  large  facto- 
ries, some  in  the  homes  of  the  workmen 
where  hand  and  foot  power  are  used  in 
place  of  steam. 

The  traveler  in  the  Rhone  Valley  sees  grove  after 
grove  of  mulberry  trees,  carefully  tended  in  order 
to  supply  an  abundance  of  leaves  for  the  silkworm 
to  eat  in  summer.  The  silkworm  moth,  at  the  end 
of  the  caterpillar  stage,  weaves  a  cocoon  about  itself. 
The  material  of  which  the  cocoon  is  composed  is  a 
thread,  about  two  miles  in  length,  which  must  be 
carefully  unwound.  The  single  thread  is  so  very 
fine  that,  in  order  to  make  a  fiber  strong  enough 
for  spinning  and  weaving,  it  must  first  be  united 
with  several  others. 

Since  the  worms  are  reared  under  cover,  the  silk 
industry  may  be  carried  on  in  any  climate  in  which 
the  mulberry  tree  will  grow.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, to  produce  raw  silk  in  many  parts  of  the 
world ;  but  the  feeding  of  the  worms,  and  the  chang- 
ing of  the  cocoons  into  silk  for  the  market,  require 
much  labor,  care,  and  skill.  On  that  account  silk 
production  is  chiefly  confined  to  those  parts  of  the 
world  where  laborers  will  accept  low  wages,  and  where, 
because  several  generations  of  people  have  done  this 
work,  habits  of  watchfulness  and  care  have  been  de- 
veloped. China,  accordingly,  produces  the  greatest 
amount  of  raw  silk ;  but  France,  in  the  midst  of 
Europe,  where  the  market  for  silk  goods  is  greatest, 
also  produces  a  large  quantity  and  is  the  leading 
country  for  the  manufacture  of  silk.  Make  as  long 
a  list  of  articles  made  from  silk  as  you  can. 

The  extensive  cultivation  of  grapes  has 
been  mentioned.     Great  quantities  of  grapes 
are  made  into  wine  for  export   (3)  other 
or  for  use  in  France.     In  that  manufacturing 
country  nearly  every  one  drinks  wine  at  h 
meals,  or  wine  mixed  with  water. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  goods  is  impor- 
tant in  some  places,  but  to  no  such  extent  as 
in  Great  Britain.  Other  kinds  of  manufac- 
turine  are  mentioned  under  the  cities. 

Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  is  the  largest 
city  on  the   continent  of   Europe,  and  the 
third  largest  in  the  world.     It  Principal  cities 
numbers  more  than  2,840,000  1.  Pans 
inhabitants. 

Paris  is  situated  on  the  Seine  at  a  point 
where  there  is  a  small   island    in  the  river. 
This   island  was  once  a  good    (i)  important* 
place    for    defense,    and    also  of  its  location 
an   important   aid   in   bridging    the    river 


FRANCE 


287 


(Fig.  394).  The  location  is  especially 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  a  large  city,  for 
several  reasons.  The 
Seine,  having  a  slower 
current  than  the  Rhone, 
and  being  less  subject  to 
overflows  than  the  Loire, 
is  more  easily  navigable 
than  any  other  river  in 
France.  Its  upper  tribu- 
taries, too,  bring  Paris 
into  close  touch  with 
eastern  France  ;  and,  by 
the  aid  of  canals,  there 
is  water  connection  with 
the  Loire  and  Saone  also, 
and  with  the  Rhine  in 
Germany.  Furthermore, 
Paris  is  situated  on  the 
main  trade  route  from 
the  Mediterranean  to 
northern  and  central 
France,  which  follows 
the  Rhone,  the  Saone, 
and  the  Seine.  Finally, 
Paris  is  located  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  fertile 
portion  of  the  country, 
and  not  very  far  from 
several  other  densely 
populated  countries. 
For  all  these  reasons 
it  has  always  been 
the  principal  French 
city. 

Reference  has  already 
been  made  to  the  artistic 

(2)  Its  impor-       taste  of  the 
tance  as  an  art      French. 

P-""  Napoleon 

and     other     rulers     col- 
lected art  treasures  from 
various    nations,  and 
founded    museums    and 
schools    which    have    made    Paris    famous. 
This     explains     why     large     numbers     ol 
Americans  go  to  Paris  every  year  to  study 
art. 


One  of  the  old  palaces,  known  as  the  Louvre,  is 
the  most  noted  art  gallery  in  the  world.     It  contains 


Fig.  3!M.  —  To  show  Paris  and  surrounding  country.    Notice  how  closely  the 
railways  follow  the  stream  valleys.    Why  should  they? 


thousands  of  works  of  art.  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
being  the  marble  statue  called  the  Venus  of  Milo. 
Among  the  paintings,  one  of  the  most  famous  is 
Raphael's  "  Madonna  and  Child  with  St.  John," 
copies  of  which  are  often  seen  in  our  homes. 


288 


EUROPE 


Fig.  395.  —  A  view  in  Paris  showing  the  broad  streets  and  parks. 


Among  the  many  interesting  suburbs  of  Paris  is 
Versailles,  where  there  is  another  palace  that  was 
erected  in  the  days  of  royalty.  It  is  now  used  mainly 
as  a  museum,  and  scores  of  the  large  rooms  are  deco- 
rated with  the  finest  of  paintings.  It  is  among  such 
treasures  that  the  students  of  art  spend  much  of 
their  time. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  Paris  should  be 
noted,  the  world  over,  for  its  beauty  as  a  city  (Fig. 
395).  The  wide  streets,  the  beautiful  parks  with 
their   fountains   and    statues,   and  the   fine  public 


Fig.  396". —  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  one  of  the  most  famous  buildings  in 
Paris.     General  view  from  the  river. 


buildings  and   old   royal    palaces   are   wonderful! 
attractive.     Even  the  dwelling  houses  are  in  good 
taste,  for  it  is  required  by  law  that  new  buildings  be 
so  planned  as  to  be  in  keeping  with  those  near  by. 
Therefore  one  seldom  sees  an  unattractive  buildin; 
in  Paris. 


Like  other  great  cities,  Paris  has  inanj 
manufacturing  industries.  The  superior 
taste  of  the  Parisians  has  led  them  to  pay 
especial  attention  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  articles  which  (3)  its  manu- 
cotnbine  usefulness  J'actures 
with  beauty,  such  as  jewelry,  furni- 
ture, gloves,  and  fashionable  shoes. 
The  Sevres  porcelain  is  made  in 
the  suburbs  of  Paris ;  and  both 
this  and  the  Limoges  ware,  manu- 
factured at  Limoges,  are  celebrated 
for  their  beauty. 

Although  so  far  inland,  Paris 
ships  more  goods  by  water  than 
any  other  French  city.  (4)  It3aom- 
The  extensive  system  merce 
of  canals,  by  which  the  country  is 
crossed  in  all  directions,  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned  (p.  287). 
Vast  sums  have  been  spent  in 
dredging  the  lower  Seine,  so  that 


i 


FUA  NOB 


289 


the  depth  of  water  between  Rouen  and 
Paris  now  exceeds  ten  feet.  Small  vessels 
can  proceed  directly  to  Paris  ;  but  larger 
ships  transfer  their  goods  to  trains,  or 
smaller  boats,  at  Havre  and  Rouen. 
Railway  transportation  is  also  well  provided 
for,  since  the  chief  railways  of  France  radi- 
ate in  all  directions  from  Paris  (Fig.  394). 


Bordeaux,  on  the  Garonne  River  (Fig. 
397),  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  grape-raising 

district,    is   the    chief    port    for    (2)  Bordeaux 

the  export    of    French  wines.    and  LlJ'm 
Locate  the  cities  previously  named  (pp.  285 
and  286),  and  tell  for  what  each  is  impor- 
tant.    Note  especially  Lyon,  the  center  of 
the  silk  industry  of  France. 


Fig.  397.  —  A  part  of  Bordeaux  and  the  Garonne  River. 


Altogether,  therefore,  Paris  is  the  political, 
artistic,  manufacturing,  and  commercial 
center  of  France. 

Havre,  which  is  almost  as  busy  a  port 
as  Marseille,  has  an  extensive  trade  in  cof- 

2.  Other  cities      fee  fr0m    Brazi1'  and  in  wheafc 


(1,  Havre, 


and  other  materials  from  the 


Boulogne,  and  United  States.  Farther  to  the 
northeast  is  Boulogne,  where 
some  of  the  American  steamships  stop ;  and 
not  far  distant  is  Calais,  the  nearest  port 
to  England,  where  boats  cross  the  Strait  of 
Dover  to  England. 


The  leading  seaport  of  France  on  the 
Mediterranean  is  Marseille,  located  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhone.  The 
delta  of  the  Rhone  is  too 
marshy  for  a  city,  and  Marseille  occupies 
the  nearest  point  where  there  is  a  good 
harbor  and  high  ground.  For  many  cen- 
turies the  Rhone  Valley  was  the  principal 
gateway  from  the  Mediterranean  to  central 
Europe,  and  it  is  natural,  therefore,  that  a 
city  should  grow  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Rhone  River.  One  route  leads  to  the  Seine 
Valley,  and  thence  to  Paris  (p.  287),  north- 


290 


EUROPE 


Weakness  of 
France  as  a 
naval  power, 
with  reasons 


em  France,  and  Belgium.  Another  ancient 
route  of  travel  enters  Switzerland  past  Lake 
Geneva,  out  of  which  the  Rhone  flows  ;  and 
still  a  third  route  leads,  through  an  opening 
in  the  mountains,  into  the  Rhine  Valley  and 
Germany. 

In  spite  of  the  great  amount  of  internal 
commerce  on  the  numerous  rivers,  canals, 
and  railways,  and  in  spite  of 
the  extensive  foreign  trade, 
France  is  not  a  great  naval 
power  like  the  United  King- 
dom. In  fact,  France  has  only  one  nine- 
teenth as  much  tonnage  as  Great  Britain, 
and  only  nine  tenths  as  much  as  Norway. 

This  is  not  entirely  because  of  lack  of 
acquaintance  with  the  sea,  for  there  are 
many  French  fishing  and  merchant  ships. 
The  small  number  of  good  harbors,  and  the 
frequent  and  destructive  wars  during  the 
last  century,  are  among  the  reasons  why 
France  depends  so  largely  upon  other  na- 
tions, such  as  Great  Britain  and  Norway, 
for  vessels  to  carry  her  goods.  Why  is  it 
safer  for  France  than  for  Great  Britain  to 
be  thus  dependent? 

On  the  other  hand,  France  has  taken  a 
leading  part  in  the  exploration  and  settle- 
ment of  new  lands.  You  will 
remember  that  the  French  for- 
merly had  extensive  possessions  in  North 
America.  Where  were  they?  Where  are 
her  present  colonies  in  the  New  World 
(Fig.  417)? 

In  Asia,  France  holds  a  part  of  Indo-China  and  a 
very  small  bit  of  India;  and  she  owns  numerous 
islands  in  different  portions  of  the  world  (Fig.  417). 
Her  most  important  colonies  at  present  are  in  Africa, 
as  follows:  (1)  Algeria  and  Tunis,  across  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  (2)  a  vast  area  south  of  these  countries, 
including  a  large  part  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  the 
Sudan,  the  upper  Niger,  and  the  country  north  of 
the  Congo  River ;  and  (3)  the  large  island  of  Mada- 
gascar, east  of  southern  Africa. 

1.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  people  and  gov- 
ernment of  France  ?  2.  Locate  Monaco  and  Andorra. 
Review  ^'   Describe  the  surface  of  France  ; 

Questions  the  CUmate-     4.    What  about  agri- 

culture there?  5.  Mining?  0.  Why 
is  manufacturing  extensive,  in  spite  of  lack  of  fuel  ? 


French  colonies 


7.  Tell  about  the  woolen  and  cotton  manufacturing. 

8.  Silk    manufacturing.     9.    Other   manufacturing. 

10.  Explain  the  importance  of  the  location  of  Paris. 

11.  Show  how  Paris  is  important  as  an  art  center. 

12.  As  a  manufacturing  center.  13.  What  about 
its  commerce?  14.  Locate  and  state  the  important 
facts  about  other  cities  in  France.  15.  What  about 
the  weakness  of  France  as  a  naval  power?  16.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  colonies  of  France. 

1.  What  is  the  name  of  the  president  of  France? 
2.  Give  reasons  why  one  river,  such  as  the  Loire, 
might  be  much  more  subject  to  over- 
flows  than  another,  such  as  the  SugSestl0ns 
Seine.  3.  Examine  Figure  363  to  see  if  the  glacier 
reached  into  any  part  of  France  during  the  Glacial 
Period.  4.  Raise  a  silkworm  from  the  egg.  5.  Ex- 
amine a  cocoon,  and  see  if  you  can  unravel  some  of 
its  thread.  6.  Also  unravel  a  piece  of  silk  goods 
and  examine  the  threads.  7.  What  influence  have 
the  railway  tunnels  through  the  Alps  probably  had 
upon  the  commerce  of  Marseille  ?  8.  The  Suez 
Canal?  Why?  9.  See  if  you  can  find  any  Sevres 
or  Limoges  ware.  10.  Draw  an  outline  of  France, 
with  the  principal  mountains,  rivers,  and  cities. 


V.    Spain  and  Portugal  (Fig.  390) 

1.  What  cities  in  the  New  World  are  in  about 
the  same  latitude  as  Madrid  (Fig.  390)  ?  2.  Com- 
pare the  area  of  the  Spanish  penin-  , 
sula  with  that  of  France  (Appendix, 
p.  424).  3.  Compare  the  populations  (Appendix,  p. 
424).  4.  Compare  the  directions  taken  by  the  rivers 
(Fig.  359).  5.  Judging  from  the  map  (Fig.  390), 
what  about  the  probable  number  of  good  harbors? 
6.  What  has  been  stated  about  the  temperature  and 
rainfall  in  Spain  (p.  262)  ?  7.  What  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  belong  to  Spain  ? 

The  people  of  this  peninsula  once  had 
much  the  same  rank  among  nations  as  is  now 
held  by  the  British.  Name 
countries  that  they  controlled. 
Now,  however,  both  Spain  and 
Portugal  are  classed  among 
nations    of    Europe. 

One  cause  for  this  decline  is  the  back- 
wardness of  the  people.  The  mountainous 
character  of  the  peninsula  is  another.  The 
various  races  on  the  peninsula,  cut  off  from 
one  another  by  table-lands  and  mountain 
ranges,  have  never  been  firmly  united  into 
one  nation  with  common  interests.  For 
centuries  they  were  divided  into  small,  in- 
dependent kingdoms,  but  just    before    the 


Reasons  for 
the  decline  of 
these  countries 

the    weaker 


SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 


291 


discovery  of  America,  most  of  these  states 
were  brought  under  one  rule ;  and  later 
even  Portugal  was  joined  to  Spain. 

Portugal,  which  is  partly  separated  from 
Spain  by  deep  gorges  and  canyons,  soon 
broke  away.  .Andorra,  a  tiny  country  in 
the  Pyrenees,  was  never  fully  conquered, 
and  is  still  independent  ;  and  the  union  of 
some  of  the  others  has  been  by  force  rather 
than  by  choice.  At  present  Spain  is  a 
limited  monarch}-;  but  in  1910  Portugal 
drove  the  king  away  and  became  a  republic. 

Mam-  of  the  important  facts 
about  Spain  and  Portugal  are 
The  highlands    explained  by  the 

1.  Their  extent  elevation  of  the 
land.  On  the  northern  bound- 
ary stand  the  Pyrenees  (Fig. 
391 ),  continued  on  the  west 
by  the  Cantabrian  Mountains, 
while  in  the  extreme  south  are 
the  lofty  Sierra  Nevada  ranges 
(Fig.  359).  Between  these 
two  mountain  systems  is  a 
broad  plateau,  two  or  three 
thousand  feet  above  sea  level, 
broken  by  numerous  short 
mountain  ranges  (Fig.  360). 

In  the  Ebro  Valley  on  the 
northeast,  and  the  Guadal- 
quivir (meaning  Great  River) 
Valley  on  the  southwest,  there  are  lowlands. 
Point  to  these  rivers  on  the  map  (Fig. 
390).  The  only  other  extensive  lowland  is 
a  narrow  strip  near  the  sea,  which  reaches 
most  of  the  distance  around  the  peninsula. 
A  very  large  portion  of  the  surface,  there- 
fore, is  made  up  of  plateaus  and  mountains. 

The  highlands  have  an  important  in- 
fluence   on    the    climate.     Owing    to    the 

2.  Their  influ-  elevation  of  the  land,  the  in- 
ence  on  climate  terior  has  cold  winters,  though 
the  summers  are  hot ;  and  because  of  the 
fringe  of  mountains,  the  rainfall  is  light- 
everywhere  except  near  the  northwestern 
coast.  Here  the  ocean  winds  lose  their 
moisture  in  rising  over  the  slopes,  and  thus 
cause   abundant  rainfall  (^Fig.  365).     The 


southern  portion  of  Spain,  like  southern 
California,  is  in  the  horse  latitudes  (p.  209)  ; 
and  here  the  climate  is  so  arid  that  irrigation 
is  necessary  for  agriculture. 

The    position   of    the  Spanish  peninsula, 
between  the  two  busiest  seas  of  the  world, 
and  between  Africa  and  cen-   3   iheirinfla- 
tral    Europe,  suggests  that  it   ence  on  com- 
might   be  a  natural  route  for  merce 
commerce     between    the     two    continents. 
But    the    highlands    separate,    rather    than 
unite,   these  regions,  so   that   the  Spanish 


Fig.  398.  —  A  village  ou  the  plateau  of  Spain. 

peninsula  has  never  been  a  great  thorough- 
fare for  the  transportation  of  goods. 

There  are  several  other  important  effects  of  the 
highlands.  In  the  first  place,  the  rivers  are  not 
navigable ;  for  in  descending  from  the  arid  plateau 
their  courses  are  rapid  and  their  volume  slight.  Be- 
sides that,  most  of  them  have  cut  such  deep,  narrow- 
valleys,  like  our  'Western  canyons,  that  they  are 
useless  for  irrigation  and  are  even  a  hindrance  to 
travel.  The  principal  exception  is  the  Guadal- 
quivir, which  has  a  wide  valley,  and  up  which 
vessels  are  able  to  go  as  far  as  Seville. 

Since  the  interior  is  so  arid  and  rugged,  Spain  has 
little  forest,  little  agriculture,  few  roads,  railways, 
and  canals,  and  not  a  dense  population.  With  a 
few  exceptions,  therefore,  the  chief  towns  are  to  be 
found  along  the  coast. 

In  one  respect  the  elevation  of  the  land 
is   an   advantage   because   it   causes   great 


292 


EUROPE 


variety  of  climate,  and  hence  many  kinds 
of  farm  products.  What  countries  of 
Agriculture  South  America  does  this  con- 
1.  Grazing  dition  call  to  mind? 

In  such  a  country  we  may  expect  graz- 
ing in  the  uplands  and  along  the  mountains; 
and  Spain  is,  in  fact,  noted  for  the  excellent 
grade  of  its  sheep  and  mules.  There  are 
also  many  cattle,  especially  in  the  rainy 
northwest ;  but  the  fact  that  so  much  of  the 
country  is  arid  explains  why  there  are 
many   more   sheep  and  goats  than   cattle. 


Mining 


Fig.  399.  —  A  Spanish  peasant  bringing  vegetables  to  market  in  his 
donkey  cart 


The  sheep  often  wander  about  in  large 
flocks,  sometimes  as  many  as  ten  thousand 
together,  under  the  care  of  a  number  of 
shepherds  and  their  dogs.  In  summer  they 
feed  among  the  mountains,  but  in  winter 
they  are  driven  down  to  the  more  protected 
lowlands  for  shelter. 

Wheat  is  the  most  common  farm  crop 
in  Spain,  since  it  requires  little  rain  ;  but 
many  of  the  farmers  are  so 
unprogressive  that  less  wheat 
is  raised  than  might  be.  In  many  of  the 
valleys,  where  irrigation  is  possible,  and  on 
the  lowlands  along  the  coast,  the  farmers 
are  more  progressive  and  prosperous.  Bar- 
ley, rye,  and  corn  are  grown,  in  addition  to 
wheat,  and  these  are  among  the  staple 
foods  of  the  people.  Quantities  of  grapes 
are  also  raised  in  Spain  and  Portugal ;  and 


2.   Farming 


in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  tb 
bark  of  the  cork  oak  is  a  source  of  incom 
to  both  countries. 

The  arid  southeastern  coast  is  wonder 
fully  productive.  One  reason  for  this  is 
the  warm  climate,  due  to  the  Mediterranean 
(p.  262) ;  another  is  the  number  of  moun 
tain  streams,  which,  though  useless  for 
navigation,  are  very  valuable  for  irrigation. 
Some  of  the  products  of  this  section,  be- 
sides wheat  and  corn,  are  cotton,  grapes, 
olives,  figs,  dates,  oranges,  lemons,  and  rice. 
Several  crops  of  some  products 
may  be  raised  in  a  year. 

The  Spanish  peninsula  is  re- 
markably rich  in  minerals,  lead, 
silver,  copper,  and 
quicksilver,  or  mer- 
cury, being  among  the  most 
important.  Spain  produces 
more  quicksilver  than  any  other 
country,  and  is  exceeded  only 
by  the  United  States  in  the 
output  of  copper  and  lead. 
Coal  and  iron  ore  are  also 
found  in  several  parts  of  the 
peninsula,  but  the  coal  is  of  no 
great  value.  The  iron,  which 
is  mainly  found  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  occurs 
in  large  beds,  and  is  very  valuable. 

In  mining,  as  in  other  industries,  the  un- 
progressive character  of  the  people  prevents 
proper  development  of  the  resources.  Much 
of  the  benefit  from  the  mines  is  due  to  the 
capital  and  enterprise  of  foreigners  rather 
than  to  the  Spaniards. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  is 
plain  that  manufacturing  does  not  flourish. 
This  fact  is  all  the  more  evi- 
dent when  we  consider  that 
more  than  two  thirds  of  the  Spaniards  and 
three  fourths  of  the  Portugue.se  cannot  read. 
A  nation  so  backward  can  hardly  be  expected 
to  have  developed  extensive  manufacturing. 
Thus,  although  they  have  some  coal  and 
could  easily  import  more,  much  of  their 
iron  ore  is   shipped   to   the   coal   fields   of 


Manufacturing 


SPAIN  AXD  PORTUGAL 


293 


Great  Britain  instead  of  being  smelted  at 
home.  In  some  places,  however,  as  will  be 
seen  in  our  study  of  the  cities,  there  is  ex- 
tensive manufacturing. 

Madrid,  the  capital  and   metropolis   of 
Spain,  has  over  a  half  million  inhabitants ; 

Principal  citie3  but  lmlike  niost  other  large 
of  Spain  cities  so  far  studied,  it  is  not 

1.  Madrid  and  an  important  manufacturing 
vicuuty  center.     The    reasons    for    its 

size  are  its  central  location,  and  the  fact 


tree,  nor  fence,  nor  house;  only  the  weeds  and  scat- 
tered vegetation  of  an  arid  waste.  One  of  the  most 
frequented  places  in  Madrid  is  an  enormous  build- 
ing with  seats  for  many  thousands,  in  which  bull 
fighting  takes  place  (Fig.  400).  This  brutal  sport  is 
enjoyed  by  most  of  the  Spaniards  as  a  baseball  or 
football  game  is  in  our  country. 


Another  place  of  note  among  the  high- 
lands of  Spain  is  Granada,  the  2   Granada 
last  stronghold  of  the  Moors, 
who  invaded  Spain,  from  Africa,  centuries 


Fig.  400.  —  A  bull  fight  watched  by  thousands  of  spectators. 


that  it  is  the  seat  of  the  government.  All 
the  principal  railway  lines  crossing  the  pen- 
insula, to  connect  the  coastal  cities,  con- 
verge at  this  point. 

Madrid,  with  its  wide  streets,  magnificent  royal 
palace,  and  one  of  the  finest  art  galleries  in  the 
world,  is  in  some  respects  a  very  attractive  city. 
The  surrounding  country,  however,  is  far  from 
attractive;  for  from  the  streets  of  Madrid  one  looks 
across  the  country  for  miles  aud  miles,  seeing  not  a 


ago.  To  this  point  among  the  mountains, 
at  the  crossing  of  the  best  routes  of  travel, 
from  east  to  west,  and  from  north  to  south, 
the  Moorish  people  withdrew.  Here  they 
were  able  to  hold  out  against  the  Spaniards 
for  two  hundred  years,  and  the  city  grew 
to  a  population  of  four  hundred  thousand. 
At  present,  Granada  contains  less  than  one 
fifth  as  many  inhabitants,  and  its  principal 
attraction  is  the  Moorish  palace,  or  Alham- 


294 


EUROPE 


Fig.  401.  —  The  Court  of  Lions  in  the  Alhambra. 

bra  (Fig.  401),  one  of  the  finest  examples 
of  Moorish  architecture. 

On  the  lowlands  west  of  Granada  are 
Seville  and  Cadiz,  both  flourishing  cities 
in  former  days,  when  vast  stores  of  plunder 


were  brought  from  Spanish  colonies  in  the 
New  World.     Cadiz  is  now  a  fortified  naval 
harbor;    and   Seville   is   re-  3   other  cities 
covering  some   of  her  former  in  southern 
commercial     importance.        It  sPain 
has  some  manufacturing,  especially  of   to- 
bacco ;  and  in  one  factory  about  five  thou- 
sand women  are  employed  in  making  cigars 
and  cigarettes. 

Malaga,  which  has  one  of  the  -warmest  climates 
in  Europe,  is  engaged  in  the  shipment  of  wine,  rai- 
sins, and  grapes.  Of  what  grape  does  the  name 
remind  you  ? 

Gibraltar,  a  steep  hill,  with  bold  cliffs  rising  on 
nearly  all  sides,  and  with  a  town  at  its  base,  has  be- 
longed to  England  since  1704.  This 
hill  of  solid  rock  (Fig.  402)  is,  per-  4'  (jlbraltar 
haps,  the  strongest  fortification  in  the  world,  and 
guards  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean.  Why 
should  the  English  especially  want  such  a  stronghold 
here  ? 

On  the  whole,  Spain  is  poorly  provide- 
with   harbors ;    and  while  the   majority  o 
the  people  dwell  near  the  coast,   5.  Principal 
they    take    a    small    share    in  seaports 
foreign  commerce.     Barcelona  and   Va: 
lencia  are  the  leading  seaports.     Bakce 
lona,  the  second    Spanish  city  in   size,  is 
the  more  important  port   and  is   a   textile 
manufacturing  center  as  well.     The  region 
about  Valencia  is  a  beautiful  garden,  much 
like  that  around  Los  Angeles  in  southern 


Flo.  402.  — The  rock  of  Gibraltar,  seen  from  the  Spanish  mainland. 


NOR  WAT,    SWEDEN,   AND  DENMARK 


295 


California.  The  two  sections  are  quite  alike 
both  in  climate  and  products.  Name  some 
of  these  products  (p.  131).  In  addition  to 
the  products  of  southern  California,  rice  is 
grown  on  the  lowlands  near  the  coast. 

The  only  remnants  of  her  vast  foreign  possessions 

now  left  to  Spain  are  mainly  in  Africa.     These  in- 

L  ,  .  elude  a  few  small  settlements  on  the 

Colonies  of  ,  ,,  ..         ,  ., 

„  coast  of  Morocco ;  a  portion  of  the 

western  coast  of  Sahara,  having  little 

value;  and  a  coastal  strip  and  a  few  small  islands 

in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.     The  Canary  Islands,  west  of 

the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Balearic  Isles, 

in  the  Mediterranean,  also  belong  to  Spain. 

Lisbon  and  Oporto  are  the  chief  cities  of 
Portugal.  The  former,  the  capital  and 
:  principal  cities  metropolis,  is  a  very  beautiful 
of  Portugal  city.  It  lies  on  a  broad  bay 
where  the  Tao-us  River  enters  the  sea,  and 
lias  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  existence. 
Oporto  gives  the  name  to  port  wine.  The 
lower  part  of  the  Douro  Valley  is  one  of  the 
richest  wine  districts  in  Europe  ;  and  Oporto 
is  an  important  point  for  its  export. 

Portugal,  like  Spain,  has  lost  much  of  her  foreign 
territory.     The  Azores  Islands,  far  to  the  west   in 
.  the   Atlantic,   and  the  Madeira  Is- 

_  lands,  to  the  southwest,  are  a  part  of 

the  kingdom.  The  Cape  Verde  Is- 
lands, off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  are  also  depend- 
encies. In  addition,  Portugal  has  large  possessions 
in  Africa,  anil. some  small  ones  in  Asia. 

1.  What  was  the  former  rank  of  these  coun- 
tries ?  State  reasons  for  their  decline.  2.  State  the 
extent  of  the  highlands.  3.  What 
influence  have  the  highlands  on  the 
climate?  4.  How  do  the  horse  lati- 
tudes affect  the  climate  ?  5.  Explain  the  influence 
of  the  highlands  on  commerce.  6.  State  the  main 
facts  about  the  grazing.  7.  Name  the  farm  products. 
8.  What  minerals  are  found?  9.  Why  is  manufac- 
;  turing  of  so  little  importance?  10.  State  facts 
about  Madrid  and  vicinity.  11.  About  Granada. 
12.  Locate  and  state  the  important  facts  about  other 
cities  in  southern  Spain.  13.  For  what  is  Gibraltar 
important?  11.  Tell  about  the  principal  seaports  of 
Spain.  15.  Name  and  locate  the  colonies  of  Spain. 
16.  Locate  the  principal  cities  of  Portugal,  and  tell 
for  what  each  is  important.  17.  What  colonies  has 
Portugal? 

1.  About    what  portion    of    the   boundary   line 
between  Spain  and  Portugal  is  formed  by  rivers? 


Review 
Questions 


2.  What  must  be   the  influence  of  railways  upon 
the  old-fashioned  methods  of   farming   in   the  in- 
terior of   Spain?     3.    Look    in    the 
report  of   the  United  States  Census   SugSestl0ns 
to  see  what  per  cent  of  our  population  cannot  read. 

4.  Learn  what  is  meant  by  the  Pillars  of  Hercules. 

5.  Find  pictures  of  Moorish  architecture.  6.  Read 
Washington  Irving's  "The  Alhambra."  7.  Make  a 
sketch  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  including  the  prin- 
cipal mountains,  rivers,  and  cities. 

VI.     Norway,  Sweden,  and   Denmark 
(Fig.  358) 

1.  The  Scandinavian  Peninsula  is  the  largest  in 
Europe.  What  is  its  length  in  degrees  (Fig.  35$)  ? 
In  miles?  2.  How  does  its  western 
coast  remind  you  of  the  western  coast 
of  Scotland  and  Ireland  ?  3.  What  proofs  do  you  see 
of  glacial  action  ?  Where?  4.  What  do  you  observe 
about  the  rivers  of  Sweden  ?  5.  Which  of  these 
three  countries  has  the  largest  population  ?  6.  How 
does  it  compare  with  New  York  State  in  area  and 
population  ?  With  your  own  state  ?  (See  Appen- 
dix,pp.  124  and  425.)  7.  What  points  in  North  Amer- 
ica have  about  the  same  latitude  as  Christiania  and 
Stockholm  ?  8.  On  Figure  312  find  how  near  to 
Scandinavia  the  west  wind  drift  reaches.  9.  Locate 
Denmark;  point  out  the  islands  that  form  a  part 
of  the  country.  10.  At  the  entrance  to  what  sea 
does  Denmark  lie  ? 

These    three    countries   have    long    been 
more  or  less  united.     The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  best  settled  parts  are   peopie 
close    together   and   not    sepa-   i    Their  rela. 
rated  by  any  important  barrier,   tion  to  one 
Most    of    the    inhabitants    of  another 
Norway  and  Sweden  live  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  with  no 
natural  barrier  between  them  ;  and  only  a 
narrow,  shallow  sea  separates    Scandinavia 
from  Denmark  (Fig.  416). 

The  people  of  the  three  countries  are 
descended  from  a  common  stock,  and  at 
times  have  had  a  single  government,  though 
now  independent  of  each  other.  Therefore 
they  have  many  interests  in  common.  The 
written  language  of  the  Norwegians  and 
Danes  is  still  the  same,  and,  until  recently, 
Norway  and  Sweden  were  united  under  one 
king.  At  present  each  country  is  a  limited 
monarchy. 

These  people  have  been  closely  connected 


296 


EUROPE 


with  our  own  history,  for  they  made  some  of 
the  early  invasions  and  settlements  in  Great 
2.  Their  reia-  Britain,  and  thus  are  to  be 
tiontous  numbered    among    our    ances- 

tors. Their  daring  seamen  reached  Green- 
land, by  way  of  Iceland,  and  discovered 
America  nearly  five  hundred  years  before 
Columbus  visited  it.  During  the  last  cen- 
tury they  have  migrated  to  the  United  States 


Some  reasons 
for  the  inde- 
pendence of 
these  countries 


Fig.  403.  —  Peasants  of  Norway  in  their  native  dress. 

by  thousands,  and  have  chosen  homes  in 
many  states. 

In  these  three  countries  together  there 
are  only  about  one  fourth  as 
many  inhabitants  as  in  the 
much  smaller  British  Isles. 
Yet  in  spite  of  frequent  Euro- 
pean wars,  they  have  remained  independent 
through  many  centuries. 

This  has  been  possible,  in  part,  because 
of  their  peculiar  position.  The  only  ap- 
1.  Their  posi-  proach  to  Scandinavia  by  land 
tion  is  through  Lapland  in  Russia, 

which  is  so  far  north  that  it  has  a  very  cold 
climate.  Thus  the  peninsula  is  almost  as 
isolated  from  other  nations  as  is  Great 
Britain. 

The  peninsula  of  Denmark,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  partly  connected  with  Germany  (Fig. 


. 


416).  However,  the  islands, which  are  the  moi 
important  parts  of  Denmark,  are  completely 
cut  off  from  neighboring  lands.  Standing, 
as  it  does,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic  Sea, 
Denmark  guards  the  approaches  to  this  in- 
land sea.  Both  Germany  and  Russia  have 
long  coveted  little  Denmark  on  this  account. 
But  since  neither  of  them  has  been  willing 
that  any  other  Great  Power  should  hold  it, 
Denmark  has  remained  free.  Thus  the 
very  importance  of  its  position  has  pro- 
tected it. 

The  rugged  surface  and  severe  climate  of 
Scandinavia  have  likewise  protected  it  from 
invaders.  From  its  southern  2  xheir  rugged 
to  its  northern  end,  the  penin-  surface  and  se- 
sula  is  mountainous,  for  it  is  an  vere  cUmate 
ancient  mountain  land  (p.  257),  much  worn, 
and  crossed  by  deep  valleys.  Some  peaks 
reach  an  elevation  of  six  to  eight  thousand 
feet ;  but  most  of  them  are  lower  and  rise 
to  nearly  the  same  height,  giving  to  the  up- 
land the  appearance  of  a  plateau.  The 
mountains  descend  steeply  into  the  ocean 
on  the  western  side,  so  that,  in  all  but  the 
southern  part,  Norway  is  a  narrow,  moun- 
tainous country  crossed  by  short  streams 
flowing  in  deep,  steep-sided  valleys.  The 
boundary  between  northern  Norway  and 
Sweden  follows  the  divide  between  the 
east-  and  west-flowing  streams. 

Although  Denmark  has  no  mountains, 
much  of  the  land  is  sandy  and  barren. 
That  all  three  of  the  countries  have  a  severe 
climate  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  even 
Denmark,  the  most  southerly,  lies  about  as 
far  north  as  Scotland. 

The  west  winds  that  blow  from  over  the 
warm  ocean  exert  a  great  influence  here,  a.- 
in  the  British  Isles.  Most  of  The  agricultu- 
Norway,  however,  is  too  rug-  ral  districts 
ged  and  cold  for  farming.  Out  of  a  tota 
area  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-foui 
thousand  square  miles,  less  than  four  thou 
sand  have  a  soil  and  climate  suitable  t< 
agriculture  or  pasturage.  Sweden  has  mucl 
more  low  land,  because  the  slope  on  th 
east    side    of    the    mountains    is    much  th 


NORWAY,    SWEDEN,   AND  DENMARK 


297 


Industries  and 
cities  of  Nor- 
way 

1.   The  less 

important 

industries 


longer.  Yet  these  lowlands  are  so  far 
north,  and  so  cut  off  by  the  mountains 
from  the  influence  of  the  sea,  that  agricul- 
ture is  of  little  importance  anywhere  except 
in  the  southern  half  of  the  country. 

The  northern  and  western  portion  of  the 
Danish  peninsula,  called  Jutland,  is  a  sandy 
waste.  Therefore  only  the  islands  and  the 
southeastern  part  of  Jutland  are  very  pro- 
ductive. As  a  result  of  these  conditions, 
the  amount  of  land  suitable  for 
agriculture  in  the  three  coun- 
tries is  very  small.  The  best 
sections  are  near  together  in 
southern  Norway  and  Sweden 
and  in  eastern  Denmark. 
■  Since  Norway  lias  so  little 
land  that  is  suited  to  farming 

or  pasturage,  the 

amount   of   stock 

and     grain     pro- 
duced    is    small. 

Therefore,    much 

meat,  flour,  and 
other  food  must  be  imported. 
There  are  some  silver  and 
copper  mines,  but  coal  is 
entirely  lacking.  Manufactur- 
ing, therefore,  is  not  greatly 
developed.  Even  the  fine 
water  power  is  little  used,  because  raw  prod- 
ucts for  manufacturing  are  not  abundant. 

On  what,  then,  do  the  two  million  Nor- 
wegians depend  for  a  living  ?  They  have 
2.  The  three  ^wo  very  valuable  resources, 
leading  indus-      — lumber      and     fish.       More 

than  one  fifth  of  the  country  is 
forest-covered,  pine  being  the  most  com- 
mon tree.  As  in  Maine,  the  rapidly  flowing 
rivers  are  of  use  in  moving  the  logs  from 
the  forest,  and  also  in  supplying  power  for 
the  sawmills  and  planing  mills.  Lumber, 
wooden  goods,  and  paper  are  the  most  im- 
portant exports  of  the  country. 

Fish  abound  on  the  shallow  banks  along 
the  irregular  western  coast,  especially  cod- 
fish in  the  neighborhood  of  the  far  northern 
Lofoden  Islands.     The  North  Sea,  with  its 


many  fish,  is  also  close  at  hand,  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean  with  its  seals  and  whales. 
Over  a  hundred  thousand  Norwegians  are 
engaged  in  the  fishing  industry.  Along 
the  fiords  every  family  owns  a  boat,  and 
knows  how  to  make  one  as  well  as  how  to 
use  it.  While  the  men  are  at  sea,  the 
women  work  the  small  farms  or  garden 
patches. 

Centuries  of  experience  in  navigating  the 


Fig.  401.  —  Laplanders  who  live,  mainly  by  fishing,  in  northern  Norway 


deep  fiords,  and  in  fishing,  have  bred  in 
these  people  a  love  for  the  sea,  which  has 
given  rise  to  a  third  great  industry,  —  that 
of  carrying  goods  for  other  nations.  The 
timber  for  wooden  vessels  is  easily  supplied, 
so  that  they  can  be  cheaply  built.  At 
present  this  small  Norwegian  nation  has  a 
greater  number  of  freight  vessels  than  any 
other  European  country  except  the  United 
Kingdom. 

All  these  facts  together  explain  why  the 
Norwegian  towns  lie  along  the  coast.  In- 
deed, it  is  rare  to  find  even  a 
village  in  the  rugged  interior. 
Christiania,  the  capital  and  largest  city, 
is  situated  at  the  head  of  a  long,  narrow 
bay,  which  makes  an  excellent  harbor. 
Tins  city  is  the  principal  seaport  and  dis-' 


3.   Cities 


298 


EUROPE 


Fig.  405.  —  A  view  in  one  of  the  grand  fiords 
of  Norway. 

tributing  center  for  southern  Norway. 
Bergen,  the  next  city  in  size,  is  an  impor- 
tant fishing  port,  like  Aberdeen  in  Scotland, 
and  Gloucester  in  Massachusetts. 

A  sinking  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula 
has  caused  the  sea  to  enter  the  deep  moun- 
Scenery  on  the  tain  valleys,  forming  many 
western  coast  bays,  peninsulas,  and  islands. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are 
fully  ten  thousand  islands 
along  the  coast  of  Norway  ; 
and  there  are  hundreds  of 
bays  and  peninsulas. 

The  long,  narrow  bays,  inclosed 
in  steep  mountain  walls,  are  called 
fords  (Fig.  405).  Some  of  these 
extend  fully  ninety  miles  inland. 
The  cliffs  are  often  only  barren 
rock;  but  here  and  there,  where 
the  slopes  are  not  too  steep,  green 
forests  cover  the  surface.  Glaciers 
are  frequently  in  sight;  and  water- 
falls abound  on  every  hand.  In 
some  places  the  swollen  streams 
from  the  mountains  plunge  down- 
ward for  a  thousand  feet  or  more, 
over  the  nearly  vertical  cliffs  which 
bound  the  fiords. 


Here  and  there,  upon  a  level  patch,  a  hamlet  of 
fishermen's  homes  is  seen.  These  hamlets  are  usu- 
ally upon  the  deltas  of  small  streams  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  outer  world,  and  with  other  villages, 
by  no  road  or  pathway  except  the  waters  of  the 
fiord.  So  isolated  are  these  hamlets  that  each  man 
must  learn  to  do  many  things,  —  farm,  fish,  tan  his 
leather,  make  his  shoes,  build  his  boat,  his  house,  etc. 

Every  summer  hundreds  of  visitors,  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  travel  by  steamer  along  this  coast  to 
enjoy  the  beautiful  scenery.  Another  attraction  is 
the  sight  of  the  sun  at  midnight  (Fig.  406).  At 
Bergen,  Christiania,  and  Stockholm,  which  are  in 
nearly  the  same  latitude,  the  shortest  night  is  less 
than  six  hours  ;  at  Trondhjem  it  is  about  four ;  and 
at  Hammerfest  (Fig.  358),  north  of  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle, and  near  North  Cape,  the  sun  does  not  set  from 
May  13  to  July  29. 

Agriculture    is  the  leading    industry   of 
Sweden.       Here,   fertile    soil,    swept   from 
the    highlands  by  the    glacier   industries 
(Fig.  363),  has  been  scattered  of  Sweden 
over   the   lower  lands.      This  1-  Agriculture 
gives  to  the  southern  part  of  the  country 
much  the  same  appearance  as  New  England 
presents.     Oats  are  raised  in  greatest  abun- 
dance, but  rye,  barley,  wheat,  and  potatoes 
are  also  produced.     In  addition,  much  live 
stock  is  raised,  and  butter  is  exj)orted. 

A  large  part  of  the  land  that  is  too  bar- 
ren   and    rocky    for    farming   „    ,     .    . 

J     ,        -      .     .  2.   Lumbering 

supports  a  growth  ot  timber. 

Nearly   one    half    the   area   of    Sweden   is 


Via.  406.  —  The  midnight  sun  at  North  Cape,  th 


NORWAY,    SWEDEN,    AND   DENMARK 


299 


covered  with  forest,  and  lumber  is  the  prin- 
cipal export,  as  in  Norway.  Indeed,  these 
two  countries  supply  much  of  the  lumber 
used  in  western  Europe. 

Mining  is  the  third  important  industry. 
There  are  silver  and  copper  mines  ;  and  a 
3.  Mining  and  small  amount  of  poor  coal  is 
manufacturing  folmd  in  the  south.  Sweden 
has  long  been  noted  for  its  iron  ore,  but 
since  there  is  no  good  coal  for  smelting  it, 
there  is  little    iron  manufacturings      How- 

o 

evei,  some  of  the  iron  ore  is  smelted  by  the 

use  of  charcoal,  and  some  by 

the  use  of  coal  brought  from 

other  countries.     The  Swedish 

iron  is  of  such  excellent  quality 

that  much  of  it  is  shipped  to 

Sheffield,  in  England,  for  use 

in    the    manufacture     of    the 

highest  grade  of  steel  tools. 

Sweden  possesses  excellent 
water  power  for  various  kinds 
of  manufacturing,  and  some 
of  the  numerous  rivers  are 
used  as  a  source  of  power. 
Manufacturing,  by  use  of 
water  power,  is  making  rapid 
progress  here. 

The  two  principal  cities  — 
Stockholm,  the  capital  (Fig. 
Cities  of  407),  and  Goth- 

Sweden  exburg — are    on    the   coast; 

but  there  are  other  small  seaports  and 
inland  mining  towns.  The  situation  of 
Stockholm  is  one  of  great  beauty.  It  is 
on  an  excellent  harbor  ;  and  is  connected 
by  lake,  canal,  and  rail  with  the  chief 
points  in  the  country,  including  Gothen- 
burg. It  is  the  principal  distributing  cen- 
ter for  imports,  while  Gothenburg  is  the 
leading  center  for  exports.  The  fact  that 
the  harbor  of  Stockholm  is  blocked  with 
ice  for  four  "months  each  year,  while  that 
of  Gothenburg  is  rarely  frozen,  gives  the 
latter  city  one  advantage  as  a  shipping 
point. 

The  principal  foreign  trade  of  both  Nor- 
way and    Sweden    is   with   Great    Britain. 


Give  reasons  for  this.     What  must  be  the 
main  articles  of  import  and  -export  ?     Next 
to   Great   Britain   comes   Ger-   Foreign  trade 
many.      Can     you     suggest   of  Norway 
reasons  for  this"?  and  Sweden 

Farming,  especially  dairying,  is  the  chief 
industry  of  Denmark.     In  this  small  coun- 
try there  are  over  a  million  and  a  half  dairy 
cows  and  about  half  as  many  industries  of 
sheep,  besides    large    numbers  Denmark 

of     horses,     goats,     and     pigs.     *■   Agriculture 

Butter  forms  one  half  the  exports  of  Den- 


Fig.  407.  —  A  view  of  Stockholm. 

mark.  The  laws  of  the  nation  discourage 
large  farms,  so  that,  as  in  Belgium,  by  care- 
fully cultivating  a  small  patch  of  land,  each 
farmer  obtains  the  most  that  the  soil  can 
yield. 

The  nearness  to  good  fishing  has  natu- 
rally made  fishing  important;   but  the  fish- 
eries of  Scandinavia  are  of  far   2   Fishing 
greater    value    than    those    of  commerce,  and 
Denmark.      The    Danes    have  minin£ 
much    commerce,    and    some    of    the    men 
serve  as  sailors  on  the  ships  of  other  na- 
tions, though  to  a  far  less  extent  than  the 
Swedes  and  Norwegians. 

There  is  neither  coal  nor  metal  in  the 
rocks  of  Denmark,  so  that  there  is  no  min- 
ing in  the  countrj-.    The  only  mineral  prod- 


300 


EUROPE 


uct  of  value  is  clay.  As  in  Ireland,  the 
lack  of  coal  for  fuel  is  partly  met  by  peat 
from  the  bogs  iind  swamps. 

The  position  of  Denmark,  on  one  of  the 
leading  highways  of  European  commerce, 
3.  Manufac-  has  brought  its  people  into 
turins  close  contact  with  the  rest  of 

the  world.  The  Danes  are  a  very  highly 
educated  people,  and  have  much  manufac- 
turing.    In  spite  of  their  lack  of  raw  ma- 


Norway  and  Denmark  separated,  these  colonies 
remained  a  part  of  the  latter  country.  Although 
some  of  these  have  been  lost,  Green- 


Colonies  of 
Denmark  and 


Fig.  408.  —  A  scene  in  Copenhagen. 

terials,  they  make  machinery,  ships,  beauti- 
ful porcelain,  and  many  other  articles. 

As  in  the  case  of  Norway  and  Sweden, 
the  principal  foreign  trade  of  Denmark  is 
Foreign  trade  with  Great  Britain.  Therefore 
and  leading  one  might  expect  to  find  an  im- 
city  of  Den-  portant  seaport  on  the  western 
coast;  but  that  coast  is  so  low, 
and  so  shut  in  by  sand  bars,  that  good  har- 
bors are  lacking.  In  fact,  in  all  Denmark 
the  only  harbor  that  admits  large  vessels  is 
Copenhagen  (meaning  merchants'  harbor) 
on  Seeland  Island.  Since  this  point  guards 
the  entrance  to  the  Baltic  Sea,  there  is  a 
double  reason  why  Copenhagen  is  the  prin- 
cipal city  of  Denmark.  The  fact  that  it 
is  the  capital  also  increases  its  importance. 

The  daring  Norwegian  sailors  of  early  times,  called 
Norsemen,  explored  many  lands,  and  had  colonies  even 
before  other  countries  of  northern  Europe.     When 


land  (p.  170)  and  the  Faroe  Islands 

are  still  Danish  colonies,  and  Iceland    , 

T,     .  ,     ,  ,  T      ,,      their  products 

is    a   Danish   dependency.      In   the 

Faroes,  a  score  of  small  islands  north  of  Scotland, 
the  principal  products  are  sheep  and  fish.  Denmark 
also  owns  three  islands —  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and 
St.  John  —  in  the  West  Indies.  From  these,  sugar 
and  trojjical  fruits  are  obtained. 

Iceland,  which  is  larger  than  Ireland,  and  more 
than  twice  the  size  of  Denmark,  is 
an  island  of  volcanic  origin.  Over  a 
hundred  volcanoes  are  found  there, 
twenty-five  of  which  have  been  in 
eruption  in  recent  times.  Mount 
Hekla  is  one  of  the  most  noted  of 
these.  Destructive  earthquakes  are 
common,  and  there  are  also  geysers 
similar  to  those  found  in  our  Yellow- 
stone National  Park.  The  interior 
is  a  desert  plateau,  in  part  covered 
by  glaciers,  and  hence  not  inhabited. 
Near  the  sea,  however,  there  is  some 
good  pasture  land,  and  the  people 
are  mainly  engaged  in  raising  sheep 
and  in  fishing.  Eider  down,  from 
the  eider  duck,  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant products  of  the  island.  The 
people  are  highly  educated.  What 
is  the  capital  of  Iceland? 

1.  What  relation  have  the  peojiles 
of  these  three  countries  to  one  another?     2.    How 


Review 


have  they  been  connected  with  us? 
3.  How  has  the  position  of  these  „ 
countries  helped  to  preserve  their  " 
independence?  4.  How  have  their  surface  and  cli- 
mate helped  toward  the  same  end  ?  5.  Where  are  the 
principal  agricultural  districts  ?  'What  about  their 
extent?  6.  What  are  the  less  important  industries  of 
Norway?  7.  The  three  leading  industries?  8.  Name 
and  locate  the  cities  of  Norway.  9.  Describe  the 
scenery  on  the  western  coast.  10.  What  about 
agriculture  in  Sweden ?  11.  Lumbering?  12.  Min- 
ing and  manufacturing?  13.  Name  and  locate  the 
chief  cities  of  Sweden.  14.  What  about  the  foreign 
trade  of  Norway  and  Sweden?  15.  What  are  the 
agricultural  products  of  Denmark  ?  16.  State  the 
principal  facts  about  the  other  industries.  17.  Tell 
about  the  foreign  trade  and  leading  city  of  Denmark. 

18.  Name   and   locate    the   colonies   of    Denmark. 

19.  What  are  their  principal   products?     20.  State 
the  principal  facts  about  Iceland. 

1.  Why  should  the  telephone  prove  of  special  im- 
portance among  the   fishing  towns   Suggestions 
scattered  along  tlie   coast  of    Nor- 
way?   2.  By  use  of  a  globe  explain  why  the  sun  does 


CHAMOIS 

The  M.N.Co,Buffalo. 


Fig.  409.  —  Some  of  the  native  animals  of  Europe. 


302 


EUROPE 


not  set  for  weeks  at  a  time  at  Hammerfest.  3.  Why- 
should  Bergen  be  one  of  the  rainiest  cities  of  Europe  ? 
4.  Give  reasons  why  harbors  on  the  Baltic  are  blocked 
by  ice  much  oftener  than  those  on  the  western  coast 
of  Norway.  5.  Find  out  about  the  early  Norse  ex- 
plorations of  North  America.  6.  Hans  Christian 
Andersen  was  a  native  of  Denmark.  What  fairy 
stories  do  you  know  that  were  written  by  him? 
7.  Read  and  tell  stories  of  the  Norse  gods  in  old- 
time  mythology. 

VII.     Russia  (Fig.  358) 

1.   About  how  much   of   Europe  is   included   in 
Russia  (Fig.  358)  ?    2.  What  part  of  the  distance 
„,    ,  from  pole   to  equator   is  included? 

3.  What  does  this  suggest  concern- 
ing climate?    4.  How   much   of   the   boundary   of 


Fig.  410. 


-  The  city  of  Moscow,  situated  iu  the  midst  of  the  vast,  level 
Russian  plain. 


Russia  is  seacoast?  5.  Name  the  seas  which  border 
it.  6.  Name  the  mountains  on  or  near  the  border. 
7.  What  portion  of  Russia  is  occupied  by  plains 
(Fig.  300)  ?  8.  In  what  directions  do  the  large  rivers 
flow?  Name  the  three  longest.  9.  Is  there  any 
outlet  from  the  Caspian  Sea?  What  does  that  fact 
suggest?  10.  Find  Poland,  Finland,  and  Lapland. 
11.  What  parts  of  Asia  are  in  the  Russian  Empire 
(Fig.  455). 

Russia  in  Europe  is  as  large  as  all  the 
Its  size  and        other   European   countries  to- 


position 


gether  ;   and  the  Russian  Em- 


pire, which  includes  Siberia  and  other  lauds 


in  Asia  (p.  352),  occupies  about  one  sixth  of 
all  the  land  upon  the  globe.  What  coun- 
tries in  North  and  South  America  approach 
European  Russia  in  area?  In  variety  of 
climate? 

In  spite  of  its  vast  extent,  the  develop- 
ment of  Russia  has  been  greatly  hindered 
by  its  position,  which  causes  a  lack  of 
good  harbors.  In  this  respect  it  contrasts 
strongly  with  the  United  States.  To  be 
sure,  the  sea  forms  a  large  portion  of  the 
Russian  boundary ;  but  Archangel,  the 
principal  port  on  the  White  Sea,  is  ice- 
bound for  nine  months,  and  the  Baltic 
ports  for  four  or  five  months,  each  year ; 
while  the  entrances  to  the 
Baltic  and  Black  seas  are 
guarded  by  foreign  nations. 
Why  are  the  Caspian  ports 
of  no  use  for  foreign  com- 
merce ? 

Most  of  the  large  rivers  of 
western  Europe  have  their 
sources  in  the  Surface 
mountains.  Give  features 
examples  (Fig.  359).  It  is 
not  so,  however,  in  Russia, 
where  the  central  divide  is  a 
low,  hilly  region,  less  than 
twelve  hundred  feet  above 
sea  level  at  its  highest  point. 
Except  for  the  mountains  on 
and  near  the  border  of  the 
country,  this  is  the  highest 
part  of  Russia. 
From  what  has  been  said,  it 
is  easily  seen  that  most  of  Russia  is  a  re- 
markably level  plain  (Fig.  410).  Since 
several  of  the  rivers  are  very  long,  what 
must  be  true  as  to  the  swiftness  of  their 
currents?  What,  then,  must  follow  as  to 
their  value  for  navigation  ?  What  about 
the  ease  with  which  canals  can  be  built  ? 

In  southeastern  Russia,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  the  lofty  Caucasus  Mountains 
(Fig.  361),  one  of  whose  peaks,  the  extinct 
volcano  Mount  Elburz,  is  the  highest  moun- 
tain in  Europe.     At  the  very  base  of  these 


RUSSIA 


303 


2.   Rainfall 


mountains,  however,  are  broad  plains  bor- 
dering the  Caspian  Sea.  In  some  places 
these  plains  are  even  below  sea  level. 

The  great  distance  of  Russia  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  over  which  the  west  winds 
Climate  blow,    has    had    an    important 

1.  Temperature  effect  on  both  the  temperature 
and  rainfall.  For  example,  Moscow  is  in 
the  same  latitude  as  Edinburgh;  but  while 
at  Edinburgh  the  average  temperature  for 
January  is  37°,  at  Moscow  it  is  nearly  25° 
colder.  What  effect  must  this  cold  have 
upon  navigation  of  the  rivers?  Notice 
which  isotherms  pass  near  Moscow  and 
Edinburgh  in  July  (Fig.  317).  From  this 
you  see  that,  though  the  winters  are  colder, 
the  summers  are  much  warmer  in  Russia 
than  in  Scotland,  in  the  same  latitude. 

There  is  far  less  rainfall  in  Russia  than  in 
Scotland.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  coun- 
try there  is  an  average  of  less 
than  twenty  inches  a  year 
(Fig.  365).  Since  this  amount  is  barely 
enough  for  agriculture,  the  crops  often 
suffer,  and  famines  follow  in  especially  dry 
seasons.  Southeastern  Russia  is  in  the  belt 
of  the  horse  latitudes,  and  is  so  far  from  the 
ocean  that  it  is  too  arid  for  farming  without 
irrigation. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  into  which  the  longest  river  of 
Europe  pours  its  floods,  is  the  largest  inland  sea  in 
the  world.  In  spite  of  the  enormous  volume  of 
water  which  enters  this  sea,  the  evaporation  in  that 
dry  climate  has  caused  it  to  shrink  in  size  until  it  is 
no  longer  connected  with  the  ocean.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  Aral  Sea  (Fig.  -too).  There  is  so  much 
evaporation  in  this  region  that  the  surface  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  is  eighty-five  feet  below  sea  level. 

Russia  may  be  divided  into  several  belts, 
according  to  climate.  In  the  north  are  the 
3.  Climatic  frozen  tundras,  even  in  summer 
belts  too  cold  for  agriculture.     The 

(1)  Tundras  scattered  Laplanders,  who  live 
upon  the  tundras,  have  habits  resembling 
those  of  the  Eskimos. 

South    of   the    tundra    belt   the    warmer 
climate  permits  the  growth  of 

(2)  Forests  .         .      K      ,     ,.  l     . 

forests,    including    such    trees 
as  pine,  fir,  oak,  beech,  and   birch.     Some 


of  this  timber  has  been  cut  away,  and  farms 
have  taken  the  place  of  forests ;  but  much 
woodland  still  remains. 

The  forest  belt  is  gradually  replaced  on 
the  south  by  open,  grass-covered  plains 
similar  to  those  of  the  central    „s  r, 

\o)   Grassy 

and  western  parts  of  the  United  plains  and  arid 
States.  -  This  is  the  best  agri-  sieppes 
cultural  region  of  Russia,  and  here  grains 
are  raised  in  enormous  quantities,  especially 
in  the  "  black  earth  "  section  where  the  soil 
is  fine-grained,  black,  and  very  fertile.  The 
climate  of  the  grassy  plains  gradually  be- 
comes more  arid  toward  the  south  and  east, 
until  on  the  steppes,  which  resemble  our 
Western  arid  lands,  farming  without  irriga- 
tion is  impossible. 

In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Russia, 
near  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  there  is  abun- 
dant rainfall ;  and,  being  so  (4)  The  Cauca- 
far  south,  the  crops  of  warm  sus  region 
temperate  climates  are  raised,  but  around 
the  Caspian  Sea  most  of  the  land  is  a  barren 
desert. 

The  plains  of  Russia  have  offered  no  bar- 
rier to  invasion.  Therefore,  many  differ- 
ent peoples  have  come  to  this  people 
region  from  various  directions,  l.  Races  and 
and  they  are  now  united  under  languages 
Russian  rule.  Most  of  these  belong  to  the 
white  race,  though  to  a  different  division 
from  the  German  and  British  peoples. 
These  Russians  are  Slavs,  while  the  in- 
habitants of  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and 
the  British  Isles  belong  to  the  Teutonic 
division  of  the  white  race.  Russia  also 
contains  many  Jews,  Teutons,  and  other 
people,  including  Lapps  (Fig.  404)  and 
Finns,  both  of  whom  are  classed  with  the 
Mongolian  race.  All  together,  not  fewer 
than  forty  languages  are  spoken  within  the 
realm. 

In  former  centuries,  while  other  parts  of  Europe 
were  advancing  in  civilization,  Russia  was  still  be- 
ing raided  by  hordes  of  outsiders.  2  civilization 
The  country  was  so  far  away  from 
western  Europe  that  it  felt  little  influence  from 
the  growing  civilization  of  the  West.  Moreover, 
approach   by  water  was   then   even   more   difficult 


304 


EUROPE 


than  now,  for  at  that  time  the  only  seacoast  that 
Russia  owned  was  on  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  was 
not  until  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great  (1682-1725) 
that  Russia  began  to  learn  the  lessons  of  civiliza- 
tion from  other  European  nations. 

These  facts  help  to  explain  why  Russia 
is  so  slightly  advanced  in  some  directions. 
While  the  common  people  of  other  European 
nations  were  demanding  greater  liberty,  and 
were  steadily  gaining  education,  the  masses 
of  the  Russians  were  kept  in  poverty  and 
ignorance.  They  were  mere  serfs,  who 
were  little  better  than  slaves  to  their  lords, 


Fig.  411.  —  A  family  of  Russian  peasants. 

the  nobles.  The  serfs  were  freed  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  ;  but,  even  now, 
little  attempt  is  being  made  to  educate  the 
masses,  and  they  have  little  liberty. 

The  emperor,  or  Czar,  is  an  absolute 
monarch,  "whose   will  alone   is  law."     In 

Government  Purely  local  matters,  however, 
the  peasants  have  a  voice. 
Those  of  each  locality  meet  in  a  Mir,  or  as- 
sembly, to  discuss  matters  of  common  inter- 
est and  to  elect  officers  from  their  number, 
somewhat  as  is  done  in  town  meetings  in  the 
United  States. 

Many  of  the  Russians  have  long  been  dis- 
satisfied with  this  form  of  government,  and 
have  demanded  that  the  people  be  given 
more  power.     At  lust  the  Czar  has  allowed 


the  people  to  elect  a  national  body  of  repre- 
sentatives, called  the  Duma.  They  are, 
however,  able  to  do  little  beyond  what  the 
rulers  allow,  and  there  is  still  much  com- 
plaint. 

Nearly  a  third  of  European  Russia  is 
forest-covered  ;  and,  as  in  Norway  (p.  297), 
timber  is  one  of  the  leading  Lumbering 
resources.  Many  fur-bearing  and  fishing 
animals  live  in  the  forest,  and  Russia,  like 
Canada,  exports  large  numbers  of  valuable 
furs. 

Fishing  is  an  important  industry  in  Rus- 
sian waters,  and  the  varieties  of 
fish  resemble  those  of  Norway 
and  Sweden.  There  is  a  special 
demand  for  fish,  owing  to  the 
number  of  fast  days  kept  by 
the  Grseco-Russian  Church,  to 
which  the  majority  of  Russians 
belong. 

Both  in  the  forest  region  and 
on  the  open  plains  to  the  south, 
there  is  extensive  Agriculture 
agriculture.  Fully  1.  Farming 
nine  tenths  of  the  people  are 
supported  by  farming,  which 
shows  that  Russia  is  mainly  an 
agricultural  country. 

The  most  important  crops  are 
the  grains,  especially  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats.  Russia  ranks  next  to  the 
United  States  among  the  grain-producing 
countries  of  the  world,  and  wheat  is  one  of 
its  principal  exports.  Another  important 
crop  is  hay ;  and  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  and 
flax  are  extensively  raised  in  the  cool  tem- 
perate climate.  In  southern  Russia  the 
warm  climate  permits  the  culture  of  grapes, 
tobacco,  and  corn ;  and  south  of  the  Cau- 
casus even  olives  and  cotton  are  grown. 

On  the  grazing  lands  of  the  arid  steppes 
many  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  raised. 
The  nomadic  herdsmen  still 
retain  many  of  the  customs  of 
the  shepherds  and  herders  of  Bible  times, 
who  dwelt  farther  south  in  Asia.  This  is 
the  home  of  the  Cossacks,  a  people  of  Tartar 


RUSSIA 


305 


%.?<v^.  •?-•:-■■  y:V 


Fig.  41'J.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  camels  in  southeastern  Russia. 


descent  noted  for  their  skill  as  horsemen 
and  for  their  fierce  bravery. 

Some  parts  of  Russia  contain  mineral  de- 
posits of  great  value.     In  the  Ural  Moun- 

...  .  tains,  for  example, 

Mining  .  .  L 

are    gold,   silver, 

copper,  and  platinum,  besides 
some  precious  stones  and  graph- 
ite, or  "  black  lead,"  used  in 
lead  pencils.  Coal  and  iron  are 
mined  in  several  parts  of  Russia 
(Fig.  362),  and  each  year  the 
amount  is  increasing.  As  in 
Great  Britain,  some  of  the  iron 
ore  is  so  near  coal  and  limestone 
that  it  is  easily  smelted. 

Russia  ranks  next  to  the 
United  States  in  the  production 
of  petroleum.  This  oil  is  found 
in  several  places,  especiallv 
about  Baku  on  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Large  quantities  are  consumed  as 
fuel  for  steamers  on  the  Caspian 
and  Volga  ;  and,  as  in  California, 
the  oil  is  used  in  locomotives. 


Numerous   factories  have    recently  been 
started  in  Russia,  but  most  of 
the  manufacturing  is  still  done 
by   hand,  in   the    homes   of   the   workmen. 


Manufacturing 


Fig.  413.  —  A  Russian  peasant  girl  harvesting  wheat  by  hand. 


306 


EUROPE 


What  a  contrast  to  the  United  States  and  to 
Great  Britain !  Distilling  and  brewing, 
cotton  manufacturing  and  sugar  refining,  are 
the  principal  forms  of  manufacturing  car- 
ried on  in  factories ;  flour  mills,  woolen  and 


Fig.  414.  —  A  Graco-Russian  church  in  Moscow. 

linen  factories,  and  iron  works  rank  next  in 
importance.  What  raw  products  of  Russia 
encourage  these  industries? 

For  a  long  time  the  principal  cities  of 
Russia  were  situated  far  in  the  interior. 
Principal  cities  This  clearly  shows  how  little 
l.  Moscow  and  Russia  was  in  touch  with  other 
Nizhni  Novgorod  countries.  For  example,  Mos- 
cow, the  second  city  in  size,  and  once  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  is  located  almost  in 
the  center  of  the  realm,  as  Madrid  is  in 
Spain.  The  point  was  well  chosen,  because 
rivers,  which  could  easily  be  connected  by 
canals,  diverge  from  this  section  in  all  di- 
rections. By  the  introduction  of  railways 
the  advantage  of  this  central  location  was 
so  increased  that  Moscow  is  now  the  leading 


railway  center  of  Russia  as  Madrid  is  of 
Spain,  and  for  the  same  reason.  State  this 
reason  (p.  293).  Unlike  Madrid,  the  land 
round  about  the  city  is  fertile  and  densely 
populated.  All  these  advantages  have  made 
Moscow  one  of  the  chief  manu- 
facturing centers  of  the  empire. 

Moscow  is  adorned  with  royal  palaces, 
government  buildings,  and  churches  (Fig. 
414).  It  is  the  holy  city  of  Russia,  being 
the  center  of  the  Graeco-Russian  Church. 
The  University  of  Moscow,  the  largest  in 
the  empire,  is  attended  by  about  four 
thousand  students. 

East  of  Moscow,  on  the  Volga  River, 
is  Nizhni  Novgorod,  renowned  for  its 
yearly  fairs.  For  centuries  a  great  trade 
center  has  been  needed,  somewhere  in  this 
vicinity,  for  the  exchange  of  Asiatic  and 
Russian  products.  This  city  has  such 
excellent  water  connections  that  it  has 
served  as  that  center.  On  the  map  (Fig. 
358)  point  out  these  connections.  The 
fairs,  held  in  August  and  September,  are 
the  greatest  in  Europe,  and  attract  as 
many  as  two  hundred  thousand  strangers 
each  year.  In  a  single  season  goods  are  ex- 
changed to  the  value  of  nearly  $200,000,000, 
and  prices  are  fixed  on  crops  and  other 
•materials  for  the  coming  year. 

While    the    two    cities    just   de- 
scribed are  very  old,  their  position 
in   the   interior  is  not  2.  Petrograd 
favorable   for   com-   and  Riga 
merce   with    distant    nations.     It  was  this 
fact   that  led   Peter    the    Great,   in    1703, 
to    found    Petrograd    at    the    head    of 
the  Gulf  of    Finland.      The  site  chosen  is 
very    marshy,    and    the    climate    is    cold, 
foggy,    and    unhealthful.      Moreover,    the 
arm    of    the    sea    on    which    the    city    is 
located    is    so   shallow   that   a   ship    canal 
twenty  miles  in  length  has  been  necessary 
in    order    to    connect    it    with    the    deeper . 
water  farther  west.     In  addition,  the  har 
bor  is  ice-bound  for  more  than  four  montt 
each  year. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  all  these  disadvantages, 
Petrograd  is  the  largest  city  in  Rus- 
sia, and  the  fifth  in  size  in  Europe.  This 
growth  is  partly  due  to  the  need  of  a  sea 


■ 


RUSSIA 


307 


port  in  this  section,  and  partly  to  the  fact 
that  the  city  is  the  capital  of  a  great  em- 
pire. More  goods  are  shipped  from  this 
point  than  from  any  other  Baltic  port. 
Riga,  to  the  southwest,  has  about  half  as 
much  shipping. 

Petrograd  is  a  well-planned  city,  having 


3.  Odessa 


Fig.  415.  —  A  Russian  sleigh  in  Petrograd. 

especially  wide  streets,  splendid  public 
buildings,  and  fine  residences. 

Odessa,  another  important  seaport,  was 
founded  a  little  over  a  century  ago,  when 
Russia  gained  possession  of  the 
northwestern  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea.  Besides  being  the  chief  outlet 
for  the  vast  grain  trade  of  southern  Russia, 
and  the  principal  port  on  the  Black  Sea, 
Odessa  is  an  important  flour-milling  center, 
like  Minneapolis. 

Thus  far  the  Russians  have  not  found  it 
possible  to  obtain  possession  of  Constanti- 
4.  Warsaw  nople,  although  they  have,  no 
and  Lodz,  in  doubt,  felt  many  a  yearning  in 
Poland  that  direction.     Why?    They 

have,  however,  extended  their  territory  in 
other  directions.  For  example,  they  have 
gained  much  land  in  central  Europe.  At 
one  time  there  was  a  powerful  kingdom 
here,  called  Poland,  but   this  was  divided 


among  Russia,  Austria,  and  Germany.  Rus- 
sia obtained  the  largest  share,  and  in  this 
portion  are  situated  Warsaw  and  Lodz, 
two  of  the  leading  cities  in  the  empire. 
The  former  is  a  center  for  the  railways  that 
connect  Russia  with  western  Europe,  and 
the  latter  is  an  important  manufacturing 
city.  Much  coal  and  iron  are 
mined  in  this  vicinity. 

Finland,  whose  capital   is   Hel- 
singfors,  although  a  part   of   the 

Russian  Empire,  has 

j.  .  i  Finland 
a  measure  of  inde- 
pendence. It  has  a  parliament 
which  makes  its  laws,  but  the  Czar 
has  the  right  of  veto  upon  them. 
Unlike  the  Russians,  most  of  whom 
belong  to  the  Grsco-Russian  Church, 
the  Finns  are  mainly  Protestants, 
belonging  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
They  are  a  nation  of  highly  edu- 
cated people.  But  it  has  been  the 
policy  of  the  Russian  government 
to  destroy  their  existence  as  a 
nation.  On  account  of  mistreat- 
ment from  the  Russians,  many 
Finns  and  Poles  have  migrated  to 
the  United  States. 

1.    Show    how    large    Russia    is. 
2.  What  about  its  harbors?    3.  De- 
scribe   its    surface.      4.    What    can  . 
you    say    about    the    temperature?    _        . 
5.    The  rainfall?     6.    Into  what  cli-   v 
matic  belts  can  the  country  be  divided  ?     7.    What 
different    races    are    found    among    the    Russians, 
and    how   many   languages   are    spoken    by   them? 
8.    Why  have  they  not  advanced  further  ?     9.   What 
is    the    condition    of    the    government?      10.    Tell 
about  lumbering   and   fishing.     11.    What   are   the 
agricultural  products?     12.    The  mineral  products? 

13.  What    is    the    condition    of     manufacturing  ? 

14.  Locate  and  state  the  principal  facts  about 
Moscow  and  Xizhni  Novgorod.  15.  Petrograd  and 
Riga.  16.  Odessa.  17.  Warsaw  and  Lodz.  18.  Fin- 
land. 

1.  Compare  the  area  of  the  Caspian  Sea  with  that 
of  Lake  Superior.  2.  Read  about  how  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Moscow  burned  their  houses 
in  1812  rather  than  give  shelter  to  8S 
Xapoleon's  army.  What  followed  ?  3.  What  must 
be  some  of  the  difficulties  connected  with  building 
good  wagon  roads  in  southern  Russia  ?  4.  What 
did  Kosciusko,  the  Pole,  do  to  make  his  name  mem- 
orable to  Americans?  5.  Have  you  read  the  story 
of  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw?    If  so,  what  can  vou  tell 


308 


EUROPE 


about  it  ?  6.  Read  how  Peter  the  Great  wandered 
through  European  countries,  as  a  common  work- 
man, in  order  to  learn  Western  customs.  7.  Make 
a  sketch  map  of  Russia,  with  principal  rivers  and 
cities.  8.  Compare  Russia  with  the  United  States 
in  area  and  population  (Appendix,  pp.  424  and 
426);  also  in  degrees  of  latitude  contained. 

VIII.    German  Empire 

1.  Compare  the  latitude  of  Berlin  with  that  of 
Loudon  (Fig.  358).  2.  Of  New  York.  3.  Estimate 
m      „     ,  the  greatest  length  of  Germany  from 

east  to  west  (Fig.  416)  ;  from  north 
to  south.  4.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the 
British  Isles  ?  With  Russia?  5.  What  parts  of  the 
boundary  are  natural?  6.  Point  out  the  principal 
rivers.  In  what  direction  do  they  flow  ?  7.  Is  most 
of  the  surface  plain  or  mountainous  (Fig.  359)  ? 
Where  are  the  mountains  ?  8.  What  facts  do  you 
notice  about  the  coast  line  ?•  9.  Is  the  North  Sea, 
or  the  Baltic,  the  more  desirable  place  for  seaports? 
Why? 

The  position  of  the  German  Empire  is 
strikingly  different  from  that  of  Great 
Position,  and  Britain.  Only  about  one  third 
its  advantages  of  its  boundary  is  water,  while 
it  borders  upon  seven  independent  countries, 
besides  Luxemburg  (p.  283).  What  are 
their  names  ? 

The  location  of  the  British  Isles  is  favor- 
able for  world  commerce,  because  densely 
populated  Europe  lies  near  at  hand  on  one 
side,  while  the  New  World  lies  across  the 
ocean  on  the  other  side.  Germany  also  has 
great  advantages  in  her  location.  Because 
it  is  so  central,  most  of  the  markets  of  the 
continent  are  at  her  very  doors,  while  two 
of  her  principal  ports,  Hamburg  and  Bre- 
men, face  Great  Britain  and  the  west. 
Name  some  of  the  large  European  cities 
(Fig.  358)  that  can  be  quickly  reached  from 
Germany.  In  these  days  of  railways,  Ger- 
many's central  position  is  superior  to  that 
of  England  for  European  trade. 

It  has  required  a  long  struggle  to  bring 

under     one     rule     the    various 
Formation  of  ,e  K   •        within  t]      bound. 

the  empire;       *      l  "  . 

present  area  alT  oi  the  German  Empire, 
and  popula-  For  centuries  there  were  many 
tl0n  separate  states  in  central  Europe 


with  a  German-speaking  population;  and, 
although  they  were  loosely  held  together 
by  a  confederation,  they  were  often  at  war 
with  one  another.  Their  condition  was, 
in  some  respects,  similar  to  our  own  just 
after  the  Revolutionary  War.  During 
the  War  of  1866,  Prussia  and  Austria,  the 
principal  kingdoms  of  the  German  Confed- 
eration, fought  for  leadership.  Prussia 
proved  successful,  and  Austria  withdrew 
from  the  union.  In  1871,  under  the  lead 
of  Prussia,  the  German  Empire,  with  its 
present  boundaries,  was  established. 

It  contains  nearly  two  hundred  and  nine 
thousand  square  miles,  being  a  little  larger 
than  France,  and  twice  the  size  of  Colorado. 
But  it  has  nearly  sixty-five  million  inhabit- 
ants, or  about  eighty-one  times  as  many 
as  Colorado,  and  twenty-five  million  more 
than  France. 

All  together  there  are  twenty-six  states 

within    this    empire,   some    of   them    being 

kingdoms,    some    duchies,    and   _ 

"  i      j.  rr,.       Government 

some  merely  free  towns.      1  he 

smallest  is  the  Free  Town  of  Bremen,  which 
includes  only  ninety-nine  square  miles,  and 
two  hundred  and  ninety-eight  thousand  in- 
habitants. The  largest  is  Prussia,  whose 
area  is  more  than  half  that  of  the  entire 
empire,  and  whose  population  is  about  five 
eighths  that  of  all  Germany. 

These  states  are  united  under  a  central 
authority,  more  closely  than  our  states.  In 
place  of  a  President  they  have  an  Emperor, 
the  King  of  Prussia  being  by  law  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany  ;  and  their  form  of  govern- 
ment is  a  limited  monarchy.  The  power 
of  the  German  Emperor  is,  however,  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  British  King, 
though  far  less  absolute  than  that  of  the 
Russian  Czar. 

In  a  war  with  France,  in  1870,  the  Ger- 
mans defeated  the  French,  and  seized  some 
French  territory  west  of  the  why  the 
Rhine,  called  Alsace-Lorraine,  boundary  is  so 
in  which  Metz  and  Strassburg  Regular 
are  situated.  Much  of  Germany's  irregular 
frontier   has  been  determined  in  a  similar 


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GERMAN  EMPIRE 


309 


way.  Mountains  form  the  southern  bound- 
ary, to  a  great  extent,  and  water  the  north- 
ern ;  but  the  eastern  and  western  limits, 
largely  decided  by  war,  do  not  follow  any 
natural  barrier.  Draw  an  outline  map  of 
Germany,  to  show  this  boundary  line. 

In  order  to  hold  her  present  boundaries, 
Germany  must  be  prepared  to  defend  them 
Preparation  for  at  any  time.  This  need  calls 
defense  of  the  many  citizens  to  an  occupation 
country  which  we  have  not  thus  far  con- 

sidered; namely,  that  of  preparing  for  war. 


man  navy  calls  for  many  men  besides.  All  these 
men  are,  for  the  time  being,  withdrawn  from  the 
industries,  so  that  t lie  nation  loses  the  fruits  of  their 
labor  for  that  period.  Is  this  an  advantage  to  a 
nation  ? 

Strong  forts  are  built  near  the  boundary,  as  at 
Cologne,  Metz,  and  Strassburg  on  the  French  side, 
and  Konigsberg  and  Posen  near  Russia.  Forts  are 
also  numerous  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  great 
interior  cities,  and  at  other  important  points.  The 
cost  of  these  strongholds,  with  the  vast  sums  of 
money  required  to  keep  up  the  army  and  navy, 
makes  a  heavy  drain  upon  the  nation. 

Germany  is  not.  unlike  other  leading  European 
nations  in  these  respects.  As  already 
stated  (p.  275),  the  British,  having 
no  close  neighbors,  rely  mainly  upon 
their  powerful  navy  for  defense. 
Every  one  of  the  Great  Powers  de- 
mands the  service  of  many  men,  and 
expends  large  sums  of  money  either 
for  the  army,  or  navy,  or  both.  In 
fact,  preparation  for  war  is  one  of  the 
great  occupations  of  Europe  to-day. 


Surface 
features 

1.    The  high- 
lands 


Fig.  41S.  —  The  building  in  Berlin  where  the  German  Parliament  meets 

Each  of  the  great  European  nations  is  jeal- 
ously watching  the  others;  and  since  no  one 
of  them  knows  how  soon  a  dispute  may  arise 
with  its  neighbor,  each  keeps  a  large  and 
thoroughly  prepared  army.  Until  perma- 
nent peace  is  established  it  will  probably  be 
necessary  for  each  nation  whether  at  war  or 
in  peace  to  maintain  a  large  standing  army. 

For  such  reasons,  all  able-bodied  young  men  in 
Germany  are  required  to  devote  usually  two  full 
years,  and  parts  of  several  following  years,  to  active 
military  training.  Most  of  them  enter  the  service 
at  about  the  age  of  twenty ;  and  as  some  five 
hundred  thousand  men  fit  for  military  service  reach 
that  age  every  year,  one  can  gain  an  idea  as  to  what 
such  preparation  costs. 

During  times  of  peace,  the  German  army  contains 
nearly  six  hundred  thousand  soldiers;  and  the  Ger- 


Germany  includes  two  quite 
different  kinds  of  land.     The 
southern    section 
is    mainly    a    re- 
gion   of    ancient 
mountains,   worn 
clown    to    low    relief   like    the 
mountains    of    Great    Britain 
and   New  England.     It  is,  in 
fact,     a     somewhat     irregular 
plateau,  from  one  to  two  thousand  feet  in 
height,  with  some  ranges  rising  high  enough 
to  be  called  mountains  (Fig.  419).      Only 
in  the  extreme  south,  on  the  edge  of  the 
Alps,   is   a    great    altitude    reached.      Here 
one    peak    rises    nearly    ten    thousand    feet 
above  sea  level. 

Northern  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
a  lowland  whose  elevation  is  rarely  more 
than  six  hundred  feet.  This  2.  The  low- 
lowland,  mainly  in  Prussia,  lands 
broadens  toward  the  east  until  it  merges 
into  the  plains  of  Russia.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Holland  this  plain  is  very  low  and 
flat  (Fig.  420)  ;  but  in  most  places  its  sur- 
face is  rolling,  owing  partly  to  the  irregular 
deposits  left  by  the  Great  Glacier. 


310 


EUROPE 


Fig.  419.  —  A  view  in  the  Black  Forest,  one  of  the  low  mountain  regions 


Most    of 
northward 

3.   Drainage 


the  drainage  of  Germai^  is 
into  the  North  and  Baltic 
seas.  Name  and  trace  the 
courses  of  four  large  rivers 
which  flow  northward.  What  river  has 
some  of  its  head-waters  in  the  highland 
region  of  southern  Germany,  then  crosses 
Austria  and  finally  enters  the  Black  Sea? 

Note   the   number   of    degrees 
of  latitude  included  in  Germany. 
Climate  One  might  expect  a 

1.  Temperature"  warmer  climate  in 
the  south  than  in  the  north ;  but 
on  account  of  its  elevation,  the 
southern  plateau  is  about  as  cold 
in  winter  as  the  northern  low- 
land. In  summer,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  southern  part,  being 
nearer  the  interior  of  the  conti- 
nent, is  warmer  than  the  north- 
ern. There  are  some  low,  partly 
inclosed  valleys  in  the  south,  how- 
ever, where  the  climate  in  winter 
as  well  as  in  summer  is  warmer 
than  that  of  the  northern  plains. 


The  influence  of  the  warm  waters  of  the  ocean  is 
very  well  shown  along  the  coast.  For  example,  the 
ports  of  the  North  Sea,  being  most  open  to  the  ocean, 
are  almost  always  free  from  ice ;  but  the  Baltic  ports, 
being  cut  off  so  completely  from  the  open  ocean,  are 
frozen  over  during  a  part  of  the  winter.  The  farther 
east  they  lie,  the  longer  their  trade  is  interrupted  by 
the  ice.  What  must  be  some  of  the  results  of  this 
fact? 


Fig.  420.  —  A  view  on  the  low  level  plain  of  north  Germany. 


GERMAN  EMPTBE 


311 


2.   Rainfall 


There  is  ample  rainfall  for  agriculture  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire.  It  is  true  that 
there  is  less  rain  than  in  east- 
ern United  States ;  but  in  the 
cooler  summer  climate  of  Germany  not  so 
much  is  needed  by  plants,  because  there  is 
less  evaporation.  In  the  United  States, 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  there  is  an  average 
annual  rainfall  of  about  forty  inches ;    but 


The  good  sense  of  the  German  people  is  well 
shown  by  the  way  they  treat  their  woodlands.  In- 
stead of  wastefully  destroying  them 

by  fire   and  the   ax,  — as  has  been    *■  cfeofthe 
,-        .  ,  forests 

done  in  so  many  parts  of  our  coun- 
try, —  the  Germans  have  developed  an  excellent  sys- 
tem of  forest  culture.  Trees  are  planted  in  place 
of  those  that  are  cut  for  timber,  and  they  are  given 
proper  care,  so  that  the  woods  continue  to  be  abun- 
dant. In  this  way  the  forest  is  made  to  yield  a 
profit  every  year,  just  as  a  farm  does.  Germany  pro- 
duces a  large  part  of  the  lumber  she 
uses,  and  also  exports  a  great  deal. 

It  is  partly  the  example  of  the 
Germans  that  has  led  our  own 
country,  at  last,  to  begin  to  pay 
attention  to  the  care  of  our  forests. 
Our  government  has  set  aside  many 
large  forest  reservations  (p.  126), 
and  schools  of  forestry  have  been 
started  at  the  universities,  where 
young  men  are  trained  for  the  pro- 
fession of  Forestry. 


Fig.  421.  —  Vineyards  on  the  steep  slope  of  the  Rhine  Valley  near  Bingen. 
The  land  is  terraced  here  and  the  small  patches  of  vineyard  are  inclosed 
within  walls  of  rock. 


in  Germany  there  are  only  twenty-eight 
inches  in  the  west,  and  twenty  inches  in 
the  east,  near  the  Russian  border. 

There  are  several  low  mountain  areas  in 
Germany  where  the  soil  is  too  poor  for 
Lumbering  farming,  but  where  the  slopes 
1.  Location  are  not  to°  steep,  or  cold,  for 
|  and  extent  of  forest  growth.  Indeed,  the  Ger- 
the  forests  man  WQrd  fo].  ^^  (waM)  jg 

a  part  of  some  of  the  mountain  names. 
as  in  Schwartzwald,  which  means  Black 
Forest  (Fig.  419).  Forests  also  cover 
some  of  the  lowlands  where  the  soil  is 
poor.  All  together  about  one  fourth  of 
the  surface  of  the  empire  is  covered  with 
trees. 


On  the  whole,  Germany  has 
not  a  fertile  soil ;   but  the  farm 
products  are  very  Agriculture 
extensive,     be-   i.  its  impor- 
cause  the  people  tance 
are  both   industrious   and    in- 
telligent, and  their  method  of 
cultivating  the  soil  is  excellent. 
What   countries  may  well  be 
contrasted    with    Germany   in 
this  respect  ?     More  than  one 
third    of    the    German    people 
depend   for  their  living   upon   agriculture, 
the  leading  industry  of  the  nation. 

Germany  is  one  of  the  most  important 
grain-producing  countries  of  Europe;  but 
here  rye  takes  the  place  of 
wheat  as  the  principal  grain. 
Potatoes,  introduced  from  America,  are 
raised  in  such  quantities  that,  like  rye,  they 
form  one  of  the  principal  foods.  These 
two  crops  are  extensively  cultivated,  both 
because  they  are  cheap  foods,  and  because 
they  flourish  in  a  light  soil  and  a  cool 
summer  climate.  Sugar  beets,  hay,  oats, 
and  barley  are  other  important  crops  of  the 
northern  plains,  while  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine,  and  in  other  warm,  sheltered  valleys 


2.   Farm  crops 


312 


EUROPE 


3.   Live  stock 


of  the  south,  hops,  tobacco,  and  grapes  are 
raised  in  large  quantities  (Fig.  421). 

Since  much  of  the  lowland  is  too  sandy  for 
cultivation,  and  much  of  the  highland  too 
rugged,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
one  sixth  of  all  the  surface  is 
natural  pasture.  Cattle  for  beef  and  for  dairy 
purposes  are  kept  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  but  especially  in  the  damper  cli- 
mate of  the  west.  Largely  because  wool  can 
be  imported  so  cheaply,  the  raising  of  sheep 
in  Germany  is  becoming  of  less  importance. 
Swine  raising,  on  the  other  hand,  is  increas- 
ing because  of  the  cheap  feed  supplied  by 
the  refuse  from  the  beet-sugar  factories. 

Although  Germany  raises  a  great  quantity 
of  food,  her  population,  like  that  of  England, 
is  so  dense  that  she  cannot  produce  all  that 
she  needs.  Much  wheat  and  meat  must 
therefore  be  imported. 

Next  to  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany 
is  the  greatest  mining  country  of  Europe; 
.  and,  as  in  Great  Britain,  her 

"  most    valuable    minerals,    coal 

and  iron,  often  occur  in  the  same  region. 
Germany  reminds  us  of  our  own  country  in 
the  wide  distribution  of  her  coal  beds.  The 
coal  fields  that  were  found  in  northeastern 
France  and  Belgium  (Fig.  362)  extend  into 
Germany  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aachen; 
and  from  this  point  eastward  to  the  Russian 
border  there  are  several  important  coal 
fields. 

Among  the  other  valuable  mineral  products  are 
lead,  copper,  silver,  zinc,  and  salt.  Nearly  half  the 
silver  mined  in  Europe  comes  from  German}';  and 
Belgium  and  Germany  together  produce  more  zinc 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  There  are  immense 
salt  mines,  as  at  Stassfurt,  from  which  ai-e  obtained 
not  only  table  salt,  but  products  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap,  in  dyeing,  bleaching,  glass  making, 
and  calico  printing. 

The  Germans  make  use  of  thoroughly  scientific 
methods  in  their  mining  work  ;  and  from  them  other 
nations  have  learned  many  of  the  methods  used  in 
reducing  ores  to  metal. 

From  the  above  facts  we  may  expect  to 
find  Germany  an  important  manufacturing 
country,   with  her   manufacturing   centers 


well  distributed.  Explain  why.  About  a 
third  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing, and  in  recent  Manufacturing 
years  Germany  has  advanced  i,  itsimpor- 
very  rapidly  in  this  industry.  tance 
Among  the  European  countries  she  now 
ranks  next  to  the  United  Kingdom  in  the 
quantity  and  excellence  of  her  goods. 


Fig.  422.  —  Storks  in  Strassburg,  where  they  build 
their  nests  on  the  chimney  tops. 

The  position  of  the  coal  and  iron  mines 
accounts  for  the  location  of  the  principal 
centers  for  iron  manufacturing.    2.   Leading 

The    busiest    section     is    along    centers  of  manu- 

the  Rhine,  in  the  vicinity  of  facturing 
Cologne  ;  and  this  region  may  well  be 
compared  with  northern  England  in  the 
extent  of  its  industries.  A  second  center  is 
round  about  Dresden  and  Chemnitz  ;  and 
a  third  is  at  Breslau  in  the  southeastern 
corner  of  the  empire. 

The  map  (Fig.  416)  shows  no  cities 
south   of   Breslau  ;    yet   this   is  a   busy 


GERMAN  EMPIRE 


313 


3.    Leading 
kinds  of  manu- 
facturing 

(1)   Textile  and 

iron  goods 


manufacturing  region.     Cities  are  lacking 
here  because  the  people  carry  on  the  manu- 
facturing mainly  in  their  own      .    homes, 
instead  of  in  factories.     There-     M    fore,  al 
though  villages  stretch  for 
miles     along     the     valleys, 
there  are  no  large  towns. 

As  in  several  other  coun- 
tries   so    far    studied,    the 
textile  indus- 
tries are  best 
developed 
near  the  coal 
fields.  There- 
fore    the     sections     men- 
tioned above   are   noted 
for  cotton,  woolen,  and 
silk  factories,  as  well  as 
for  iron.     All  the  cotton 
ami  silk,  and  much  of 
the    wool,    for    these 
'textile  industries  has 
to  come  from  abroad. 
But  the  people  south 
of  Breslau  make  use 
largely    of    raw    ma- 
terials raised  near  by,  spinning  and  weav- 
ing flax  and  wool  and  making  lace. 


(3)  Beverages 


(4)  Beet  sugar 


Fig.  423.  —  A  German  peasant  girl  spinning  wool. 


W^^^^  mmK 

w 

m 

1 

• 

Rjj 

19f 

wf- 

->~- 

1    B    LJ 

WjL 

% 

^^^? 

|  Fig.  124. 

—  A 

Tillage  in 

the  Hartz  Mi 
of  wood  in 

ontaiDS,  where 
their  homes. 

the 

people  carve  articles 

The  extensive  forests  partly  account  for  a  third 
occupation  in  many  sections;  namely,  the  manufac- 
ture of  furniture,  paper,  and  other 

materials  made  of  wood.     Woodcarv-   <2)  Lumher™* 
...     ,        .      ,,       lumber  products 
nig  is  an  important  industry  in  the 

Black  Forest  and  other  parts  of 
Germany. 

The  manufacture  of  spirituous 
liquors  is  another  prominent  Ger- 
man industry.     A 
portion  of 

the  immense  potato  crop, 
and  also  some  of  the 
beets,  are  made  into 
spirits.  But  beer,  in  the 
manufacture  of  which 
barley  and  hops  are  used, 
is  made  in  much  greater 
quantities.  From  the 
grapes  of  southern  Ger- 
many much  wine  is  pro- 
duced, though  not  nearly 
so  much  as  in  France. 

Germany  is  also  a 
great  sugar-manufac- 
t  u  r  i  n  g 
nation. 

Until  a  few  )'ears 
ago  nearly  all  sugar 
was  obtained  from 
sugar  cane ;  but  this  was  changed  when 
German  chemists  found  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing sugar  from  beets.  By  im- 
proving the  process,  and  by 
developing  the  beets  until 
they  contained  more  sugar, 
the  industries  of  sugar-beet 
raising,  and  the  refining  of 
beet-root  sugar,  have  been 
made  possible.  This  industry 
has  now  spread  to  many  coun- 
tries, including  the  United 
States. 

Each  year  this  kind  of  sugar  has 
been  proving  a  greater  rival  to  sugar 
cane,  until  now  a  large  part  of  the 
sugar  used  in  Europe,  and  much  of 
that  consumed  in  North  America,  is 
obtained  from  sugar  beets.  One 
important  reason  why  this  industry 
has  thrived  is  that  sugar  beets  grow 
in  a  cool  temperate  climate,  where 
population  is  dense  and  markets  are 


314 


EUROPE 


(2)  Education 


numerous.  How  is  the  case  different  with  sugar 
cane  ?  Formerly  Germany  had  to  rely  upon  foreign- 
ers for  sugar ;  but  with  the  growth  of  this  industry, 
beet  sugar  has  not  only  supplied  all  the  needs  at 
home,  but  has  even  become  one  of  the  leading  Ger- 
man exports. 

In  the  last  half  century  no  other  European 
Germany's  country  has  grown  as  rapidly  as 

rapid  advance    Germany.     There  has  been  a 

1.  Nature  of  large  increase  in  population,  a 
the  advance  great  advance  in  industry,  and 
a  corresponding  gain  in  wealth. 

One  cause  for  this  advance  is  the  strong 
central    government    established    in    1871. 

2.  Reasons  for  This  caused  the  people  to  for- 
it  get  the  petty  jealousies  that 
(1)  The  govern-  had  long  checked  the  growth 

of  industries,  and  led  them  to 
unite  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  em- 
pire. 

The  government's  treatment  of  education 
has  also  been  of  great  importance.  Every 
German  child  is  forced  by  law 
to  attend  school;  and  care- 
ful attention  is  given  to  the  study  of  the 
industries,  foreign  products,  foreign  lan- 
guages, etc.  In  the  higher  commercial  and 
technical  schools  young  men  are  given  ex- 
cellent training  for  business,  while  in  many 
other  countries  there  is  little  or  no  oppor- 
tunity for  such  education. 

The  value  of  scientific  work  is  fully 
recognized  and  encouraged  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  and  the  wonderful  development  of 
the  sugar  industry,  the  mines,  and  the 
factories  since  1871  proves  that  this  has 
been  a  wise  policy.  Not  many  years  ago 
much  of  the  manufacturing  was  done  by 
hand;  but  now  factories  are  found  on  every 
side,  and  Germany  is  one  of  the  three  lead- 
ing manufacturing  nations  of  the  world. 
Name  the  other  two. 

Great  advance  has  been  made  in  trans- 
portation. The  rivers  and  harbors  have  been 
(3)  Improve-  made  more  useful;  canals  have 
ment  in  tr«n.t-  been  extended  over  much .  of. 
portation  the     country .     an(j     German 

steamship   lines   have   been   established   to 


various  parts  of  the  world.  There  is  now 
an  excellent  system  of  railways,  reaching 
to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  connecting 
Germany  with  other  European  countries. 
The  piercing  of  the  Alps  by  tunnels,  thus 
improving  the  connection  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean, has  also  been  of  advantage. 

The  establishment  of  colonies  has  been  a 
fourth  important  aid  to  Germany's  growth. 
The  empire  now  controls  ex- 
tensive areas  in  the  island  of  (4)  f%ablifh- 
_  ment  of  colo- 

New    Guinea,     north    of    Aus-    nies;  andinter- 

tralia,  and  in  both  East  and  est  of  German 
West  Africa,  as  well  as  smaller 
colonies  elsewhere  (Fig.  417).  These  have 
had  influence  on  Germany,  both  because 
they  have  furnished  homes  for  emigrants 
from  crowded  parts  of  the  home  country, 
and  because  they  have  brought  much  trade 
to  Germany. 

Many  more  Germans  have  emigrated  to 
various  parts  of  the  New  World.  Over 
five  million  have  come  to  the  United  States 
within  the  last  seventy-five  years,  while  the 
British  Isles  have  sent  us  about  seven  mil- 
lion. Many  of  the  German  emigrants  to 
these  other  countries  have  kept  up  trade 
with  their  fatherland,  and  have  thereby  in- 
creased the  commerce  of  Germany. 

Naturally,  in  a  country  making  such  rapid 
advances,  the  cities  have  grown  also,  as  has 
been  the  case  in  the  United  Principal  cities 
States.  In  the  twenty  years  i._  Their  rapid 
between  1870  and  1890,  for  growth 
example,  Berlin  had  a  more  rapid  growth 
than  New  York,  and  added  as  many  new 
residents  as  Chicago.  In  1875  Boston  had 
almost  a  hundred  thousand  more  people 
than  Hamburg;  but  now  Hamburg  has  over 
two  hundred  and  sixty-one  thousand  more 
than  Boston.  These  and  other  German 
cities  are  still  rapidly  increasing  in  size. 

The  position  of  Berlin,  on  the  small 
Spree  River  (Fig.  425)  on  the  North  Gi 
man  plain,  midway  between  the  2.  Berlin 
coast  and  the  highlands,  may  (l)  it"  locatht, 
not  at  first  seem  a  very  favorable,  one. 
However,  the  Oder,  a  large  river,  and  soiih 


G  Eli  MAN  EMPIRE 


315 


of  the  tributaries  of  the  Elbe  approach  so 
near  each  other  in  this  section  that  they 
have  easily  been  connected  by  canal.     Thus, 


Fig.  425.  —  Berlin  and  vicinity. 

Berlin  has  water  connection  with  both 
Hamburg  and  Stettin,  two  important 
seaports,  and  with  all  parts  of  these  two 
river   systems.     This   is  a  very   important 


aid  in  bringing  fuel,  food,  and  raw 
materials  for  manufacture,  and  in  taking 
away  manufactured  articles. 

Observe  also  (Fig. 
416)  that  Berlin  lies  on 
the  direct  route  from 
Hamburg  to  Breslau, 
and  from  Stettin  to 
Leipzig,  and  that  other 
large  cities  surround  it. 
It  is,  moreover,  on  the 
route  of  several  of  the 
chief  European  railways, 
and  is  therefore  one  of 
the  leading  railway  cen- 
ters of  the  continent. 

With  such  excellent 
connections,  by  water 
and  by  rail,  (2)  its  impor- 
Berlin  has  tance 
become  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal manufacturing 
cities  of  the  empire. 
Fully  half  the  residents 
are  supported  by  manu- 
facturing, which  includes 
brewing,  the  making  of 
fancy  articles,  clothing, 
machinery,  etc.  Besides 
being  the  capital  of 
Prussia  and  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  Berlin  is 
the  center  of  German 
banking.  It  is  noted 
for  its  art  and  music, 
and  for  its  great  univer- 
sity, the  largest  in  the 
empire.  There  are  a 
number  of  suburbs,  one 
being  Potsdam  (Fig. 
425),  the  German  "Ver- 
sailles," in  which  are 
located  several  royal 
palaces. 

Among    the    cities    not    far   „  _      '. 
j.  n     t       •      t  .,       3.  Interior 

irom    Berlin   is    Leipzig,   the  cities  near 

fifth  in  size  in  the  empire.      It  Berlin 

is  situated  at  the   junction  of   (1)  Leipzig 


31G 


EUROPE 


two  small  streams,  at  a  point  where  roads 
from  the  highland  meet  those  from  the  low- 
land. Formerly  it  was  at  the  crossing  of 
important  wagon  roads,  and  now  it  has  be- 
come a  railway  center.  Owing  to  its 
favorable  position,  Leipzig  is,  next  to 
Berlin,  the  most  important  trade  center  of 
Germany.  One  of  its  leading  articles  of 
commerce  is  fur.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  noted 
university,  and  a  center  for 
the  German  book  trade. 

Dresden,  southeast  of  Leip- 
zig, is  noted  for  its  art  museum 
(Fig.  426),  which 

(2)  Dresden  \     °      .     Jl 

rivals  the  Louvre 
of  Paris.  The  beautiful 
Dresden  china  is  made  in  this 
vicinity,  and  in  recent  years 
much  manufacturing  has  de- 
veloped ;  for  Dresden  is  situ- 
ated on  the  navigable  Elbe  and 
has  coal  near  at  hand.  It 
is,  moreover,  the  capital  of 
Saxony,  the  most  densely 
settled  German  state. 


bronze,    gold,    silver,    glass    painting,    and 
porcelain  manufacturing. 

North  of  Munich,  on  the  road  to  Berlin, 
is  Nuremberg.  This  quaint  city  was 
famous  in  former  centuries  for  its  art  and 
architecture,  and  many  of  its  treasures  are 
still  carefully  preserved.  At  present  it  is 
an  important  center  for  the  manufacture  of 
toys. 


(3)  Chemnitz 
Halle,  and 
Magdeburg 


Chemnitz,  near  by,  has  impor- 
tant textile  industries.  Halle  and 
Magdeburg,  far- 
ther to  the  north- 
west, and  in  the  center  of  the  chief 
beet-growing  section,  are  extensively 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

Breslau,  a  city  not  much  smaller  than  Leipzig, 
is  on  the  Oder,  a  navigable  river.     It  has  the  advan- 

(4)  Breslau  tage  of  hemS  near  a  vel7  rich  coal 

and  iron  field,  and  is,  therefore,  a 
great  manufacturing  center.  Its  situation,  near  the 
Russian  frontier,  makes  it  an  important  market  for 
eastern  and  central  Europe. 

In  the  highland  of  South  Germany  is 
Munich,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
4.  Munich  and  Bavaria.  Although  so  far  to 
Nuremberg  t]le  south,  and  so  distant  from 

coal,  Munich  is  the  third  city  in  size  in  the 
realm.  It  is  on  the  trade  routes  from  Ger- 
many to  Italy  and  to  Austria,  and  is  accord- 
ingly an  important  railway  center.  Much 
of  its  renown  is  due  to  its  art  collections 
and    its   art    industries,    such   as    work    in 


S.    Seaports 


Fig.  WO.  —  The  Dresden  Art  Museum  which  contains  many  treasures  of  art. 


Hamburg,  which  is  growing  so  rapidly 
in  population,  is  the  second  city  in  Germany 
and  the  most  important  sea- 
port on  the  continent.  The 
reasons  for  this  are  clear  when  it  is  known 
that  the  estuary  of  the  Elbe  (Fig.  425) 
makes  an  excellent  harbor,  usually  free  from 
ice,  and  that  Germany  has  an  extensive 
foreign  trade.  Name  some  articles  from 
the  United  States  that  probably  enter  thi: 
port.  What  water  connections  has  Ham- 
burg' with  the  interior  ? 

Bremen  and  Stettin  also  admit  large  vessels, 
and  are  the  chief  rivals  of  Hamburg ;  but  they  to- 
gether have  less  than  one  half  as  much  commerce  as 
Hamburg.  In  what  respects  is  the  situation  of 
Hamburg  more  favorable  to  commerce  than  that  of 
Bremen  and  Stettin?  Name  other  Baltic  ports  be- 
sides Stettin.  Which  is  a  natural  outlet  for  wheat 
from  Russian  Poland?     Estimate  the  distance  saved 


GERMAN   EMPIRE 


317 


to  the  Baltic  ports  by  the  cutting  of  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  canal,  south  of  Denmark,  which  is  sixty- 
one  miles  in  length.  What  city  is  at  the  eastern 
end  of  this  canal? 

On  ascending  the  Rhine  into  Germany 
we  come  to  the  great  manufacturing  region, 
6.  Cities  along  already  mentioned  (p.  312). 
the  Rhine  River  What  cities  are  found  there  ? 
(1)  Cologne  Cologne,  the  largest,  with 
a    population    of    over    half  a 


anil  vicinity 


million,  is  on  the  river  bank. 


It  is  a  great 


Fig.  427. 


-The  Cologne  Cathedral,  one  of  the  most 
famous  churches  in  Europe. 


shipping  point,  since  railways  cross  the 
river,  and  boats  from  London  and  other 
places  are  able  to  ascend  to  this  point. 

Near  Cologne  are  Eliierfeld  and  Barmen,  which 
have  textile  manufactories;  Essen,  which  is  famous 
for  the  Krupp  steel  works ;  Krefeld,  which  is  an 
important  silk-manufacturing    town;    and  Aachen 


(Aix-la-Chapelle   in    French)    'which   manufactures 
woolen  cloth. 

Just  beyond  the  chief  bend  in  the  Rhine 
is  Frankfurt,  on  a  navigable  tributary, 
the  Main.  The  easiest  route 
from  the  Rhine  Valley  to  the 
Danube  lies  along  this  tributary  ;  and, 
since  the  railway  from  the  German  plain  to 
the  upper  Rhine  passes  Frankfurt,  this  city 
is  a  center  of  important  trade  routes.  For 
this  reason  it  is  one  of  the  chief  trading 
and  banking  centers  in  Germany.  It  has 
long  been  prominent,  and  was  the  capital 
of  the  old  German  Confederation  (p.  308). 

The  Rhine,  the  most  important  river  in 
Germany,  is  often  compared  with  the  Hud- 
son.      In  both  rivers  there  are   The  Rhine 
sections  that    are   shut    in   by   River  com- 
high,  rocky  cliffs,  well  wooded  pared  with 
to  the  top.     The  Rhine,  how-  the  Hudson 
ever,  is    much  narrower   than   ll   In  scenery 
the  Hudson,  so  that  these  walls  seem  loftier; 
and  since  the  stream  is  more  winding,  they 
often   stand    out  boldly,  as  if  in    the  very 
path  of  boats,  to  bar  their  further  progress. 

When  one  journeys  along  the  more  beautiful  por- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  a  fine  old  castle  often  comes  into 
view,  as  a  turn  in  the  river  course  reveals  an  espe- 
cially bold  cliff.  Sometimes  several  such  reminders 
of  the  past  may  be  seen  from  a  single  point  on  the 
river.  Many  of  these  are  in  ruins,  but  now  and  then 
one  is  seen  that  is  still  kept  up  as  a  residence.  The 
Hudson  lacks  such  castles,  although  there  are  many 
magnificent  residences  along  its  lower  course. 

There  are  many  terraced  vineyards  on  the  sloping 
hillsides  bordering  the  Rhine  (Fig.  421),  and  like- 
wise many  a  quaint  village  built  on  a  narrow  strip 
of  flood-plain  between  the  river  and  the  cliff  (Fig. 
420).  Since  the  Rhine  receives  more  large  tribu- 
taries than  the  Hudson,  there  are  more  wild  glens 
on  the  sides,  and  more  broad,  wooded  valleys,  which 
open  up  charming  views  from  the  river.  The  open- 
ings in  the  valley  walls,  where  these  tributaries  enter, 
are  favorite  sites  for  towns. 


In  regard  to  the  distribution  of  cities 
along  its  banks,  the  Rhine 
offers  still  further  contrast  to 
the  Hudson.  The  latter  has 
a  large  population  at  only  two 
points  ;  namely,  near  its  mouth,  where  there 


2.    In  distribu- 
tion of  popula- 
tion along  its 
course 


318 


EUROPE 


Fig.  428.  —  Some  of  the  quaint  houses  in  the  ancient  city  of  Frankfurt. 


are  millions  of  people,  and  about  one  hun 
dred  and  fifty  miles  above  the  mouth,  where 
Albany,  Troy,  and  Cohoes  are 
situated.  Between  Yonkers, 
just  above  New  York  City, 
and  Albany,  there  is  not  a 
city  with  thirty  thousand  in- 
habitants. The  Rhine,  on  the 
other  hand,  while  having  no 
enormous  collection  of  people 
at  any  one  point,  has  many  pop- 
ulous cities  along  its  course. 
Name  several.  What  have 
you  already  learned  about 
Rotterdam  at  its  mouth  ? 
How  does  it  compare  with 
New  York  City  in  size? 


population  ?      3.   State   the   chief    facts   about    the 
government.      4.    Why    is    the    boundary    line    so 


1.    What  is  the  position  of  Ger- 

Review  ,n,anyY      E*^5n.ita 

Questions  advantages.   2.  W  hat 

about  the  formation 

of  the  empire ;  its  present  area  and 


Fiu.  i'2'J.  —  The  Rhiue,  with  a  village,  a  vineyard,  and  an  old  castle 
on  the  right. 


S  WITZEBLAND 


319 


irregular?  5.  Show  how  preparation  for  war 
has  played  a  part  in  German  History.  6.  De- 
scribe the  highlands.  7.  The  lowlands.  8.  The 
drainage.  9.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  tem- 
perature ;  the  rainfall.  10.  What  is  the  condition 
of  lumbering?  11.  What  are  the  leading  agricul- 
tural products  ?  12.  What  are  the  principal  mineral 
products  ?  13.  State  the  importance  of  manufac- 
turing ;  and  locate  the  leading  manufacturing 
centers.  11.  Name  the  principal  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing. 15.  How  has  Germany  advanced  in 
recent  years?  Give  some  reasons  for  it.  10.  What 
can  you  tell  about  the  rapid  growth  of  the  cities? 
17.  State  the  principal  facts  about  Berlin.  18.  Leip- 
zig. 19.  Dresden.  20.  Chemnitz,  Halle,  and  Magde- 
burg.    21.    Breslau.     22.   Munich  and  Nuremberg. 


disadvantages?  What  relation  has  this  to  emigra- 
tion? 4.  What  is  the  size  of  our  standing  army? 
Why  so  small?  5.  What  seaports  of  Europe  most 
nearly  approach  Hamburg  in  size?  6.  How  might 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  possibly  prove  an  injury 
to  Hamburg?  7.  Show  that  Germany  resembles 
Cireat  Britain  in  her  industries,  while  differing 
greatly  from  Russia  and  Norway.  8.  Find  out 
something  about  Goethe  ;  Schiller  ;  Humboldt;  Em- 
peror William  the  First ;  Bismarck ;  Von  Moltke ; 
Wagner;  Schumann. 

IX.    Switzerland  (Fig.  390) 

1.  What  countries  surround  Switzerland  (Fig. 
358)?  2.  What  mountains  extend  along  the  bounda- 
ries of  Switzer- 
land?  3.  Which  Map  Study 
of  the  boundaries  is  least 
mountainous?  4.  What  large 
rivers  rise  among  the  Alps  ? 
In  what  direction  does  each 
flow  ?  5.  There  are  many  lakes 
among  the  Alps  (Fig.  416). 
What  does  their  abundance 
suggest?  6.  How  does  the 
area  of  Switzerland  compare 
with  that  of  your  own  state? 


Fig.  430.  —  Snow-covered  mountains  with  a  glacier  extendiu 
o£  the  Alpine  valleys. 

23.  The  seaports.     24.  The  cities  along  the  Rhine. 

25.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities  of  Germany. 

26.  Compare  the  Rhine  River  with  the  Hudson  in 
scenery,     i 
its  course. 


from  them  down  one 


In   distribution   of   population   along 


Suggestions 


1.  Find  in  an  atlas  in  what  parts  of  the  empire  tho 
larger  states,  such  as  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  etc., 
are  situated.  2.  People  often  assert 
that  the  peace  of  Europe  is  preserved 
by  careful  preparation  for  war;  in  what  sense  can 
this  be  true?  3.  What  must  be  some  of  the  benefits 
of  two  years  of  active  training  in  the  army,  aside 
from  preparation  for  war?     What  are  some  of  the 


This  is  a  very  moun- 
tainous country  (Figs. 
430  and  434),  surface 
for  the  Jura  features 
Mountains  are  on  the 
northwestern  border, 
while  the  Alps  occupy 
the  southern  half.  Be- 
tween these  two  moun- 
tain systems,  which  ex- 
tend northeast  and  south- 
west, is  a  low,  hilly 
plateau,  from  one  to  two 
thousand  feet  in  altitude.  About  one  third 
of  Switzerland  is  included  in  the  plateau 
belt. 

It   is    evident    that    the    climate   of   this 
mountainous    country    must    be    cool,    and 
that  there  must  be  great  differ-   climate 
ences  in  temperature  according   l     Tempera. 
to  the  altitude.     At  the  base  of  ture 
the  Alps,  chestnut  and  walnut  trees  grow; 
higher  up,  these  give   place   to    the    beech, 
maple,  and  other  trees  of  the  cool  temperate 


320 


EUROPE 


2.  Rainfall  and 
the  formation  of 
glaciers 

snow  falls  ; 
tain    sides 
gathers  in 


zones  ;  and  still  higher  is  a  belt  of  ever- 
greens. Above  these  come  dwarfed  trees, 
shrubs,  and  grass  ;  and  higher  still,  at  an 
average  elevation  of  about  nine  thousand 
feet,  the  snow  line  is  reached. 

The  lofty  Alps,  rising  in  the  path  of  the 
prevailing  west  winds,  cause  Switzerland 
to  be  one  of  the  wettest  coun- 
tries on  the  continent.  On 
the  higher  mountains  much 
and,  sliding  down  the  raoun- 
in  the  form  of  avalanches,  it 
the  valleys  to  produce  streams 
of  ice,  or  glaciers  (Fig.  430).  These  move 
slowly  down  the  valleys  until  they  reach  a 
point,  below  the  snow  line,  where  the  ice 
melts.  The  Rhone  and  other  rivers  are 
supplied  with  water  by  the  melting  of  the 
Alpine  glaciers. 

In  so  rugged  a  country  one  would  hardly 
expect  a  large  population  ;  yet  Switzerland 
People  and  is  almost  as  densely  settled 
government  as  France,  and  much  more  so 
than  the  state  of  New  York. 

People  who  dwell  among  mountains  develop  a 
spirit  of  independence,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  story 
of  William  Tell.  Thus  we  find  that,  as  early  as 
1291,  an  agreement  was  made  among  a  few  of  the 
small  Swiss  states,  or  cantons,  to  unite  for  protec- 
tion. Many  a  time  since  then  other  nations  have 
tried  to  conquer  the  Swiss;  but,  aided  by  the  diffi- 
cult approaches  to  their  country,  and  by  the  moun- 
tain strongholds  to  which  they  could  retreat,  the 
Swiss  have  been  able  to  maintain  their  freedom. 
Yet  the  area  of  the  entire  country  is  only  one  third 
that  of  Pennsylvania.  Their  twenty-two  cantons, 
united  somewhat  as  are  our  states,  now  form  a 
republic  whose  independence  the  Great  Powers  of 
Europe  have  agreed  to  maintain. 

Although  the  Swiss  have  a  stable  govern- 
ment, they  lack  a  common  language.  The 
country  is  most  open  toward 
the  north,  for  there  the  plateau 
of  Switzerland  merges  into  that  of  Germany. 
Naturally,  therefore,  the  influence  of  Ger- 
many has  spread  into  Switzerland,  and 
German-speaking  people  are  most  numer- 
ous, making  up  over  one  half  of  the 
population.       The    approach    from    France 


Languages 


is  much  more  difficult,  and  the  French 
population  forms  less  than  one  fourth  of 
the  whole,  while  the  remainder  speak 
Italian. 

Owing  to  the  mountainous  condition, 
only  one  acre  in  nine  is  fit  for  the  plow. 
Yet  agriculture  is  the  princi- 
pal industry.  On  the  lower 
lands  grain,  potatoes,  grapes,  and  the  mul- 


Agriculture 


Fig.  431.  —  A  Swiss  peasant  girl  in  native  costume. 

berry  tree  are  raised,  as  in  the  neighboring 
countries  ;  and  on  the  lower  mountain  slopes 
dairy  farming  is  important,  as  might  be  ex- 
jDected.  Here  cattle  and  goats  are  raised, 
being  driven  to  higher  pastures  as  the 
snows  melt  from  the  mountain  sides. 
The  population  is  so  dense,  however,  that 
much  food  must  be  imported  ;  but  cheese 
and  condensed  milk,  made  from  farm  prod- 
ucts, are  exported. 

Switzerland  is  very  poor  in  mineral  de- 


SWITZERLAND 


521 


Fig.  432.  —  Cattle  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alps. 

posits,  and  there  is  very  little  coal.     Such 
a  Scarcity  of  raw  materials  would  suggest 
Mining  and        that    there    is   little   manufac- 
manufacturing    turing  ;    but    this    is    not    the 
case,  for  in  spite   of  the  abseuce  of  coal, 
ore    deposits,  and    cotton,  the    Swiss    have 
developed  extensive  manufacturing.      Like 
the  New  Englanders,  they  make  light  arti- 
cles   mainly,   such   as    jewelry   and    textile 
goods,  especially  silk.    They 
also  do  much  wood  carving;. 
There  are  several  reasons 
why    manufacturing    is    so 
highly       de- 
veloped.      Al- 
though coal  is 
wanting,  there 
is    abundant 
water   power,    supplied    by 
the  swift  mountain  streams, 
which  are  fed  by  the  melt- 
ing snows.     The  Swiss  are 
taking    a    leading    place    in 
the  use  of  such  power,  by 
means  of  electricity. 

They  are  unusually  skill- 
ful mechanics,  too,  a  fact 
that  is  proved 
by  the  remark- 
able wood  carving  for  which 
they  have  long  been  noted. 


The  Swiss  are  further 
favored  by  their  central 

position;     3.     central 

for  they  location 
are  surrounded  by 
densely  populated  coun- 
tries which  supply  raw 
materials  and  furnish  a 
market  for  manufac- 
tured goods. 

Finally,    their    roads 
and     railways     are     re- 
markably   4.    Roads  and 
developed,    railways 

One  might  think  that 
it  would  be  very  diffi- 
cult to  transport  goods 
in  such  a  country.  In  fact  it  would  be,  if 
the  Swiss  had  not  taken  special  pains  to 
overcome  the  difficulties  ;  but  the  very  fact 
that  nature  has  made  transportation  so 
difficult,  has  led  the  people  to  build  the 
best  of  highways.  No  country  in  the  world 
has  better  roads  than  Switzerland. 

Railroads  pierce  the  mountains  in  several   direc- 
tions, connecting  Switzerland  with  foreign  countries. 


Reasons  for  so 
much  manu- 
facturing 

1.    Water 
power 


8.    Skill 


Fig.  433.  —  The  St.  Gothard  Railway  on  the  south  side  of  the  Alps.  Here  are 
seen  three  tracks  one  ahove  the  other,  for  at  this  point  the  railway  enters 
the  mountain,  swings  in  two  great  circles,  coming  out  each  time  at  a 
higher  level. 


322 


mmopE 


One  of  the  most  important  is  the  St.  Gothard  Rail- 
way, which  connects  Switzerland  with  Italy  by  the 
St.  Gothard  Tunnel.  This  is  one  of  the  longest  tun- 
nels in  the  world,  and  is  a  marvel  of  engineering 
skill.  Before  reaching  the  main  tunnel,  in  traveling 
north,  several  smaller  ones  are  entered,  through 
which  the  train  winds  in  a  circular  course.  A  passen- 
ger twice  comes  out  of  the  mountain  almost  directly 
over  the  point  where  he  entered  it.  There,  far  below 
him,  he  can  see  the  two  places  at  which  the  train 
entered  (Fig.  433).  Such  winding  tunnels  are  neces- 
sary, because  the  grade  is  so  steep  that  a  train  could 
not  be  drawn  directly  up  a  straight  track.  The 
main  tunnel,  which  is  nine  and  one  fourth  miles 
long,  is  quite  straight. 
The  Simplon  Tunnel, 
even  longer  than  the 
St.  Gothard,  now  pierces 
the  Alps  a  short  dis- 
tance farther  west. 

Zurich,  the  larg- 
est city  in  Switzer- 
Leading  land,    is 

cities  situated 

on  Lake  Zurich.  It 
is  an  important  rail- 
way center,  being 
connected  with  Italy 
by  the  St.  Gothard 
Railway,  while  other 
railways  bring  it  in 
touch  with  France, 
Germany,  and  Aus- 
tria. These  rail- 
roads are  especially  important  in  bringing 
foods,  as  well  as  silk  and  other  raw  mate- 
rials, for  manufacture.  Therefore  Zurich  is 
the  center  of  one  of  the  principal  manufac- 
turing' districts.  It  is  noted  for  the  manu- 
facture  of  silks,  cotton,  and  machinery. 

Basel,  the  second  largest  city  in  Swit- 
zerland, is  the  busiest  railway  center  in  the 
country.  It  is  on  the  main  line  of  the  St. 
Gothard  Railway,  and  on  the  Rhine  at  the 
point  where  it  enters  Germany  from  Switzer- 
land. Why  is  its  position,  near  both  France 
and  Germany,  favorable  to  manufacturing  ? 

Geneva,  situated  on  the  lower  end  of 
Lake  Geneva,  near  where  the  Rhone  enters 
France,  is  the  third  city  of  the  Republic, 
and  a  noted  educational  center.     It  is  on  a 


* 


very  ancient  and  important  trade  route  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  Germany  (p.  290),  and 
has  excellent  railway  connections.  Then 
is  much  manufacturing,  among  the  impor 
taut  articles  made  being  jewelry  and  scien 
tific  instruments. 

Berne,  the  capital,  is  centrally  located  ; 
but  it  is  a  small  city  because  it  is  not  favor- 
ably situated  for  commerce. 

Many  of  the  Swiss  cities  and  towns  are  beautifully 
situated  upon  lakes,  and  within  sight  of  mountain 


Fig.  434. 


-The  snow-capped  Alps  as  seen  from  Mouut  Pilatus,  with  Lake  Lucerne 
in  the  foreground. 


peaks  always  covered  with  snow.  Lucerne,  for 
example,  is  surrounded  by  grand  and  varied  scenery. 
The    city    is    located    upon    Lake   gc  and 

Lucerne,  and  lofty  mountains  rise  tourjg«.a 
close  at  hand  (Fig.  434).  Mounts 
Rigi  and  Pilatus  are  near  by,  and  from  their  summits 
one  obtains  magnificent  views  of  the  lake,  over  four 
thousand  feet  below,  bordered  by  green  meadows 
and  numerous  villages.  In  several  directions,  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  are  the  snow-covered 
crests  of  stupendous,  jagged  mountains. 

On  account  of  such  scenery  Switzerland  is  the 
most  noted  summer  resort  of  Europe ;  and  the 
entertainment  of  visitors  is  one  of  the  leading 
occupations  of  the  Swiss  people.  There  are  so 
many  hotels  and  fine  roads,  that  one  can  easily  go 
almost  anywhere.  It  is  possible  even  to  reach  the 
tops  of  several  of  the  mountains  by  rail.  Every 
summer  many  Americans  cross  the  ocean  to  enjoy 
the  Swiss  scenery. 


ITALY 


323 


Review 
Questions 


1.  Describe  the  surface  of  Switzerland.  2.  The 
climate.  3.  State  the  chief  facts  about  the  people 
and  the  government.  4.  What  about 
the  languages  ?  5.  State  the  princi- 
pal facts  about  agriculture.  6.  About 
mining  and  manufacturing.  7.  (jive  several  reasons 
■why  manufacturing  is  so  well  developed.  8.  Locate 
and  state  the  main  facts  about  Zurich.  9.  Basel. 
10.  Geneva  and  Berne.  11.  Why  is  Switzerland  so 
attractive  to  tourists  ? 

1.  How  may  the  lakes  filter  and  regulate  the  riv- 
ers? 2.  What  reasons  are  there  for  giving  particular 
Q  .  attention   to  the   study   of   English 

"  and  other  foreign  languages  in  the 

Swiss   schools?      3.   Why   has   Switzerland,    unlike 


4Aj.  —  A  team  in  Naples  consisting  of  a  horse,  a  cow, 
and  a  donkey. 


many  European  countries,  not  come  into  pos- 
session of  colonies?  4.  Find  the  meaning  of  "  refer- 
endum "and  "popular  initiative  "in  Swiss  legislation. 
5.  Switzerland  has  long  been  selected  as  a  place  of 
refuge  for  persecuted  people  and  political  refugees 
from  other  nations.  Why  ?  6.  Read  that  portion  of 
the  story  of  William  Tell  which  is  supposed  to  have 
occurred  about  Lake  Lucerne.  7.  Find  out  where 
Louis  Agassiz  was  born:  where  he  later  lived;  and 
■what  he  did  to  prove  his  theory  of  the  Great  Ice 
Age. 

X.    Italy  (Fig.  416) 

1.  The  shape  of  Italy  reminds  you  of  what  object 
(Fig.  416)?  2.  How  does  its  latitude  compare  with 
M      R.    ,  that  of   Spain?     3.  What  neighbor- 

ing islands  belong  to  it  ?     4.  Point 
out  the  principal  river.      5.  How  are  the  lofty  moun- 


tains in  the  north  likely  to  affect  the  climate  farther 
south?  6.  What  countries  border  Italy?  7.  What 
seas  border  it?  8.  How  does  its  position  seem  to  be 
favorable  for  commerce? 

The  area  of  Italy,  including  the  islands  of 
Sicily  and  Sardinia,  is  only  a  little  greater 
than  that  of  Colorado  ;  but  its  its  area  and 
population  is  over  thirty-four  population 
million.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  six  Great 
Powers,  but  is  the  most  densely  settled  of 
any  except  the  United  Kingdom.  Name 
the  other  Great  Powers. 

The  position  of  Italy  is  a  very 
favorable  one.  It  lies  in  the  midst 
of  the  Mediterranean,  importance  of 
whose  shores  are  its  position 
densely  populated.  What  country 
in  Africa  lies  nearest  to  Italy  (Fig. 
495)  ?  Estimate  the  distance  to 
it.  How  far  is  it  from  Italy  to  the 
Suez  Canal  (Fig.  455)  ? 

It  has  been  said  that  Italy  is 
"the  very  heart  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean lands,  and  plays  a  great 
part  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  com- 
munication between  northwestern 
Europe  and  the  Far  East."  For 
example,  mails  from  London  to 
India  are  carried  by  water  to  the 
western  coast  of  continental  Europe, 
and  then  go  overland  to  Brindisi, 
and  thence  by  steamer.  From  this 
it  is  plain  that  Italy's  central  position  is  an 
advantage  for  trade  with  Africa  and  Asia, 
as  well  as  with  southern  Europe. 

The  inhabitants  of  Italy  are  a  mixture  of 
many  peoples.  In  early  times,  the  central 
position  of  the  peninsula  was  People  and 
of  importance  in  aiding  Rome  government 
to  control  the  lands  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  At  that  time  people 
from  the  surrounding  lands  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa  were  brought  to  the  peninsula, 
often  as  slaves  captured  in  war.  Later, 
when  the  power  of  the  Roman  Empire  was 
weakened,  hordes  of  barbarians  invaded 
Italy  from  central  Europe. 

For  centuries  after  this,  Italy  was  broken 


324 


EUROPE 


1 


up  into  a  number  of  independent  states. 
In  1860,  however,  several  of  these  states 
united  to  form  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 
Later  others  were  added,  until  in  1870,  or 
about  the  time  that  the  German  Empire 
was  formed  (p.  308),  the  present  king- 
dom was  established,  with  Rome  as  its 
capital.  Like  most  of  the  European  coun- 
tries, Italy  is  governed  by  a 
limited,  or  constitutional, 
monarchy. 

Throughout  most  of  its  ex- 
tent, the  Italian  peninsula  is 
Surface  mountainous.    In 

features  the  north  are  the 

Alps,  some  of  whose  highest 
peaks  are  on  the  boundary 
between  Italy  and  Switzer- 
land. The  Alpine  ranges 
curve  around  in  northwestern 
Italy  and  join  the  Apennines, 
which  extend  the  entire  length 
of  the  peninsula  and  form  its 
very  backbone.  The  principal 
lowlands,  therefore,  are  the 
narrow  coastal  plains  and  the 
broad  Po  Valley.  There  are 
also  many  small,  fertile  valleys 
among  the  mountains. 

We  think  of  Italy  as  a 
sunny  land  of  flowers,  al- 
Climate  though  Milan  and 

Venice  are  in  nearly  the  same 
latitude  as  Montreal.  One 
reason  for  the  pleasant  Italian  climate  is 
that  the  lofty  Alps  form  a  wall  which  cuts 
off  the  cold  north  winds.  Another  reason 
is  that  the  temperature  is  greatly  influenced 
by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  whose  waters  do 
not  freeze  even  in  winter.  On  these 
accounts  the  Italian  winters  are  mild; 
and  in  the  extreme  south  the  temperature 
seldom  falls  to  the  freezing  point. 

Much  of  Italy  lias  an  abundance  of  rain  ; 

but   everywhere,   except   in  the   north,  the 

n    r.     *  „         greater  part  comes  in  winter. 
2.    Rainfall  £  ^  . 

Ine  summer  drought  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  horse-latitude  belt  moves 


northward  in  summer  and  covers  Italy 
(p.  209);  therefore  at  that  season  the 
climate  of  southern  Italy  resembles  that  of 
southern  Spain. 

Such  a  climate,  together  with  a  fertile 
soil,    helps    to    explain    why  Agriculture 
agriculture    is     the    principal 
industry  of  Italy, 


Fig.  43li.  —  Lago  di  Garcia,  one  of  the  Italian  lakes  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  Alps.    Here  are  found  groves  of  lemou  trees  along  the  shores  of 


the  lake. 


1.    Tempera- 
ture 


The  most  extensive  farming  district  is 
the  fertile  plain  of  the  Po  Vallej-.  There 
is  an  abundance  of  rain  here  ;  ±  Extent  of 
yet  the  people  depend  upon  irrigation,  with 
irrigation  more  than  in  most  reasons 
other  parts  of  Europe.  There  ai-e  several 
reasons  for  this.  In  the  first  place,  the 
tributaries  of  the  Po,  fed  by  the  rains,  snows, 
and  glaciers  of  the  mountains,  furnish  a 
steady  supply  of  water  to  the  gently  sloping 
land.  Besides  this,  the  rivers  frequently 
flow  through  lakes  —  some  of  them  among 
the  most  beautiful  in  the  world  (Fig.  436) 
—  which  act  as  great  reservoirs  for  water 
supply.  This  tends  further  to  furnish  a 
regular  supply. 


ITALY 


325 


In  the  second  place,  better  crops  can  be 
raised  by  irrigation  than  without  it,  partly 
because  the  flooding  of  the  land  fertilizes 
the  soil,  and  partly  because  with  irrigation 
there  can  be  no  drought.  By  the  aid  of 
irrigation,  from  four  to  ten  crops  may  be 
raised  in  a  year. 

Among  the  products  are  many  that  thrive 
in  semi-tropical  climates,  as  well  as  others 
2.  Agricultural  that  are  common  in  northern 
products  Europe.     Where  irrigation  is 

so  easy,  the  extensive  cultivation  of  rice  is 


3.    Important 
drawback  to 
agriculture 


Fig.  437.  —  A  herd  of  goats  in  the  streets  of  Naples.    They 
door,  and  milked  whenever  the  customers  wish  to 

possible.  This  is  an  important  crop  in 
northern  Italy ;  but  corn  and  wheat  are 
raised  in  still  greater  quantities.  Grapes 
are  grown  to  such  an  extent  that  Italy 
ranks  first  among  the  wine-producing 
countries  of  the  world ;  and  so  man}'  silk 
worms  are  reared  that  raw  silk  is  the  most 
valuable  export.  Among  the  other  im- 
portant products  are  eggs,  which  are  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities ;  also  olives, 
oranges,  lemons,  flax,  hemp,  and  wool. 

On  some  of  the  slopes  forests  are  grown,  but  most 
of  the  natural  forest  was  cut  off  long  ago.  Among 
the  useful  trees  is  the  chestnut,  which  is  planted  in 
groves  for  the  nuts,  that  serve  as  an  important  food. 
The  Italian  chestnut  is  much  larger  than  ours,  and 


is  ground  up  into  a  kind  of  meal,  as  wheat  is  ground 
into  flour. 

Among  the  mountains  there  is  much  natural 
pasture,  to  which  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  are  driven 
in  summer.  Many  goats  are  raised  in  Italy  for  their 
milk,  and  they  are  even  driven  into  the  cities,  and 
milked  at  the  doors  of  the  customers  (Fig.  437). 

One  great  drawback  to  the  proper  development 
of  agriculture  in  Italy  is  the  presence  of  broad, 
marshy  tracts  infested  with  mosqui- 
toes, whose  bite  causes  malaria. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  south- 
ern half  of  the  country,  and  there, 
even  with  fertile  soil  and  a  warm  climate,  large 
tracts  of  land  have  had  to  be  abandoned.  One  sixth 
of  the  population  suffers 
from  malaria,  and  there  are 
thousands  of  deaths  from 
that  disease  every  year.  It 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  the  Italian  government 
is  attempting  to  stamp  out 
this  dread  disease. 

The  fishing  industry 
is  important.  Among 
the  peculiar  Fishing  and 
products  of  mining 
the  sea  are  precious  coral 
and  sponges.  You  will 
remember  that  we  found 
sponge  fishing  impor- 
tant also  among  the 
Bahama  Islands  east  of 
Florida. 

In  Italy  there  is  a 
general  lack  of  valuable  mineral  deposits. 
Except  in  the  island  of  Elba  there  is  almost 
no  iron  ;  and  no  coal  of  value  is  found  in 
the  kingdom.  Indeed  coal,  wheat,  and  cot- 
ton are  the  leading  imports.  There  is  a  little 
zinc  and  copper  ore ;  but  one  of  the  most 
important  mineral  products  is  the  sulphur 
of  Sicily.  Another  mineral  product  is  the 
pure  white  Carrara  marble,  of  such  rare 
beauty  that  it  is  prized  the  world  over. 

As  in  Switzerland,  water  power  supplies 
the  place  of  coal  to  some  extent,  often  being 
used  to  produce  electricity.  Manufacturing 
There  is,  therefore,  more  man- 
ufacturing than  one  might  infer  from  the 
lack  of  fuel.     While  much  raw  silk  is  pro- 


are  driven  from  door  to 
buy  the  milk. 


326 


EUROPE 


duced,  and  there  is  some  silk  manufacturing, 
a  large  part  of  the  raw  silk  is  sent  to  France, 
Switzerland,  and  elsewhere,  to  be  made  into 
cloth.  There  are  also  factories  for  woolen, 
cotton,  and  flax  weaving,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

Most  European  countries  take  pride  in  their  fine 
art  museums;  but  Italy  far  surpasses  them  all.  It 
is  the  very  storehouse  of  art,  whether  architecture, 


harbors,  we  may  expect  to  find  numerou 

large  cities   along   the  coast,  as   in    Great 

Britain.      But    it   is    different  _  .    .    .   .. 

.  Pnncipal  cities 

in  the  interior,  tor  in  so  small   jn  the  south 

and    mountainous    a    country,   j    Naples  and 

with  no  coal  and   iron,  there  vicinity 

is  less  reason  to  expect  large  (l)  Beauty  of 

cities  there.  its  location 

The  most  populous  city  is  Naples,  in 


Fig.  438.  —  Vesuvius  in  eruption  (18U2).     A  great  column  of  steam  and  ash  rises  above  the  volcano;  while 
streams  of  liquid  rock,  or  lava,  are  flowing  down  its  slopes. 


painting,  or  sculpture  be  considered.  Because  of 
the  artistic  tastes  of  the  Italians,  many  of  their 
manufactured  articles  are  of  an  artistic  nature. 
Among  their  manufactures  are  glass  work,  lace 
making,  earthenware  manufacture,  the  making  of 
statuary,  wood  carving,  coral  carving,  and  straw 
plaiting.  In  what  other  country  have  we  found 
that  the  artistic  taste  of  the  people  greatly  affects 
their  manufactures  (p.  285)  ? 

Estimate  the  average  width  of  the  Italian 
peninsula.      Since    it    has    many   excellent 


the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  The 
semicircular  Bay  of  Naples,  on  which  it  is 
situated,  presents  a  most  magnificent  sight. 
On  the  north  side,  near  the  head  of  the 
bay,  is  the  city  itself,  rising,  street  above 
street,  upon  the  slopes  of  some  low  hills. 
Toward  the  east  is  Mount  Vesuvius  (Fig. 
438),  with  the  crests  of  the  Apennines  in 
the  distance.  And  on  the  south  side  of 
the    bay   is   a   steep,    rocky   coast,   behind 


IT  ALT 


which  are  numerous  villages,  partly  hidden 
among  groves  of  orange,  lemon,  and  olive 
trees.  All  around  the  bay  is  a  succession 
of  towns  and  villages. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  densely  settled 
regions  in  Europe.  There  are  several  rea- 
(2)  Seasons  for  sons  ^ov  ^is.  One  is  the  fact 
the  dense popu-  that  the  land  here  is  especially 
laUouhere  fertile,  having  been   made  so 

by  the  decay  of  the  volcanic  ashes  that  have 


Fig.  439.  —  A  street  in  Pompeii.  Even  the  tops  of  the  ho 
beneath  volcanic  ash  which  was  erupted  from  Vesuv 
background;  in  the  year  79. 

been  thrown  out  of  Vesuvius.  The  climate 
is  also  favorable  to  the  growth  of  crops, 
and  therefore  the  region  around  the  bay 
supports  a  dense  agricultural  population. 
The  harbor,  too,  is  good,  so  that  there  is 
\  more  shipping  here  than  in  any  other  Italian 
I  port,  with  the  single  exception  of  Genoa. 

The  reason  for  so  large  a  city,  and  for  so  many 
towns  and  villages  in  this  agricultural  region,  is  found 
partly  in  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Italians.  They 
feel  a  dread  of  isolated  homes,  such  as  are  common 
in  the  fanning  district  of  the  United  States.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  living  in  scattered  houses  on  farms,  they 
crowd  into  the  villages  and  cities.  They  do  this,  too, 
even  though  they  must  travel  along  distance  to  their 
fields  of  work,  or  must  suffer  now  and  then  from  ex- 
treme want. 


Within  plain  sight  of  Naples  stands 
Mount  Vesuvius,  a  cone  of  lava  and  ashes 
nearly  a  mile  in  height,  from  (3)  MountVesu. 
whose  crater  volumes  of  steam  vius;  its  history 
constantly  pour  forth.  At  the  and  attractions 
time  of  Christ  the  slopes  of  this  mountain 
were  dotted  with  productive  farms,  while 
thriving  towns  spread  over  the  country  at 
its  base.  But  in  the  year  79  a  terrible 
eruption  took  place  which  completely  buried 
Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and 
many  villages,  beneath  showers 
of  ashes  and  streams  of  vol- 
canic mud.  Since  then  Vesu- 
vius has  been  in  eruption  many 
times,  the  last  violent  outbreak 
occurring  in  1906. 

During  the  last  century  the  buried 
city  of  Pompeii  has  been  uncovered 
at  great  labor  and  cost.  By  these 
excavations  much  has  been  learned 
about  the  buildings  and  customs  of 
the  people  who  lived  here  at  the 
time  of  Christ.  One  can  walk  along 
these  deserted  streets  (Fig.  439), 
and  wander  among  the  ruined  homes 
from  which  the  people  were  driven 
forth  on  that  terrible  day,  nearly 
two  thousand  years  ago. 

At  present,  tourists  are  able  to  go 
to  the  summit  of  Vesuvius  almost 
any  day.  There  they  see  one  of  the 
most  awful  sights  in  the  world, 
when  they  cautiously  approach  to 
the  very  edge  of  the  crater  —  an 
opening  perhaps  a  quarter  of  a  mile  across — and  peer 
down  into  the  abyss.  Sometimes  reports  like  the 
thunderings  of  cannon  come  from  far  below,  and 
lumps  of  white-hot  lava,  several  feet  in  diameter,  are 
hurled  upward.  At  times  lava  lumps  are  thrown 
above  the  mouth  of  the  opening  and  fall  here  and 
there  outside,  making  one's  visit  full  of  excitement. 

The  principal  city  south  of  Naples  is  Pa- 
lermo, the  capital  of  Sicily.     It  is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  extensive  vine- 
yards and  fruit  groves.     What     '      a  ermo 
fruits  would  you  expect  to  find  there  ? 

The  site  of  Rome  was  well  chosen.     It 
lies    near    the    center    of    the 
Mediterranean    and    near   the   i 
center  of  the  Italian  peninsula  of  its  location 


uses  were  buried 
ius  (seen  in  the 


Rome 


328 


EUROPE 


as  well.  In  that  part  of  Italy  the  fertile 
coastal  plains  are  broad,  and  are  crossed  by 
the  Tiber,  the  largest  river  of  the  country 
except  the  Po.     In  that  vicinity,  also,  the 


Fig.  440. 


-St.  Peter's  Cathedral  (on  the  left)  and  the  Vatican 
(on  the  right)  in  Rome. 


Apennines  reach  their  greatest  height,  which 
insures  abundant  water  supply  for  the  Tiber 
and  for  irrigation  on  the  plains.  Moreover, 
the  valley  of  the  Tiber  offers  one  of  the 
most  convenient  routes  across  the  peninsula. 
These  are  some  of  the  advan- 
tages that  attracted  to  ancient 
Rome  a  population  of  fully  a 
million,  and  caused  the  sur- 
rounding country  to  be  thickly 
settled  and  carefully  tilled. 

Now,  however,  the  city  contains 
about    half    as    many  inhabitants, 

2.  Influence  while  the  neighbor- 
of  malaria  ing  plains,  for  miles 
around,  though  beautiful  pasture 
land,  have  scarcely  a  tree  or  a  house 
upon  them.  Because  of  the  dread 
malaria,  people  shun  this  region, 
and  at  present  much  of  the  country 
is  used  only  for  grazing.  As  sum- 
mer approaches,  even  the  herdsmen  flee  with  their 
cattle  and  sheep  to  the  mountains. 

Although  agriculture   and   commerce  do 

3.  Its  attrac-     n°t    flourish    near    Rome,   fine 
tions  residences,     public     buildings, 


art  galleries,  and  notable  ruins  are  numerous 
in  the  city.  The  dome  of  St.  Peter's  —  the 
largest  and  most  famous  church  in  the  world 
—  towers  above  everything  else;  and  the 
Vatican,  where  the  Pope  re-'i 
sides,  is  the  most  noted  palace 
in  Christendom  (Fig.  440). 
In  the  Vatican  are  some  of  the 
finest  and  most  beautiful  of 
Michael  Angelo's  paintings. 

The  ruins  of  ancient  Rome, 
which  rival  in  interest  these 
works  of  later  days,  cover  so 
many  acres  that  the  city  is 
almost  as  much  a  tomb  as  a 
living  citjr.  One  of  the  most 
notable  relics  of  the  past  is 
the  Colosseum  (Fig.  441),  i 
huge,  oval-shaped  aniphi 
theater,  open  to  the  sky,  with 
seats  for  forty  or  fifty  thou 
sand  persons.  In  the  days 
of  the  Roman  Empire  it  was 
used  to  witness  life-and-death  struggles 
between  men,  and  between  men  and  wild 
beasts. 

Forum    is    another   extensive   ruin 
the  city   limits.     It  was  the  great 


The 
within 


The  Colosseum,  one  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  Rome. 


public  square,  on  a  lowland  among  some 
low  hills ;  but  its  monuments,  arches,  and 
other  ornaments  became  covered  with  rub- 
bish during  the  centuries  that  followed  the 
fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.     The  excavation 


ITALY 


329 


of  this  famous  spot  has  not  yet  been  com- 
pleted, whole  buildings,  as  well  as  smaller 
objects,  having  been  buried  in 
that  locality. 

With  the  exception  of  Rome 
and  Naples  the  large  cities  of 
Principal  cities  the  Italian  penin- 
in  the  north       sula     are    in    the 

1.  Florence  northern  part. 
The  first  one  north  of  Kome 
is  Florence,  on  the  western 
base  of  the  Apennines,  at  a 
junction  of  roads  across  the 
mountains.  Straw  plaiting, 
mosaic  work,  and  silk  manufac- 
turing are  important  Floren- 
tine industries.  Florence  is 
famous  for  its  art  galleries, 
which  are  among  the  best  in 
the  world. 

Milan,  the  leading  city  of 
northern    Italy,   owes    its    im- 

2.  Milan  portance  to  its 
and  Turin           location     at     the 

crossing  of  routes  of  travel  and  commerce  : 
one  of  these  runs  east  and  west  in  the  Po 
Valley,  the  other  north  and  south  across 
the  Alps.  Turin  has  flourished  for  a 
similar    reason.       From    very    early    times 


populated    valley.     The    railways    recently 
built  across  the  Alps  (p.  321)  have  greatly 


Fig.  443.  —  One  of  the  canals  of  Venice  with  a  gondola  floating  upon  it 

these  cities  have  been  important  trade 
centers  because  of  their  position  at  the 
crossing  of  trade  routes  in  a  fertile,  densely 


Fig.  442.  — The  Milan  Cathedral. 

increased  their  importance.  They  are  busy 
manufacturing  centers,  making  silk  goods, 
cutlery,  and  other  articles. 

Milan  possesses  a  magnificent  cathedral  (Fig. 
412),  built  of  white  marbb,  and  adorned  with  more 
than  a  hurlred  spires  and  fully  four 
thousand  statues.  On  the  wall  of  a 
former  monastery  at  Milan  is  Da  Vinci's 
famous  painting,  "  The  Last  Supper," 
copies  of  which  are  seen  in  many  of 
oui  homes. 

Genoa,  although  separated 
from  the  Po  Valley  by  the  low 
northern    Apen-   „    _ 

.      .  r       ,     3.    Genoa 

nines,  is  the  natural 

seaport    for    Milan   and    Turin. 

Since  it  is  a  port  of  outlet  for 

so  fertile  a  region,  and  is  now 

connected  with  central  Europe 

by  railway    (p.   322),   this  city 

is    the   most    important  seaport 

in  Italy. 

The  principal  port  on  the  Adriatic  Sea  is 

Venice,   one    of    the   most   interesting    of 

European  cities.       When  hordes  of  barba- 


330 


EUROPE 


rians  were  invading  Italy,  some  of  the 
inhabitants  retreated  to  a  number  of  small, 
4    Venice  marshy    islands    in    a   lagoon, 

(l)  Its  location  protected  from  the  sea  waves 
and  former  im-  by  low  sand  bars.  The  de- 
portance  sceixlants     of     these     people 

developed  into  a  hardy,  independent  race, 
largely  through  contact  with  the  sea. 
Their  very  position  forced  them  to  become 
sailors ;  and  the  site  of  their  city  was  favor- 
able for  commerce  between  central  Europe 
and  Asia.  Protected  from  attack  by  land, 
Venice  rose  in  power,  and  with  power  came 


Fig.  444.  —  The  citadel  of  the  Republic  of  San  Marino. 

wealth.  Many  beautiful  houses,  churches, 
palaces,  and  museums  still  remain  to  remind 
us  of  the  ancient  splendor  of  Venice. 

The 'city  is  built  upon  more  than  a  hundred 
small  islands,  about  two  and  a  half  miles  from  the 
mainland,  with  which  it  is  now  connected  by  rail- 
way. Canals  take  the  place  of  streets.  There  are 
one  hundred  and  fifty  canals,  the  main  one,  or 
Grand  Canal,  being  bordered  by  fine 
residences  built  of  white  marble, 
whose  doorsteps  lead  down  into  the 
water.  Nearly  four  hundred  bridges  join  the  dif- 
ferent islands,  and  there  are  many  narrow  foot- 
paths; but  since  the  chief  thoroughfares  are  canals, 
gondola!:  (Fig.  44:))  take  the  place  of  wagons,  car- 
riages, and  street  cars.  No  doubt,  thousands  of 
children  in  that  city  have  never  seen  a  horse. 

San  Marino,  although  surrounded  by  lands  that 
belong  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  is, 
like  Andorra  (p.  291),  a  tiny,  inde- 
pendent republic.     It   is  the   oldest 


(2)  How  the 
city  is  built 


San  Marino 
and  Malta 


and  smallest  republic  in  the  world,  and  owes  its 
independence  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  city  is  on  a 
high,  steep  hill  (Fig.  444)  and,  therefore,  was  difficult 
to  capture. 

South  of  Sicily  is  the  small  island  of  Malta 
(Fig.  358),  which,  like  Gibraltar,  belongs  to  Great 
Britain,  and  is  strongly  fortified. 

1.  Give  facts  about  the  area  and  population  of 
Italy.     2.   Explain  the  importance  of   its  position. 

3.  Tell  about  the   people,  and  the   _     . 
government.     4.    Describe   the   sur-   n      .. 
face     features.      5.     The     climate. 

6.  Why  is   irrigation  especially  common  in  Italy? 

7.  Name  the  agricultural  products.  8.  How  does 
malaria  interfere  with  agriculture  ?  9.  State  the 
principal  facts  about  fishing  and  mining.  10.  Manu- 
facturing. 11.  Describe  the  beauty  of  the  location 
of  Naples.  12.  State  the  reasons  for  the  dense  pop- 
ulation here.  13.  Tell  about  Mount  Vesuvius  ;  its 
history    and     attraction.      14.      Locate     Palermo. 

15.  State  the  advantages  of  the  location  of  Rome. 

16.  What  about  malaria  in  its  vicinity?  17.  What 
are  its  present  attractions?  18.  Locate  and  state 
the  principal  facts  about  Florence.  19.  Milan  and 
Turin.  20.  Genoa.  21.  Venice.  22.  San  Marino 
and  Malta. 

1.    Why  should  Italy  have  been  much  more  im- 
portant in  former  times  than  now  ?     2.    What  col- 
onies  has   Italy   in    eastern   Africa    _ 
(Fig.  495)  ?     Suggest    reasons   why  * 

Italy  has  so  few  colonies.  3.  What  must  have  been 
the  influence  upon  Genoa  and  Venice  of  the  dis- 
covery   of    the    ocean     route    to    India?      Why? 

4.  What  must  have  been  the  influence  of  the  Suez 
Canal?  Why?  5.  Mention  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  life  in  Venice.  6.  Mention  some  of 
the  uses  of  sulphur.  7.  Make  a  post  card  collection 
of  the  different  famous  pictures  of  the  Madonna. 

8.  Find  out  about  the  Catacombs  of  Rome ;  the 
Appian  Road  ;  the  Aqueducts.  9.  Ask  some  lawyer 
to  tell  you  what  influence  Roman  law  has  had  upon 
our  own  law.  10.  Find  some  facts  about  Cassar, 
Cicero,  Dante,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Michael 
Angelo.     11.   Where  was  Columbus  born  ? 


XI.    Austria-Hungary  (Fig.  416) 

1.  Compare  Austria-Hungary  with  Germany  in 
area.  2.  In  population.  3.  In  number  of  large 
cities.     In  which  country,  therefore,  . 

would  you  expect  to  find  the  greater 
development?  4.  How  much  of  the  boundary  is 
formed  by  water  (Fig.  41(3)  ?  5.  What  countries 
border  this  empire?  (>.  What  portions  are  inoun-1 
tainous?  7.  What,  about  the  variety  of  climate? 
8.  What  sections  do  not  belong  to  the  Danube 
basin  ? 


I 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


331 


Climate 


Austria- Hungary  is  one  of  the  most  moun- 
tainous countries  in  Europe.  It  includes  the 
Surface  eastern  half  of  the  Alps  (Fig. 

features  -445),    besides     several     other- 

ranges.  These  mountains  form  a  circle  in- 
closing a  broad  level  area  (Fig.  359),  called 
the  Hungarian  plain  (Fig.  447),  through 
which  the  Danube  River  flows.  The  en- 
circling mountains  are  broken  at  only  two 
points,  —  once  near  Vienna,  where  the  Dan- 
ube enters  the  Hungarian  plain,  and  again 
on  the  southeastern  boundary,  where  that 
river  leaves  it. 

In  so  mountainous  a  country  there  are 
naturally  many  different  kinds  of  climate. 
Everywhere  except  on  the 
higher  mountains,  however, 
the  temperature  is  favorable  for  the  growth 
of  grains  and  other  crops  of  temperate 
latitudes.  That  is,  the  summers  are  warm 
and  the  winters  are  cold  ;  but  the  difference 
between  summer  and  winter  is  much  greater 
than  in  England.     Why? 

The  rainfall  of  the  lowlands,  which  aver- 
ages little  over  twenty  inches,  is  barely 
enough  for  agriculture,  and  there  are,  there- 
fore, occasional  summer  droughts  in  some 
places. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  people 
in  this  country,  with  very  different  customs 
People  and  languages.     For  instance, 

1.  The  mixture  about  a  fourth  of  the  popula- 
of  races  tion,  mainly  in  Austria,  are  of 

German  stock.  Magj-ars,  descendants  of 
Mongolian  invaders,  form  over  half  of  the 
population  of  Hungary.  But  races  related 
to  the  Slavs  of  Russia  are  more  numerous 
than  either  of  these.  There  are  also  many 
Italians,  as  well  as  other  peoples.  German 
is  the  official  language,  and  is  spoken  by 
the  educated  classes ;  but  at  least  a  dozen 
languages  are  spoken  in  the  empire,  and 
even  two  or  three  in  a  single  town. 

To  be  sure,  a  similar  statement  might  be  made 
in  regard  to  the  United  States;  for  we  also  have  a 
great  variety  of  lauguages.  But  no  matter  from 
what  part  of  the  earth  our  citizens  have  come,  they 
soon  change  their  former  customs,  and  become  gen- 
uine Americans  in  spirit.     The  principal  exception 


is  the  Chinese.  The  many  peoples  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary resemble  the  Chinese  in  their  tendency  to  re- 
main apart.  Their  religions,  lauguages,  and  customs 
are  so  different  that  it  is  difficult  for  them  to  agree. 
Therefore  they  are  often  jealous  and  suspicious  of 
one  another. 

One  reason  for  this  mixture  of  peoples  is 
the    rugged    country,  with    many    inclosed 
valleys,  in   which    the    people   2.    Reason  for 
have  developed  different  cus-  such  a  mixture 
toms.     A    second    is    that    the    empire  has 
been   increased  in  size  by  conquest.     For 


Fig.  445.  —  An  Austriau  village  with  mountaius  in 
the  background. 

example,  note  the  country  nearest  Russia, 
north  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  Here 
the  boundary  line  cuts  across  a  plain,  in- 
stead of  following  mountains,  as  it  does 
for  a  large  part  of  its  length.  This  plain 
is  a  part  of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Poland, 
which  once  stretched  from  the  Baltic  Sea 
to  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  When  Po- 
land was  conquered  and  divided  among 
Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria  (p.  307), 
this,  the  smallest  portion,  was  Austria's 
share. 

A   third  reason    for  such    a    mixture    of 
races    is    found  in   the   central   position   of 


332 


EUROPE 


the  empire.      On  that  account  people  have 
entered    it    from    various    directions,    and 


Fig.  446.  —  A  family  of  gypsies  and  their  house, 
iu  Austria. 

remained    there.       Thus    it    happens    that 
Italians   have   pushed    in    from   the   south- 
west, Germans  from  the  north- 
west, Russian  Slavs  from  the 
north,  and  Magyars  from  the 
east. 

It  has  been  a  difficult  matter 
to  bring  all  these  people  under 

„  .        one  government. 

Government  6 

.Nevertheless,  in 
1867,  the  Austrian  Empire 
and  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary 
were  united,  under  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph,  to  form  the 
Empire  of  Austria-Hungary. 
Each  of  the  countries  has  its 
own  constitution,  makes  its 
own  laws,  and  is  independent 
of  the  other  in  most  respects 


terest,  such  as  the  army  and  navy,  foreig 
affairs,  and  finance. 

Many  of  the  mountain  slopes  are  forest- 
covered,  and  wild  animals  are  still  found  in 
the  remoter  parts.  Since  nearly  Lumbering  and 
a  third  of  the  empire  is  wooded,  agriculture 
lumbering  forms  one  of  the  important  in- 
dustries. 

Where  the  woods  have  been  cleared  awa; 
from  the  mountain  slopes,  there  are  pastures 
for  sheep  and  goats.     Cattle  are  also  raised, 
especially  on  the  lowlands. 

Near  the  Adriatic,  and  in  the  warmer 
valleys,  there  are  many  vineyards ;  and  the 
mulberry  tree  is  raised  to  furnish  food  for 
the  silkworm,  as  in  Italy  (p.  325)  and  south- 
ern France  (p.  285).  Flax,  hemp,  potatoes, 
sugar  beets,  and  tobacco  are  other  im 
portant  crops.  But  the  grains,  especially 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  corn,  are  th 
staple  agricultural  products  of  both  Austria 
and  Hungary.  The  broad  plains  of  the 
Danube  (Fig.  447)  form  one  of  the  leading 
wheat-producing  regions  of  Europe.  So 
much  wheat  is  raised  that  a  large  amount 
is  exported. 

There   is   much   mineral   wealth   in    the 
mountains,  including  deposits 


of  salt,  gold,  silver,  lead,  rner- 


Mining 


cury,  and  copper.     There  are  also  precious 


Fio.  447.  —  The  broad,  level  Hungarian  Plain,  on  which  vast  quantities  of 
wheat  are  raised. 


But  they 
work  together  in  matters  of   common  in- 


stones,  such  as  the  Hungarian  opal,  which 
is  celebrated  for  its  beauty.     The  excellent 


A  USTRIA-HUSGA  R  Y 


33? 


quality  of  the  clays  has  made  possible  the 
manufacture  of  fine  porcelain  ware  ;  and  the 
mineral  quartz  supplies  the  material  for 
the  Bohemian  glass  blowers,  who  make 
some  of  the  finest  glassware  in  the  world. 
This  glass  is  beautifully  colored  by  adding 
small  quantities  of  mineral  substances,  such 
as  silver,  copper,  and  cobalt,  which  arc 
mined  in  the  country. 

Iron  ore  is  widely  distributed  ;  and  Aus- 
tria-Hungary ranks  fourth  among  the  coal- 
producing  countries  of  Europe  (Fig.  362). 
Some  of  the  best  deposits  are  in  the  north- 
west, near  PRAGUE,  which  explains  why 
that  city  is  extensively  en- 
gaged in  iron  manufacturing. 
Petroleum  is  also  found  in 
this  empire. 

There  is  much  less  manu- 
facturing in  Austria-Hungary 
Manufacturing    than      in      Great 

1.  its  extent,  Britain,  Ger- 
and  kinds  many,  or  France. 
Yet  there  are  numerous  cotton, 
woolen,  flour,  and  paper  mills, 
iron  manufactories,  and  beet- 
sugar  refineries.  There  is  also 
much  silk  weaving.  The  chief 
manufacturing  region  is  in 
the  northwest,  near  German}-, 
while  the  principal  agricul- 
tural sections  are  in  the  central  and  eastern 
parts. 

While  there  lias  been  much  progress  in 
manufacturing  in  recent  years,  one  reason 

2.  Reasons  for     for    S0    little    is    fo,lnd   in   the 

so  little  manu-  lack  of  education  among  the 
factoring  people.     Much  of    the   manu- 

facturing is  still  done  by  hand,  or  by  very 
simple  machines. 

Another  reason  for  so  little  manufactur- 
ing is  that  conveniences  for  transportation 
are  so  poor.  Since  the  Danube  cuts  through 
the  mountains  on  both  the  east  and  the  west 
side  of  the  empire,  the  most  natural  trade 
routes  lead  either  down  this  river  into  the 
Black  Sea,  or  else  northward  and  westward 
into  Germany,  and  thence  down  the  Elbe  or 


Rhine  valleys.  The  fact  that  the  Danube  is 
navigable  from  Germany  to  its  mouth  adds 
greatly  to  the  value  of  these  routes.  But 
goods  taken  in  either  direction  must  pass 
through  foreign  ports.  What  disadvantage 
do  you  see  in  that  fact  ? 

The  outlets  by  sea  are  still  less  convenient. 
Although  Austria- Hungary  is  next  in  size 
to  Russia  among  European  nations,  it  has 
but  little  seacoast.  Estimate  its  length. 
And,  what  is  still  worse,  the  coast  is  very 
difficult  to  reach  from  the  interior  on  ac- 
count of  rugged  mountains  that  rise  from 
the  very  seashore.      Largely  for  this  reason 


view  in  Vienna  showing  some  of  the  fine  public  buildings. 


the  ocean  commerce  of  the  empire  is  much 
less  than  that  of  other  large  European  coun- 
tries. By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  through  German  ports. 
One  can  readily  understand,  therefore,  why 
Austria-Hungary  has  comparatively  little 
manufacturing,  and  no  large  colonies. 

While  there  are  man}7  small  cities  in  this 
empire,  there  are  surprisingly  few  large 
ones.  The  two  largest,  Vi-  Principal  cities 
ENNA,  the  capital  of  Austria, 
and  Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary, 
are  on  the  Danube  River  and  not  on  the 
seacoast.  The  reasons  for  this  have  just 
been  suggested.     State  them. 

Vienna,  which  is  larger  than  Philadel- 
phia, is  the   greatest  city  in  Austria-Hun- 


334 


EUROPE 


gary  and  the  fourth  in  size  in  Europe.     The 

main  reason  for  its  size  is  the  fact  that  it  is 

the  capital  of  a  great  empire, 
1.    Vienna  j  •     i        A    i  i  • 

and  is  located  on  a  large  river 

in  the  central  part  of  Europe.  Moreover, 
it  is  situated  at  an  opening  between  moun- 
tains, through  which,  from  the  earliest  times, 
the  best  routes  have  passed  from  western 
Europe  to  Asia,  and  from  northern  Europe 
to  the  Mediterranean.  The  railways 
which  lead  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Rome, 
and  from  Berlin  and  Paris  to  Constan- 
tinople, converge  toward  this  point,  mak- 
ing the  city  a  great  railway  and  trade 
center. 

Vienna  is  a  beautiful  city,  with  many  fine  public 
buildings  (Fig.  448),  including  the  palace  of  the 
emperor  and  some  noted  museums.  The  well- 
known  University  of  Vienna  is  also  located  here. 
As  in  most  large  cities,  there  is  much  manufactur- 
ing of  various  kinds. 

Budapest,  consisting  of  two  towns  (Buda 
and  Pest),  on  opposite  banks  of  the  Danube, 
is  the  seat  of  the  Hungarian 
government  and  the  home  of 
the  Emperor  for  a  part  of  each  year.  The 
city  lies  on  the  edge  of  the  fertile  wheat- 
raising  plains  of  the  Danube,  and,  like  Odessa 
on  the  Black  Sea,  is  engaged  in  flour  manu- 
facture and  grain  shipment. 

Prague,  the  third  city  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  is  situated  on  the  navigable 
Elbe,  which  has  been  an  im- 
portant trade  route  since  early 
times.  Located  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
mineral  region,  it  is  a  noted  manufacturing 
center. 

Trieste  is  the  largest  Austrian  seaport. 
Although  separated  from  the  main  part  of 
4.  Trieste  and  the  country  by  mountain 
Fiume  ranges,  it  is  connected  with  the 

interior  by  a  railway.  The  pass  which  this 
railway  follows  in  crossing  the  mountains 
was  the  route  of  entrance  to  the  Danube 
Valley,  even  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Fiume,  southeast  of  Tri- 
este, has  an  excellent  harbor,  but  has  little 
trade  and  is  a  small  town. 


On  the  boundary  between  Austria  and  Switzer- 
land  is   Liechtenstein,  a   very   small    _ .    . 
independent    country    united    with 
Austria-Hungary   by   a   customs   treaty. 

1.    Describe   the  surface  features  of  this  empire. 

2.  The  climate.     3.   Tell  about  the  . 
mixture  of  races  here.     4.    Give  rea-    n 
sons  for  such  a  mixture.     5.    What    " 

is  the  nature  of  the  government?  6.  State  the 
principal  facts  about  lumbering  and  agriculture. 
7.  Mining.  8.  The  extent  and  kinds  of  manufac- 
turing. 9.  Give  reasons  why  there  is  so  little  manu- 
facturing. 10.  Locate  and  give  the  principal 
facts  about  Vienna.  11.  Budapest.  12.  Prague. 
13.  Trieste  and  Fiume.  14.  What  and  where  is 
Liechtenstein? 

1.  What  is  the  relative  importance  of  the  Danube 
and  the  Rhine  rivers?  2.  Find  some  Bohemian 
glass,   to   see    how   beautiful   it   is.    _ 

3.  In  an  atlas  look  up  Austria-Hun-  SuSgestl0ns 
gary  to  find  the  portions  which  are  called  Tyrol, 
Moravia,  Bohemia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Tran- 
sylvania. 4.  Look  up  some  facts  about  the  history 
of  Poland.  5.  Find  out  something  about  the  Triple 
Alliance.  6.  Read  about  the  influence  of  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph  in  holding  the  different  parts  of 
the  empire  together.  7.  Find  out  something  about 
Kossuth. 

XII.  The  Balkan  Peninsula  (Fig.  416) 

1.   What  countries  border  Roumania  (Fig.  416)? 
2.  Name  the  countries  south  of  the  Danube.    3.  What 
does  the  relief  map  (Fig.  360)  tell 
you    about    the    surface    of    each?  ' 

4.  What  can  you  expect  as  to  the  temperature  on 
this  peninsula  ?    Why  ?    As  to  the  rainfall  ?    Why? 

5.  Compare  the  number  of  large  cities  with  the 
number  in  Germany  and  Italy.  What  conclusions 
do  you  draw  concerning  the  occupations  of  the 
people  ?  6.  Compare  the  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
with  that  of  your  own  state. 

This  double-pointed  peninsula,  called  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  is  bounded  on  one  side  by 
the  Adriatic  and  Mediterra-  Boundaries  and 
nean  seas,  on  another  bv  the  surface 
vEgean  and  Black  seas  ;  but,  features 
unlike  other  European  peninsulas,  it  ha 
a  very  long  land  boundary.  Trace  this 
boundary. 

Throughout  almost  its  entire  extent  the 
surface  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  moun- 
tainous, which  offers  an  explanation  of  (he 
large  number  of  separate  countries  here. 
How  ?     Many  of  the  valleys  are  suited  to 


THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA 


335 


Climate 


agriculture,  the  most  extensive  being  the 
plains  of  the  Danube  in  Roumania  and 
Bulgaria. 

The  climate  varies  greatly  from  seashore 
to  interior,  and  from  valley  to  mountain. 
Along  the  southern  coast  the 
winters  are  mild,  as  elsewhere 
near  the  Mediterranean.  But  in  the  north- 
east, near  Russia,  hot  summers  are  followed 
by  cold  winters,  when  icy  winds  sweep  down 
from  the  Russian  steppes  and  the 
Danube  freezes  over. 

In   so   mountainous  a  land   there 
is  also  much  variation    in   rainfall. 
On  the  western  slopes  —  for  ex 
ample,  near  the  shores  of  the 
Adriatic — there   is  an    abun- 
dance of  rain  ;   but  on  the  east 
coast  and  in  the  interior  val- 
leys,  especially  in  Greece,  there    ' 
is  so  little  rain  that  agriculture 
depends  upon  irrigation.    Why 
is  this  true   of   Greece   espe- 
cially (p.  262) ? 

The   eastern   branch   of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  comes  so  close 

to  Asia  that  it  has 
been  called  a  "bridge" 
between  Europe  and 
Asia.  At  two  points, 
the  Dardanelles  and 
the  Bosporus  (Fig.  4.52),  the  con- 
tinents are  separated  only  by  narrow 
straits.  Animals  and  plants  have 
crossed  these  barriers  so  easily,  that  there  is 
a  mixture  of  European  and  Asiatic  species 
in  that  part  of  Europe. 

This  region  has  also  been  a  bridge  for  the 
passage  of  many  peoples.  Romans,  various 
tribes  of  Slavs,  and  finally  the  Mohammedan 
Turks  from  Asia,  have  brought  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  under  their  rule.  Wherever 
the  Turks  went,  they  brought  ruin  ;  and  for 
four  centuries,  while  the  rest  of  Europe 
was  advancing,  they  held  this  region  in 
such  control  that  almost  all  progress  was 
checked.  In  the  recent  Balkan  war,  how- 
ever,  many  of  its  people  have  thrown  off 


Closeness  to 
Asia ;  effects 
on  plants, 
animals,  and 
people 


the  Turkish  yoke,  so  that  the  peninsula  is 
now  divided  among  several  nations,  and 
Turkey  in  Europe  is  only  a  small  part  of 
what  it  was  a  hundred  j7ears  ago. 

Aside  from  Turkey,  the  separate  countries 
that  have  been  formed  are  Albania,  Mon- 
tenegro, Servia,  Roumania,  Countries  now 
Bulgaria,  and  Greece.  Each  of  occupying  the 
these  is  now  entirely  hide-  peninsula 
pendent.  Albania  is  a  new  state.  It  was 
formed  in  1913  from  territory  taken  from 
Turkey. 

The    tiny   country    of    Montenegro,   which    is 
smaller  than  the  state  of  Connecticut,  has  main- 
tained its  independence  largely 

because   of  its  situation  "° 

among  the  mountains.  The  country  is 
of  slight  importance;  its  soil 
is  so  poor  that  there  is  little 
agriculture  ;  there  is  less  man- 
ufacturing, and  not  a  single 
railway.  The  principal  occupa- 
tion is  cattle  raising.  Cet- 
tix.te,  the  capital,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  less  than  five  thousand. 

Bordering   on  southern 
Hungary,     Servia     shares 
some    of    the    Servia 
advantages    1.    Agriculture 

of  that  country.  Since 
much  of  its  surface  is  rug- 
ged and  heavily  forested, 
only  a  small  portion  is  culti- 
vated. Among  the  leading 
products  are  corn,  wheat, 
and  other  grains,  reminding  us  of  Hungary. 
There  is  also  much  fruit,  especially  grapes 
and  plums,  which,  when  dried,  are  sold  as 
raisins  and  prunes.  Many  cattle,  sheep, 
and  pigs  are  raised  for  export,  the  pigs  be- 
ing allowed  to  roam  in  the  oak  and  beech 
forests.      Why  there  ? 

The  industries  of  Servia  are  only  partly  developed. 
For  example,  although  coal,  iron,  lead,  silver,  gold, 
and    other    metals    are    known    to 
exist,   there   is   very   little   mining;    '< 
nor  is   there   much   manufacturing. 
It  will  require  more  time  to  recover 
from  the  centuries  of  Turkish  misrule. 

The  capital  of  the  kingdom  is  Belgrade,  a  city 


Fig.  449.  —  A  Greek  peasant 
in  native  costume. 


tries  and  chief 
city 


336 


EUROPE 


finely  situated  upon  the  Danube,  and  owing  its  im- 
portance partly  to  easy  transportation  on  that  river. 


Fig.  450. —  A  Roumanian  peasant  in  native 
costume. 


These  two  countries  have  much  in  com- 
mon, although  the  Danube  separates  them 
Roumania  and  for  a  long  distance.  They  to- 
Bulgaria  gether  control  its  lower  course, 

1.  Agriculture  a  fact  of  much  importance  to 
Austria-Hungary.     Why  ? 

Broad  plains,  suited  to  agriculture,  bor- 
der the  Danube  in  both  countries,  though 
the  plains  are  far  more  extensive  in  Rou- 
mania than  in  Bulgaria.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, there  is  much  farming.  In  both 
countries  wheat  and  other  grains  are  among 
the  chief  crops.  The  warmer  climate  of 
Bulgaria,  south  of  the  Balkan  Mountains, 
permits  the  culture  of  products  that  cannot 
be  raised  in  Roumania ;  for  example,  the 
mulberry  for  the  silkworm,  and  roses  for 
the  valuable  perfume,  attar  of  roses. 

Many  sheep,  as  well  as  other  live  stock, 
are  raised  in  each  country  ;  in  fact,  herding 
is  almost  the  sole  industry  on  the  barren 
steppes  of  eastern  Roumania. 

There  are  large  tracts  of  forest  in  each  country ; 
but  there  is  more  in  Bulgaria,  owing  to  its  rugged 


surface,   than    in    Roumania.      Each    country   has 

valuable  mineral  deposits ;  but,  as  in  Servia,  there 

is  little  mining.     Nor  is  there  much 

manufacturing,    except    such    hand    2.    Other  indus- 

work  as  the  manufacture  of  Turkish   tries'  als0  chief 

cities 
rugs. 

With  such  slight  development  of   the   resources, 

there   are   few  large  cities.     By  far  the   largest   is 

Bucharest,  the   capital   of   Roumania.     Find  the 

capital  of  Bulgaria. 

The  Turks,  who  are  Mohammedans,  have 
ideas  and  customs  that  are  very  unlike  those 


Turkey  in 


of  other  Europeans.     They  are 
unprogressive,  and  are  unwill-  Europe 
ing    to    grant    rights    to    the   tm  character  of 
many  Christians  who   live    in   the  people,  and 
Turkey.     Their  ruler,  or  Sul-   of  g°vernment 
tan,  until  recently  has  had  absolute  power, 
which  he  has  often  used  very  cruelly ;   and 
the  government  has  been  the  worst  in  Eu- 
rope. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire,  as  Turkey  is  often  called,  has 
been  famous  for  many  centu-  2.  Chief  city 
ries.  Being  situated  on  the  (l)  its  location 
beautiful,  river-like  outlet  of  the  Black 
Sea,  called  the  Bosporus  (Fig.  452),  it 
commands  the  channel  through  which  the 
commerce  of  the  Black  Sea  must  pass.  This 
is  a  natural  site  for  a  city;  for  it  is  the 


Fig.  451.  — A  Turkish  woman  in  Constantinople. 

point  where  the  crossing  can  best  be  made 
from  Europe  to  Asia. 

The  site  of  Constantinople  is  so  favorable  for  a 


THE   HALKAN   PENINSULA 


337 


city  tliat  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Greek  colony  even 
liefore  the  days  of  Christ.  Later  the  Roman  Em- 
peror  Constantine  named  the  city 
(2)  Its  history  ^  himself  (Constantine  and  polls, 
ami  present  .  v  ,.,,,. 

importance  meaning  city),  and  made  it  the  capi- 

tal of  the  Roman  Empire.  For  cen- 
turies it  was  rioted  as  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
prosperous  cities  of  Europe. 

After  being  captured  by  the  Turks,  however,  it 
lost  much  of  its  beauty;   but  some  of  the  ancient 
ilendor  still  remains  (Fig.  452).    There  are  palaces, 


Iii  this  division  Greece  came  into  posses- 
sion again  of  the  many  islands  that  were 
formerly  under  her  government.  Servia, 
although  failing  to  secure  a  seaport  on  the 
Adriatic,  gained  control  over  new  territory 
almost  equaling  her  former  area.  Bulgaria 
is  now  about  as  large  as  the  state  of  Penn- 
sylvania. It  gained  considerable  territory 
Lying  along  the   Black    Sea.     Montenegro 


Fig.  452.  —  Constantinople  and  the  Bosporus.    The  lancl  on  the  other  side  of  the  strait  is  in  Asia. 


mosques,  and  other  interesting  and  costly  buildings; 
but  side  by  side  with  them  are  the  dwellings  of  the 
common  people,  who  live  in  the  most  squalid  pov- 
erty. The  houses,  street  scenes,  people,  and  customs 
remind  one  of  Asia  rather  than  of  Europe.  How 
does  it  rank  in  size  with  other  large  European  cities? 
With  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States  ?  (See 
table,  Appendix,  p.  426.) 

Dissatisfaction  with  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment finally  led  (1912)  to  war.  On  the  one 
side  was  Turkey  and  on  the  other  four  of  the 
Balkan  states  —  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montene- 
gro, and  Greece.  These  states  were  called 
the  Balkan  Allies.  In  this  war  the  allies 
were  successful  and  took  from  Turkey  most 
of  her  territory  in  Europe.  Part  of  this 
territory  was  formed  into  a  new  state  about 
the  size  of  Vermont,  called  Albania.  The 
rest  of  the  territory  was  divided  among  the 
allies  so  that  each  state  increased  its  size  to 
a  considerable  extent. 


obtained  some  territory  from  Bulgaria  but 
is  still  the  smallest  state  on  the  Balkan 
Peninsula. 

The  settlement  of  the  Balkan  question 
promises  improved  conditions  in  the  Balkan 
countries.  The  governments  of  the  coun- 
tries seem  now  to  be  firmly  established,  the 
industry  and  commerce  are  developing,  and 
the  people  seem  contented. 

The  new  state  of  Albania  extends  from 
the  boundary  of  Greece  to  the  boundary 
of  Montenegro  and  lies  close 
along  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It 
has  a  pleasant  climate  with  plenty  of  rain- 
fall. The  soil  is  fertile  and  suited  to 
agriculture.  Cereals,  fruits,  and  tobacco 
are  the  principal  products.  Cattle  and 
sheep  are  raised.  The  principal  town  is 
Skutari. 

The  southern  end  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 


338 


EUROPE 


is  occupied  by  Greece.  Owing  to  many 
short  mountain  ranges,  extending  in  dif- 
Greece  ferent  directions,   the    surface 

1.  Surface  and  of  Greece  is  quite  rugged,  and 
climate  large    sections    are    unfit    for 

farming.  Yet  there  are  many  small,  fertile 
valleys.  The  coast  line  is  very  irregular, 
with  numerous  peninsulas,  islands,  deep 
bays,  and  fine  harbors,  formed  by  the  sink- 
ing of  the  irregular  land. 

The  Mediterranean  causes  a  warm,  pleas- 
ant climate,  as  in  southern  Italy.    In  Greece, 


Fig.  453.  —  A  Greek  ship,  used  700  years  before  Christ.    Besides  sails,  loug 
oars  were  used  for  driving  the  boat  through  the  water. 


however,  as  in  Italy,  the  rainfall,  which  is 
moderate  in  winter,  is  so  light  in  summer 
that  irrigation  is  necessary  for  agriculture. 
It  was  in  this  small  peninsula  that  the 
marvelous  civilization  of  ancient  Hellas,  or 
„     . .  Greece,  was  developed.   While 

2.    Advantages  '        .  -,,.,, 

that  the  ancient  the  conditions  amid  which  the 
Greeks  enjoyed  Greeks  lived  may  not  seem  to 
have  been  very  favorable,  they  were  far 
better  than  they  at  first  appear.  The  sea 
and  mountains  protected  them  from  foreign 
enemies ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  sea,  by 
means  of  the  many  fine  harbors-  and  pro- 
tected inlets,  so  connected  the  people  that 
it  was  easy  for  them  to  carry  on  peaceful 
commerce. 


In  other  parts  of  the  world  strong  nations 
have  developed  under  such  conditions  as 
these.  It  was  true,  for  instance,  in  Scandi- 
navia, in  the  British  Isles,  and  in  the  Span- 
ish and  Italian  peninsulas.  It  is  also  true 
in  the  Japanese  Islands,  the  home  of  the 
most  highly  developed  Asiatics. 

Because  of  their  ability  to  navigate  the 
inland  seas,  the  Greeks,  in  very  early  times 
(Fig.  453),  kept  closely  in  3.  Eariyhis- 
touch  with  the  people  from  tory  of  Greece 
whom  they  had  separated,  and  who  still 
dwelt  opposite  them,  on  the 
coast  of  Asia.  They  improved 
upon  the  arts  and  customs  of 
their  mother  country,  and  in 
time  became  the  greatest  power 
in  the  then  known  world.  In 
those  ancient  days  they  devel- 
oped a  civilization  which,  in 
spite  of  all  our  progress,  still 
excels  our  own  in  very  im- 
portant respects. 

They  cruised  about  the  shores 
of   the   Mediterranean  and  be- 
came explorers  at  a  time  when 
most  of  Europe  was  occupied  by 
savages   or   barbarians.      They 
entered  into  trade  relations  with 
their    neighbors,    taught    them 
Greek     arts,     and     established 
many   colonies.     Among   these 
were  some  colonies  in  Italy,  through  which 
the  Greeks  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon 
the  Romans. 

Rome  finally  conquered  Greece,  and 
became  the  leading  country  of  the  world, 
spreading  her  civilization  far  4.  its  later 
over  Europe.  It  must  be  "story 
remembered,  though,  that  much  of  this 
civilization  was  really  derived  from  the 
Greeks.  After  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  other  people  from  the  north  in- 
vaded Greece  ;  and  finally  the  Turks 
entered  the  country  and  carried  ruin  to 
this,  as  to  other  parts  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula. Greece  is  now  independent,  and  is  a 
limited  monarchy- 


I 


THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA 


339 


In  this  little  country  there  are  few  natural 
resources.  There  is  no  coal,  and  therefore 
5.  Principal  little  manufacturing.  There 
industries  js  Some  mining,  as  of  iron  ore, 

lead,  and  zinc;  but  the  principal  occupations 
are  herding  and  farming.  Large  numbers 
of  sheep  and  goats  are  raised  ;  and  the  chief 
farm  products  are  grain,  tobacco,  olives,  and 


and  in  securing  bath  sponges  from  the 
shallow  sea  bottom  among  the  Greek  is- 
lands. 

Athens,  the  capital  and  most  important 
city,  with  about  a  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
thousand  inhabitants,  is  situ- 
ated inland  six  miles  from  its 
port,  Pir.-eus.     The  principal  streets  of  the 


6.  Leading  city 


Fig.  454.  —  The  Acropolis  at  Athens. 


fruits.  Among  the  latter  is  the  small 
variety  of  grape  known  as  the  currant. 
Currants,  together  with  raisin  grapes,  are 
cultivated  in  large  quantities  on  the  steep 
hillsides ;  after  being  gathered  they  are 
spread  out  to  dry,  and  are  marketed  as  dried 
fruit. 

The  neighborhood  of  the  sea  has  led  the 
Greeks  to  continue  their  seafaring  life,  and 
they  still  carry  on  an  extensive  foreign 
trade.      Many  are  also  engaged  in  fishing. 


present  city  are  quite  modern  ;  but  ruins  of 
ancient  Athens  are  still  numerous.  The 
most  noted  buildings,  and  some  of  the  finest 
temples  of  ancient  Greece,  stood  upon  the 
Acropolis  (Fig.  -454:),  a  level-topped  rocky 
hill  with  steep  sides.  This  stronghold  was 
the  natural  center  of  settlements  on  the  sur- 
rounding plain. 

The  many  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of  Greece 
are  either  mountain  crests  or  volcanic  cones.  Now 
and  then  we  hear  of  an  earthquake  shock  in  this 


340 


EUROPE 


Islands  near 
Greece 


island  region,  or  archipelago,  showing  that  the 
mountains  are  still  growing.  The  largest  island 
near  Greece  is  Crete  (Fig.  358), 
which,  like  the  smaller  islands,  is 
inhabited  mainly  by  Greeks.  It  is 
now  controlled  by  the  Greeks.  The  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  industries  similar  to  those  of  Greece. 

1.    Describe  the  boundaries    and   surface  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula.     2.    The  climate.     3.    How  close 
is  this  peninsula  to  Asia,  and  what 
/;'"  ''  have  been  some  of  the  effects  of  this 

"  location     on     plants,    animals,  and 

people?  4.  What  countries  now  occupy  this  penin- 
sula? Locate  each.  5.  Tell  what  you  can  about 
Montenegro.  6.  About  agriculture  in  Servia.  7.  What 
are  the  other  industries?  8.  Name  and  locate 
the  chief  city.  9.  What  are  the  agricultural  prod- 
ucts of  Roumania  and  Bulgaria?  10.  What  are  the 
other  industries  ?  11.  The  chief  cities?  12.  What 
can  you  tell  about  the  character  of  the  people 
and  government  of  Turkey  in  Europe?  13.  What 
are  the  industries?  14.  Why  is  the  location  of  its 
chief  city  so  favorable  ?  15.  State  the  history  and 
present  importance  of  this  city.  16.  Why  have  the 
Balkan    Allies   driven    the   Turks  out   of    Europe? 

17.  Describe    the  surface  and    climate  of  Greece. 

18.  Show  what  advantages  the  ancient  Greeks  en- 
joyed. 19.  Give  facts  in  the  early  history  of  Greece. 
20.  In  its  later  history.  21.  What  are  the  principal 
industries?  22.  Tell  about  the  leading  city. 
23.   WThat  about  the  islands  near  Greece  ? 

1.  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for  the  fact 
that  these  eastern  countries  are  in  a  constant  state 
,,  ,.  of  unrest?     2.    Turkey  is  sometimes 

referred  to  as  the  "  sick  man  of  Eu- 
rope." Why?  3.  How  was  Greece  well  situated 
for  the  trade  of  the  ancient  world  ?  4.  Learn  some 
facts  about  Homer,  Plato,  and  other  noted  Greeks. 
5.  Read  about  the  defense  of  the  Pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae. 6.  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for  the 
fact  that  ancient  Greece  was  divided  into  several 
independent  states,  not  unlike  our  own,  but  lacking 
a  federal  union?  7.  Name  the  principal  cities  in 
the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  locate  each. 

1.    Compare  the  climate  of  western  Europe  with 

that  of  the  west  coast  of  North  America  (p.  211). 

.-,  .  2.   Make   the  same  comparison   for 

General  review     .  * 

questions  and     the  eastera  Parts  of  the  tw°  colltl- 

comparisons        nents-     3-    What     European    coun- 

with  North  tries    were    covered,    either    wholly 

America  or  *n  Part;!  D.Y  an  >ce   sheet  in  the 

Glacial  Period  (Fig.  303)  ?    4.   Does 

Europe  or  North   America  have  the  advantage  in 

regard  to  irregular  coast  line  ?     How  is  it  an  advan- 


tage ?  5.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  mountain 
ranges  in  each  continent.  Which  continent  has  the 
advantage  as  to  the  direction  of  the  ranges  ?  Why 
(p.  261)  ?  6.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  rivers 
in  each  continent.  Which  are  the  largest  in  each 
case?  7.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Europe,  insert- 
ing  the   boundaries   and   names    of   the   countries. 

8.  How  do  our  larger  Western  States  compare  in 
area  with  France  and   Germany?     In  population? 

9.  Which  are  the  two  or  three  most  progressive 
countries  of  Europe  ?  Give  reasons.  10.  What  is 
the  prevailing  kind  of  government  in  Europe?  In 
North  America?  11.  Which  European  country 
has  the  best  location  for  world  commerce  ?  Why  ? 
12.  Which  is  best  situated  for  continental  com- 
merce? Why  (p.  308)?  13.  Which  country  of 
North  America  has  the  most  favorable  position  for 
trade?  How?  14.  Compare  in  population  the  five 
largest  European  cities  with  the  five  largest  in  North 
America  (Appendix,  p.  426).  15.  State  the  main 
advantages  of  the  position  of  each  of  these  ten 
cities.  16.  Name  and  locate  the  five  largest  sea- 
ports of  Europe  (Fig.  358).  17.  How  do  they  com- 
pare in  population  with  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  Baltimore,  and  San  Francisco?  18.  Name 
and  locate  the  five  largest  interior  cities,  and  com- 
pare their  population  with  that  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  Cincinnati.  19.  What  cities 
of  Europe  and  North  America  are  near  the  46th  par- 
allel of  latitude  ?  The  50th?  The  60th?  20.  Name 
some  agricultural  products  common  to  both  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  21.  Name  others  that  are 
found  in  the  United  States,  but  not  in  Europe.  Why 
this  difference?  22.  Name  the  chief  wheat-produc- 
ing countries  of  Europe.  23.  In  what  countries  of 
Europe  is  raw  silk  produced?  Why  do  we  not  raise 
silkworms  (p.  286)?  24.  In  what  countries  are  sugar 
beets  extensively  produced  ?  25.  In  what  countries 
is  most  lumber  obtained  ?  26.  Make  a  list  of  the 
European  countries  which  have  extensive  coal  de- 
posits. 27.  Which  countries  have  little  or  none? 
What  is  the  effect  on  the  industries  in  each  case  ? 

28.  Which    countries    have    little   or   no   mining? 

29.  Which  countries  have  important  manufactur- 
ing industries?  Which  have  very  little  manufac- 
turing? Give  reasons  for  this  difference.  30.  With 
which  group  would  the  United  States  be  classed  with 
regard  to  mining  and  manufacturing?  31.  Which 
of  the  European  nations  have  you  seen  represented 
on  our  streets?  32.  Write  a  paper  stating  some  of 
the  advantages  that  we  enjoy  over  European  coun- 
tries. 33.  State  some  of  the  advantages  that  they 
enjoy  over  us.  34.  Which  one  of  the  European 
countries  would  you  prefer  to  visit?     Why? 


PART   V.     ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND 

ISLAND   GROUPS 


I.  Asia 

1.  Compare  the  greatest  length  and  breadth  of 
Asia  with  that  of  North  America  (Fig.  9).  2.  Com- 
pare its  area  with  that  of  other  con- 
tinents. (For  Areas,  see  Appendix, 
p.  424.)  3.  Where  are  the  mountains?  4.  The 
plains?  5.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Asia,  adding 
the  names  and  boundaries  of  the  countries.     6.  Find 


Map  Study 


three  large  inland  seas  and  lakes.  Which  have  no 
outlets?  7.  Find  the  area  of  China,  India,  Siberia. 
Compare  each  with  the  United  States  in  area. 
8.  What  facts  concerning  the  climate  do  you  dis- 
cover from  the  map?  9.  What  does  the  general 
absence  of  railways  tell  about  the  development  of 
the  people  ?  In  what  parts  have  there  probably  been 
most  progress?  10.  Name  some  of  the  large  islands 
near  Asia.  Name  some  of  the  largest  islands  be- 
tween Asia  and  Australia  (Fig.  517). 


Fig.  457.  —  Relief  map  of  Eurasia. 
341 


342 


ASIA,   AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


i.   General  Facts 


Asia,  the  largest  of  the  continents,  in- 
cludes almost  one  third  of  the  land  of  the 
Size  and  globe.      Its    immense    area  is 

position  shown     by    the    fact    that     it 

reaches  from  near  the  equator  to  a  point, 
halfway  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the 
north  pole.  How  many  degrees  of  latitude 
is    that  ?      How    many    miles  ?       In    what 


, 

j 

. 

^^^jj^^x^ 

.  v~w23iKp3 

r_^^,. 

■       r  3^: 

^^BmIMuo^^u. 

Fig.  458.  —  Fujiyama,  a  very  perfect  volcanic  cone  in  Japan. 


zones,    therefore,    does    Asia   lie  ?     Is   the 
same  true  of  any  other  continent  ? 

Find  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which  connects 
Asia  with  Africa.  At  one  point  Asia 
reaches  within  fifty  miles  of  North  America. 
Find  that  place.  What  is  the  name  of  the 
strait  separating  these  two  continents 
(Fig.  2)  ?  The  distance  from  the  Suez 
Canal  to  Bering  Strait  is  six  thousand 
miles.  There  are  so  many  degrees  of  longi- 
tude included  in  this  distance,  that,  accord- 
ing to  our  plan  for  standard  time,  one  would 
need  to  change  his  watch  ten  different  times 
in  traveling  over  it.  How  many  changes 
are  necessary  in  crossing  the  United  States 
(Fig.  290)  ? 


Asia  resembles   Europe  in  the  irregular 

arrangement  of  its  mountains  „    , 

(Fig.   457).     While  many  of  features 

them    extend    east    and    west,  i    Direction 

there  are  others  running  nearly  and  character  of 

north   and   south.      Point   out  the  mountains 
examples  of  each. 

The  growth  of  the  mountains  and  plateaus  hai 
caused  many  islands  and  peninsulas,  with  gulfs  and 
seas  between.  The  mountains  in  many  parts  of 
Asia  are  still  slowly  rising ;  and  as 
the  rocks  move  and  break,  earth- 
quake shocks  are  common.  There 
are  also  many  volcanoes  (Fig.  458)  ; 
in  fact,  the  islands  east  and  south- 
east of  Asia  form  the  most  active 
volcanic  and  earthquake  region  in 
the  world. 

Northern  and  western  Asia 
form  a  vast  plain,  and  there 
are  other  smaller  2    p^,^ 

plains     and     low    lowlands  and 

plateaus  ;  but  a  higu«lds 
large  part  of  the  continent 
consists  of  mountains  and 
high  plateaus.  Indeed,  more 
than  one  twelfth  of  Asia, 
mainly  in  the  central  part  o: 
the  continent,  has  an  eleva 
tion  above  ten  thousand  feet. 
Here  are  found  the  Hima- 
layas (meaning  abode  of 
snow),  whose  loftiest  peak, 
Mount  Everest  (29,000  feet),  is  the  highest 
in  the  world.  Locate  it.  Here,  too,  ari 
other  ranges  with  peaks  rising  above  valleys 
whose  bottoms  lie  eleven  thousand  feet 
above  sea  level,  or  higher  than  most  moun- 
tains. Between  the  mountains  are  table 
lands,  like  that  of  Tibet,  which  has  an 
elevation  of  from  ten  thousand  to  fifteen 
thousand  feet,  some  portions  being  as  high 
as  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Alps. 

The    mountains    and    high    plateaus    of  , 
central  Asia  are  the  source  of  many  large 

rivers.      Why  ?       Note    how  „    _     . 

J    .,  „    3.    The  rivers 

many  rise    on    the  margin    of 

this  central  highland  and  flow  east,  south 

and   north,   to  the   sea.     Name   and  trace 


t 

11 


: 


ASIA 


343 


each  of  the  large  rivers  (Fig.  456). 
Through  what  countries  do  they  flow? 
which  of  these  rivers  are  probably  least 
useful  ?     Why  ? 

In  so  vast  a  land,  with  such  differences 
in  elevation,  there  are  many  different  cli- 
mates. Tropical  heat  is  found  in  southern 
Asia,  and  here  dense  forests 
grow  in  the  belt  of  calms 
(Fig.  475),  and  in  those  places  where  ocean 
winds  blow  over  the  land.  Where  winds  do 
not  blow  from  the  ocean,  however,  the  cli- 
mate is  very  dry  and  there  are  broad 
deserts  (Fig.  459.)  Most  of  western  Asia 
is    arid    for  this  reason.     Much  of   central 


Climate 


is  the  largest  continent,  the  continental  climate  is 
best  developed  here.  Thus  where  the  Arctic  Circle 
crosses  the  Lena  River,  the  average  temperature  in 
July  is  60°  and  in  January  60°  below  zero,  a  differ- 
ence of  120°  between  summer  and  winter.  This  is 
the  lowest  winter  temperature  known  in  the  world, 
and  this  point  is  therefore  sometimes  called  the  cold 
pole  of  the  earth. 

Since  northern  Asia  is  really  a  continua- 
tion of  Europe,  the  wild  plants 
and    animals,    as    well    as    the 
farm  products,  resemble  those 
of  Europe. 


Plants  and 
animals 


1.    How  those 
of  northern  Asia 
resemble  those 
of  Europe 


The  cold  northern  part  of  Siberia, 
like  northern  Europe  and  America, 
is  a  vast  expanse  of  frozen  ground,  or  tundra. 


To- 


Fig.  459.  —  A  caravan  on  the  desert  of  Persia. 


Asia  is  also  arid,  since  the  lofty  mountains 
surrounding  the  central  plateau  cause  most 
of  the  vapor  to  condense  on  their  seaward 
slopes. 

A  large  part  of  Asia  has  a  temperate,  and 
some  of  it  even  a  frigid,  climate,  as  in  Xorth 
America  and  Europe.  For  example,  the 
climate  at  Peking  resembles  that  of  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  ; 
and  the  climate  of  the  plains  of  central 
Siberia  resembles  that  of  the  plains  of  Min- 
nesota and  Dakota. 

Such  a  climate,  with  warm  summers  and  very 
cold  winters,  is  called  continental ;    and  since  Asia 


ward  the  south  the  tundra  grades  into  the  forest ;  low 
stunted  trees  appear  first,  followed  by  true  forests  of 
evergreens,  birches,  poplars,  etc.  Farther  south 
where  the  rainfall  is  light  and  where,  in  the  warmer 
climate,  evaporation  is  more  rapid,  the  soil  is  too  dry  in 
summer  for  forests.  This  is  the  region  of  the  steppes, 
which  are  covered  with  luxuriant  grass  in  the  north, 
but  which  grade  into  the  barren  desert  farther  south. 
In  southern  Asia,  on  the  other  hand,  from  Arabia 
to  China,  the  plants  and  animals  resemble  those  of 
Africa  rather  than  of  Europe  and  g  gow  ana 
northern  Asia.  One  reason  for  this 
is  that  southern  Asia  has  a  tropical 
climate,  like  Africa  ;  another  is  that 
a  mountain  and  desert  barrier  sepa- 
rates northern  from  southern  Asia, 
rier  on  Figure  457. 


why  those  of 
southern  Asia 
resemble  those 
of  Africa 

Trace  this  bar- 


M& 


The  M.N.COnBuFFALo. 


TIGER 


ELEPHANT 


Fig.  400.  —  Some  ol  the  wild  animals  oi  Asia. 


ASIA 


345 


As  in  Africa,  this  arid  portion,  which  includes 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  central  Asia,  is  the  home  of  the 
camel  (Fig.  460),  while  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros 
(Fig.  460)  live  on  the  savannas  and  in  the  tropical 
jungles.  Southern  Asia  is  also  the  home  of  the 
fierce  tiger  and  numerous  species  of  monkeys  and 
apes  (Fig.  460). 

It  was  in  Asia,  probably  the  seat  of  the 
oldest  civilization  of  mankind,  that  men 
3  0  d  bt  t  ^rs*  learnec'-  to  make  use  of 
Asia  for  domes-  some  of  the  animals  and  plants 

ticated  plants        tnat  are  now  s0   valuable.       No 
and  animals  ,  ,  , , 

one  knows  who  it  was  that 
first  tamed  the  wild  animals, 
such  as  the  horse,  dog,  and 
sheep,  which  now  are  used  all 
over  the  world.  Nor  is  it 
known  who  first  cultivated 
the  wheat  and  many  other 
useful  plants ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  the  people  of  Asia  knew 
their  value  long  before  Euro- 
peans became  civilized.  Cen- 
turies before  the  time  of  Christ 
the  people  of  India  grew  cotton 
and  wove  it  into  cloth  ;  and 
they  kept  sheep,  horses,  cattle, 
and  goats.  Tea  and  oranges 
were  introduced  into  Europe 
from  China,  and  the  lemon 
tree  came  from  India. 

The  extent  to  which  the  Asiatic 
people  have  learned  to  make  use  of 
animals  is  shown  by 
domes^ated3  °  the  followi»g  facts:  On  the  frozen 
animals  in  Asia  tundras  where  no  large  domesticated 
animals  thrive,  the  reindeer  not  only 
supplies  milk,  meat,  and  hides,  but  is  also  used  as 
a  work  animal.  The  camel,  whose  original  home 
seems  to  have  been  Asia,  makes  it  possible  for 
niHii  to  live  even  in  the  desert  (Figs.  451)  and  489). 
Elephants  are  domesticated  and  made  to  work  in 
the  dense  tropical  forests  (Figs.  461  and  480)  ; 
and  the  buffalo  is  used  as  a  work  animal  in  hot,  damp 
lands  where  horses  find  the  climate  trying  (Fig.  481). 
Among  the  lofty  plateaus  and  mountains,  where  the 
air  is  so  rare,  and  the  slopes  so  steep,  that  other  work 
animals  cannot  be  used,  the  yak  is  domesticated. 
Upon  the  steppes,  where  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goals  are  kept,  the  horse  is  so  necessary  to  the  herder 
that  the  men  almost  live  in  the  saddle.  Indeed,  the 
word  Cossack,  applied  to  Russians  who  dwell  on  the 


steppes,  means  horseman, 
also  have  swine,  poultry, 
domestic  animals. 


The    Asiatic   people 
dogs,    cats,    and    other 


More  than  half  the  human  race,  or  over 
eight  hundred  and  fifty  million  persons,  live 
in  Asia.      But  in  spite  of  this  peopie 
vast  number,  most  of  the  con-  x    Theirnum. 
tinent  is  sparsely  settled.    The   ber,  and  their 
mountain  slopes,  the  cold  pla-  location 
teaus,  the  steppes,  deserts,  forests,  and  tun- 
dras support  but  few  inhabitants  (Fig.  462). 
Nearly  seven  eighths  of  the   Asiatic  people 


Flu.  461.  —  The  elephant  drawing  a  load  of  cocoanuts  in  Ceylon. 


dwell  near  the  coast,  especially  on  the  river 
flood  plains  and  deltas  of  the  south  and 
east.  Almost  every  foot  of  land  there  is 
cultivated,  and  soil  for  gardens  is  even  car- 
ried to  boats  on  the  rivers. 

Three  fourths  of  the  Asiatic  people  be- 
long   to    the    Yellow   division   „    „ 

t  Zi.      i,  r       ooo\      2'    The  races  t0 

oi    the   human   race   (p.  2.61).  which  they  be- 

while  the  remaining  fourth  are   lon.g.. and  theil 
chiefly  whites. 

There  are  great  differences  in  religion  be< 
tween  these  people  and  Europeans.  Al- 
though the  Christian  religion  started  iv 
southwestern  Asia,  and  spread  freely  along 
the  Mediterranean,  it  made  little  headway 


846 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


across  the  desert  and  mountain  lands  to 
the  east.  One  difficulty  was  that  there 
were  still  older,  well-established  religions 
in  southern  and  eastern  Asia.  At  present 
two  thirds  of  the  Asiatic  people  are  either 
Brahmans  or  Buddhists  (p.  233),  as  their 
ancestors  have  been  for  many  centuries. 
Many  others  are  of  the  Mohammedan  faith, 


of  the  Euphrates  River,  and  of  the  Indian 
and  Chinese  rivers,  had  a  fertile  soil  and  an 
abundance  of  water  for  irrigation.  More- 
over, these  fertile  spots  were  protected  from 
invasion  by  ocean,  desert,  and  mountain 
barriers,  so  that  the  inhabitants  were  able 
to  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  Other  cen 
ters,  protected  from  the  attacks  of  wander 


. 


Fig.  462. 


which  .had  its  start  in  Asia,  long  after  Christ 
(p.  234).  This  religion  has  not  only  taken 
the  place  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  reli- 
gions in  most  of  western  Asia,  where  they 
started,  but  has  spread  far  to  the  eastward. 
Some  of  the  natives  even  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  are  Mohammedans. 

One  reason  why  the  people  of  Asia  made 

8.    Reasons  for    *"cl1    early    progress    toward 

their  early  prog-   civilization    is    the    favorable 

situation    of   certain    parts    of 

the  continent.    For  example,  the  flood  plains 


ing  hordes,  are  found  among  the  shut-in 
valleys  of  the  lofty  mountains  ;  and  here, 
also,  it  was  possible  for  people  to  advance 
in  civilization. 

Another  reason  for  their  progress  is  the 
fact  that  they  have  always  had  great  ability. 
That  this  is  true  is  indicated  byr  the  rapid 
advance  that  has  been  made  in  Japan  and 
India  in  recent  years. 

In  spite  of  their  early  prog- 
ress  and   their   great   ability,  ha^^so 
the  Asiatic  people  have  long  far  behind 


ASIA 


347 


stood  still,  or  have  been  falling  behind, 
while  Europeans  were  making  rapid  ad- 
vances in  civilization. 

There  are  two  reasons  for  this  that  are 
specially  important.  One  is  the  fact  that 
the  Asiatic  people  have  been  so  cut  off  from 
the  rest  of  the  world  that  they  have  been 
unable  to  learn  from  others.  While  Euro- 
peans were  exploring  the  world  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  while  they  were  founding  colonies 
and  carrying  on  profitable  com- 
merce with  foreigners,  the 
people  of  Asia  did  little  or 
nothing  in  these  directions. 

A  second  reason  is  that  they 
have  not  wanted  to  learn  from 
other  people.  Many  Asiatics, 
like  the  Chinese,  for  example, 
have  felt  that  their  civilization 
was  the  best,  and  have  there- 
fore even  refused  to  learn  from 
others.  No  wonder  that,  under 
these  conditions,  the  Asiatics 
have  stood  still,  while  Euro- 
peans have  made  rapid  advance. 

However,  these  people  can 
improve  rapidly,  if  they  will. 
5.   Signs  of         And      there      are 

future  progress      many     sjgns     fc]jat 

they  are  now  determined  to  do 
it.  The  Japanese  and  the 
people  of  India  have  already 
made  great  progress,  and  the 
Chinese  are  beginning  to  do 
so.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
people  of  Asia,  in  general,  will  rapidly  ap- 
proach the  same  level  of  civilization  that 
the  Europeans  have  reached. 

2.    The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire 

Although  Constantinople,  the  capital  of 
the  Turkish  Empire,  is  in  Europe,  Turkey 
controls  more  than  ten  times  as  much  land 
in  Asia  as  in  Europe. 

Turkey  in  Asia,  although  now  of  little 
Whyofspe-  importance  among  nations,  is 
cial  interest       of  peculiar  interest  to  us.      It 


is  within  this  country  that  many  of  the  places 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  located  (Fig. 
4G5)  ;  and  here  Christ  was  born,  as  well 
as  the  prophet  Mohammed.  It  was  from 
this  center,  also,  that  much  of  the  ancient 
civilization  spread  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

A  large  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia  is  table- 
land,  crossed    by  short  moun-    Surface  and 
tain  ranges.      There  are  also  a  climate 


Fig.  463—  Per 
backward 
their  haud 


^ian  women  making  a  rug  by  hand.  These  people  are  so 
that  they  have  not  learned  to  use  modern  machinery;  but 
work  is  very  artistic  and  beautiful. 

number  of  extinct  volcanoes,  such  as  Mount 
Ararat. 

There  is  little  rainfall  except  along  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  seas. 
The  country  is,  therefore,  mainly  arid  or 
desert ;  the  streams  are  usually  short  and 
shallow;  and  there  are  numerous  salt  lakes. 
Point  out  the  two  principal  rivers  (Fig.  455). 

Thus  the  climate  is  very  unfavorable  ;  but 
the  location  of  the  region  is  also  How  its  posi- 
unfavorable,   and    in   part   ex-   tion  has  been  a 
plains  its  lack  of  development,    disadvantage 
Asia  Minor,  the  peninsula  between  the  Medi- 


348 


ASIA,  AFHICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


terranean  and  Black  seas,  was  the  pathway 
for  the  ancient  caravan  trade  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  While  this  brought 
much  commerce,  it  also  led  to  many  inva- 
sions, and  the  region  has  had  a  very  un- 
fortunate history. 

More  than  five  centuries  before  Christ  the  country 
was  conquered  by  the  Persians;  two  centuries  later 
it  came  under  the  control  of  the  Greeks ;  and  later 
still,  it  became  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire.  With 
the  decline  of  the  Roman   Empire  came  invasions 


1.  The  Holy 
Land 

(1)  Its  area, 
surface,  and 
climate 


Fig.  4li4.  —  Native  spinning  wheels  in  Palestine,  using  the  same  methods  as  in  the 

days  of  Christ. 


by  wandering  Turks,  Tartars,  and  others.  It  was 
over  this  highway  that  the  Mohammedan  Turks 
entered  southwestern  Europe,  carrying  destruction 
wherever  they  went. 

Some  of  the  mountain  slopes  are  covered 
with  forest ;  but  most  of  the  country  is 
Its  industries,  open,  and  suited  mainly  to 
products,  and  herding,  though  there  is  some 
chief  cities  agriculture.  In  the  valleys 
wheat,  grapes,  olives,  figs,  oranges,  and  cot- 
ton are  raised,  usually  by  the  aid  of  irriga- 
tion. Both  the  herding  and  farming  are 
carried  on  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the 
time  of  Christ.  The  valuable  minerals  are 
scarcely  worked  at  all  ;  and  there  is  very  lit- 
tle manufacturing  except  that  clone  by  hand 
(Fig.  464).     Some  of  this  work,  however, 


like    the   Turkish   rugs    already  mentioned 
(p.  337),  is  very  beautiful. 

Smyrna  is  the  most  important  seaport 
Locate  it.  Find  Trebizond,  an  importan 
port  on  the  Black  Sea. 

There  are  two  parts  of  Turkej'  in  Asia 
that    merit    special    study    on  Tw0  especially 
account      of      their      history  ;    important 
namely,    (1)    the   Holy   Land,   parts  of  Tur- 
and  (2)  the  valley  of  the  Eu-  key in  Asia 
phrates  and  Tigris  rivers,  or  Mesopotamia. 
Estimate    the    length 
and  average  breadth  of 
this   noted 
little    re- 
gion at  the 
east  end  of 
the    Medi- 
terranean Sea(Fig.465). 
How    does    it    compare 
with      Connecticut     in 
area  ? 

Back  of  a  straight 
coast,  with  no  good 
harbors,  lies  a  narrow 
coastal  plain.  Beyond 
this  are  two  low  moun- 
tain ranges,  between 
which  lies  the  remark- 
able depression  in  whose 
bottom  the  Dead  Sea  is 
situated.  .  While  the  village  of  Hebron 
(Fig.  465),  on  the  western  mountain  range, 
is  about  three  thousand  feet  above  sea  level, 
the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  few  miles 
to  the  east,  is  over  thirteen  hundred  feet 
below  sea  level.  This  is,  in  fact,  the  deep- 
est depression  on  the  lands  of  the  world. 

Although  fed  by  the  river  Jordan,  which  flows 
out  of  a  fresh-water  lake,  called  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
(Fig.  46G),  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  so  salt  that 
no  fishes  can  live  in  it.  The  salt  that  it  contains 
makes  this  water  so  dense  that  a  person  cannot  even 
sink  in  it.  The  fact  that  the  Dead  Sea  is  so  salt 
shows  how  arid  the  climate  is.  Otherwise  its  basin 
would  be  filled  with  water,  which,  by  overflowing, 
would  soon  carry  off  the  salt  and  make  a  fresh-water 
lake.  The  Jordan  Valley  and  Dead  Sea  lie  no  far- 
ther south  than  southern  Alabama;  yet,  partly  be- 


Longitude  £ut 


FIG.  465. 


ASIA 


349 


cause  the  region  is  so  low  and  inclosed,  its  climate 
is  almost  tropical. 

Before    its  possession  by   the   Jews,  this 
reo-ion   was    divided    into   small   countries, 

...  T       ,    ,    often  under 

(2)  Important 

events  that  hap-  the    rule    01 

penedhere  j.nejr     more 

advanced  and  powerful 
neighbors  in  northeast- 
ern Africa,  the  Egyp- 
tians. Then  the  Jews 
entered  this  "promised 
land "  and  created  a 
kingdom  winch  rose  to 
its  highest  power  under 
King  Solomon.  It  was 
here  that  many  of  the 
events  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment took  place,  in- 
cluding the  advance  in 
religion  from  the  wor- 
ship of  many  gods  to  the  belief  in  one  all- 
powerful  God.  Persians,  Egyptians,  and 
Romans  later  ruled  over  Palestine  ;  and  it 
was  during  the  control  of  the  latter  people 


some    of    the    places    marked    on    the    map 
(Fig.  465;? 

At  that  time,  as  we  learn  from  the  Bible, 
the  region  was  highly  developed.     Wheat 


Fig.  467.  —  Bethlehem,  where  Christ  was  horn. 

that  Christ  was  bom  at  Bethlehem 
(Fig.  467).  What  events  in  the  life  of 
Christ  can   you   mention   that   occurred   at 


Fig.  466.  —Tiberias  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  in  the  Holy  Land. 

was   raised  upon   the   uplands,   and   olives, 

figs,  and  grapes  in  the  valleys,    ...  _, 
B  '  &     f  J        (3)  Former 

while     herds    of    sheep    were  products  and 
pastured  on  the  plateaus  and   commerce  of 

,,        Palestine 

mountains.       Re- 
call events  from  the  Bible  that 
indicate  these  occupations. 

Palestine  lay  on  the  great 
caravan  route  which,  leading 
from  Egypt  to  the  distant 
East,  ran  northward,  as  far 
as  Damascus  (Fig.  455),  in 
order  to  avoid  the  Syrian 
desert.  Throngs  of  people, 
therefore,  passed  this  way. 
Jerusalem  (Fig.  468),  the 
capital,  was  a  large  city,  situ- 
ated upon  a  lofty  elevation 
that  made  it  an  important 
stronghold. 

Palestine  is  now  visited  by  many 
Christians,    and     also    by    Moham- 
medan pilgrims  who 
believe  that  Moham- 
med ascended  to  heaven  from  Jeru- 
salem.    Very  little  but  ruins  is  to  be 
seen,  for  much  of  the  country,  once  "flowing  with 
milk  and  honey,"  is  now  deserted. 


(4)    Present  at- 
tractions, and 
method  of  travel 


350 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


The  usual  mode  of  trayel  is  by  mule  or  camel,  as 
in  olden  times.  A  short  railway  now  climbs  the 
mountains  from  Jaffa,  on  the  seacoast,  to  Jerusalem, 
and  another  has  been  begun  following  the  old  cara- 
van route  past  Nazareth  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to 
Damascus.     Trace  these  two  lines. 


This  region,  which  includes  the  fertile 
valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers, 
2  Mesopota-  ^as  sun°ered  the  same  fate  as 
mia  the   rest  of   Turkey  in   Asia. 

(1)  Its  ancient     It    was  formerly  a  country  of 
history  great  resources,  crossed  by  a 

network  of  irrigation  canals,  and  was  called 


3.    Arabia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan 

The  Arabian  peninsula  is  a  plateau,  sev 
eral  thousand  feet  in  elevation,  Arabia, 
with    a    fringe    of    mountains   1.  surface  an 
(Figs.  456  and  457),  especially  climate 
in    the    south    and    west.      What  waters 
border  Arabia? 

The  climate  is  hot  along  the  coast,  but 
cooler  on  the  plateau  and  among  the  moun- 
tains. A  large  part  of  the  interior  is  desert, 
and  almost  everywhere  the  rainfall  is  light. 
Why  (p.  211)? 


Fig.  4fi8.  —  A  view  of  Jerusalem  as  it  appears  to-day. 


in  the  Bible  "  a  garden  of  the  Lord."  But 
it  has  been  overrun  by  the  Arabs  and  Turks, 
until  it  is  now  almost  a  waste.  Babylon 
and  Nineveh,  once  great  cities,  and  the  seats 
of  a  wonderful  civilization,  are  now  marked 
only  by  mounds  of  ruins.  The  site  of  the 
Tower  of  Babel  is  believed  to  be  at  Babylon, 
and  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar are  still  to  be  seen. 

Under  such  conditions  there  can  be  little  com- 
merce, though  steamboats  can  go  up  the  Tigris  as 
(2)  Its  present  far  as  Bagdad.  This  city,  situated 
importance  on  the   caravan    route  to   the  East, 

was  of  much  importance  in  ancient  times.  Some  of 
its  former  importance  may  be  brought  back  by  the 
building  of  a  railway  from  Smyrna  to  the  Red  Sea. 


Since  the  coast  line  is  very  regular, 
there  are  few  harbors,  and  therefore  few 
coastal  cities.  From  early  2.  Its  former 
times,  however,  the  inclosed  importance 
seas  which  border  the  peninsula  were  favora- 
ble to  navigation,  as  was  the  Mediterranean. 
Having  learned  the  art  of  navigation,  it  is 
natural  that,  even  in  very  early  days,  Ara- 
bian ships  should  have  carried  on  commerce 
with  Africa,  India,  and  eastern  Asia.  For 
centuries  the  two  great  routes  of  trade  be- 
tween western  Europe  and  the  East  Indies 
passed  Arabia,  one  on  the  eastern  side, 
through  the  Persian  Gulf;  the  other  on  the 
west,  through  the  Red  Sea. 


ASIA 


351 


3.    Mecca 


Mecca,  a  city  about  fifty  miles  from  the 
west  coast,  is  sacred  to  all  Mohammedans. 
It  was  here  that  Mohammed 
was  born,  and  every  Moham- 
medan wishes  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  it  at 
least  once  during  his  lifetime.  Most  of 
these  pilgrims  come  by  sea,  and  every  year 
the  city,  as  well  as  the  roads  lead 
ing  to  it,   are  crowded   with  them 

With   such    an    unfavorable   cli- 
mate   there    are,   naturally,    few 
4.   Population    people     in     Arabia, 
and  products       an(j  these  are  largely 
nomadic.     Coffee  is   raised    in 
the  southwest,  near  Mocha  ; 
the   date    palm    flourishes    in 
many    places,    and    fruits 
and    vegetables    are    pro- 
duced in  many  of  the  val 
leys.     Agriculture  is  pos 
sible  in  most  parts  only 
by  means  of   irriga- 
tion.    Cattle,  sheep, 
goats,       donkeys, 
horses,     and     camels 
are    raised    in    large 
numbers,  the  last  two 
being  celebrated  for 
their  excellent  quali- 
ties.    There  is  very 

little  commerce,  and  there  are,  of  course,  no 
navigable  rivers.     Why  ? 

Most  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  is  independent  of 
Turkey,  though  it  has  no  well-organized  government 

■     _  ,     of  its  own.    Turkey  controls  the  west 

0.  Government  .  It       ^     -.        ~    ,. 

coast  and  the  Persian  Gulf  coast  as 

far  as  Oman,  a  very  small  independent  state  whose 
capital  is  the  seaport  of  Maskat. 

The  British  have  a  foothold  on  the  southwestern 
coast  at  Aden,  one  of  their  most  important  coaling 
stations.  The  climate  here  is  so  dry  that  there  is 
not  enough  rainfall  to  supply  drinking  water, 
although  great  reservoirs  have  been  built  to  store  it. 
Part  of  the  water  for  the  city  is  obtained  by  con- 
densing steam  made  by  boiling  sea  water. 

Persia,  like  Arabia,  is  an  elevated  table- 
Persia  land,  with  large  tracts  of  desert 

1.  Surface         that  are  of  little  or  no  use  to 
and  climate         man.     The  arid   climate  pre- 


Fig.  469.  —  A  Persian  girl  in  native  costume. 


vents  the  formation  of  large  rivers,  but  the 
rains  and  snows  of  the  mountains  supply 
enough  water  for  irrigation  in  some  of  the 
broad  valleys.  There  is  so  little  rainfall, 
however,  and  evaporation  is  so  rapid  during 
the  hot  summer,  that  water  for  irrigation  is 
often  led  from  the  mountains  in  underground 
tunnels.  Why  should  tunnels  be 
better  than  open  ditches? 

The    best    agricultural    district  is 

near  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  there 

is  rainfall  enough   2.   Agricultural 

for    crops.      The  products 

chief     farm     products     are 

tobacco,     wheat,     barley, 

cotton,     and     opium. 

Much    raw  silk    is    also 

produced,  and  roses  are 

cultivated    for    the 

manufacture  of  attar  of 

roses. 

Nearly  two  million 
Persians  belong  to 
nomadic  tribes  (Figs. 
459  and  470)  which 
roam  about  the 
desert,  dwelling  in 
tents,  and  herding 
goats,  sheep,  and 
other  animals. 


Among  the  mineral  deposits  is  the  precious  stone, 

turquoise,  which  has  been  obtained  here  for  many 

centuries.     Other  valuable  minerals    „ 

3.    Mining  and 


are  known  to   exist   in  Persia,  but 


manufacturing 


the  country  is  so  backward  that  there 

is  little  mining.     Precious  pearls  and  pearl  shells  are 

found  in  the  waters  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Almost  the  only  manufacturing  is  that  done  by 
hand  ;  and  the  Persians,  like  the  Turks,  do  some 
very  beautiful  hand  weaving,  making  such  articles 
as  shawls  and  rugs.  Their  carving  and  inlaid  metal 
and  wood  work  are  also  very  artistic. 

The  government  of  Persia  has  long  re- 
sembled that  of  Turkey,  and  has  therefore 
been  very  bad.  The  ruler,  the  4.  Government, 
Shah,  has  been  an  absolute  and  chief  city 
monarch,  controlling  the  lives  and  property 
of  his  subjects,  who  are  mostly  Mohamme- 
dans.    Recently,  however,  there  has  been  a 


352 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


popular  uprising  and  a  demand  for  a  more 
representative  government.  The  Shah  has 
promised  a  reform  and  has  agreed  to 
allow  the  people  a  voice  in  making  their 
laws. 

Teheran,  the  capital,  has  some  beautiful 
mosques,  but   the   dwelling  houses,  which 


4.    Russia  in  Asia 


This  vast  section  of  the  Russian  Empire 
includes  about  one  eighth   of  Area  and 
the  land  surface  of  the  globe,    divisions 

There  are  several  divisions,  such  as  Tur- 
kestan and  the  dependencies  of  Bokhara  and 
Khiva  in  the  southern  part ; 
but  by  far  the  largest  is 
Siberia,  which  is  a  million 
square  miles  larger  than  Eu- 
rope. It  is  even  larger  than 
the  United  States,  Mexico,  and 
Central  America  combined. 
Yet  Siberia  has  less  than  one 
twelfth  as  many  inhabitants  as 
the  United  States  alone. 


climate,  and 
people 


Fig.  470.  —  Persian  nomads  and  their  home. 

are    made    of    sun-dried    bricks,    and    face 
narrow,  filthy  streets,  are  very  unattractive. 

This  country,   "one   of  the  waste  places  of  the 
world,"  is  a  region  of  sand,  bare  rocks,  and  snow- 
capped   mountains.      Only    in    the 
Afghanistan        vaneys  is  tne  soil  maae  to  yieid  a 

1        urface,  harvest;    and   even  there   the   cold, 

blustering  winters  and  the  dry, 
scorching  summers  make  the  worst  of 
climates.  Under  such  unfavorable  conditions  a  race 
of  people  has  developed  which  is  noted  for  being 
hardy,  stubborn,  brave,  and  cruel. 

Like  other  Asiatic  countries  so  far  studied, 
Afghanistan  is  badly  governed.  The  ruler,  the 
merciless  Amir,  keeps  his  authority 
by  means  of  the  terror  which  he  in- 
spires. His  seat  of  government  is  at  Kabul,  nestled 
among  lofty  mountains. 

Since  Great  Britain  has  pushed  her  Indian 
frontier  northward,  while  Russia  has  advanced  on 
the  opposite  side  of  Afghanistan,  this  country  is 
often  called  the  •'  buffer  state "  between  these  two 
rival  powers  in  Asia. 


2.     Government 


Russia  in  Asia  has  the  same 
belts  of  climate  as  Russia  in 
Europe  (p.  303).   Principal  belts 
South     of     t h e   of  climate,  and 
tundras  is  a  vast  °f  p!ant  and 
forest     belt,     in  animal  life 
which  live  many  valuable  fur- 
bearing    animals,  such   as   the 
sable,  ermine,  and  fox.     Few 
people  live  here  except  hunters 
and   lumbermen.      There   are 
some  farms  in  the  clearings,  and  when  the 
forests    are    removed,   this   will   doubtless 
become  a  great  farming  region. 

Still  farther  south  are  the  broad  Kirghiz 
steppes.  There  is  rainfall  enough  for  agri- 
culture in  the  north,  but  toward  the  south, 
in  Turkestan  and  Bokhara,  the  country  be- 
comes more  and  more  arid.  Here  are  ex- 
tensive deserts,  and  arid  wastes,  with  oases 
where  irrigation  is  possible.  Herding  is 
the  principal  industry  on  the  arid  steppes 
and  deserts,  sheep,  horses,  cattle,  and  camels 
being  raised.  On  the  oases,  corn,  fruits, 
tobacco,  cotton,  hemp,  and  the  silkworm 
are  raised. 

In  the  past  Siberia  has  had  a  reputation 
mainly  as  a  source    of  minerals,  and  as  a 
place    of    exile    for    Russians   importance 
whom  the  government  wished   in  the  past 
to   punish.      Gold   has   been    found    in   a 


ASIA 


Off) 
OO-J 


number  of  places,  as  in  the  Urals  and  near 
Lake  Baikal,  the  largest  fresh-water  lake  on 
the  continent.  Other  valuable  minerals  are 
found  here,  but  as  yet  there  has  been  little 
mining,  except  in  the  western  part  near 
Russia.  The  southern  provinces  have  been 
of  high  importance  in  the  past,  and  Bokhara, 
though  a  Russian  dependency,  still  has  its 
own  ruler.  It  was  once  a  powerful  state 
with  highly  developed  industries,  and  to- 
day is  one  of  the  most  progressive  parts  of 
Russia  in  Asia. 

The  immense  territory  of  Russia  in  Asia 
has  great  resources  ;  but  there  has  been 
Why  not  more  little  advance  except  in  the 
important  southern    part.       Perhaps  the 

chief  reason  for  this  has  been  the  lack  of 
transportation.  For  a  long  time  there  were 
no  railroads,  and  the  rivers  have  been  of 
little  use  for  navigation.  In  the  arid  south 
they  are  small,  and  in  the  north,  though 
large,  they  flow  into  a  frozen  ocean,  and  are 
themselves  frozen  for  many  months  every 
year.  This  difficulty  of  transportation  has 
kept  out  settlers ;  and  it  has  made  com- 
merce very  difficult.     There  was  no  object 


great  Siberian  railway.     Trace  this  railway 
on  Figure  455.     How  long  is  it  ?     On  the 
one    side    it    connects    Siberia.  Recent  im. 
with    Europe  ;     on    the    other  provements, 
with  the  Pacific.      Other  rail-  and  prospects 
ways  have   been   built   in  the   forthefuture 
southern  part  of  the  country,  and  still  others 
have     been 
planned. 

In  order  to 
have  a  port  on 
the  Pacific 
which  should  be 
free  from  ice, 
Russia  crossed 
the  Chinese 
territory,  in 
Manchuria,  to 
Port  Arthur. 
China  was  too 
weak  to  prevent 
this.  Russia 
also  began  to 
push  her  influ- 
ence into  Korea, 
when  Japan  objected,  and  this  led  to  a  war  in 
which  Russia  was  badly  defeated  by  Japan. 

This  war  has   seriously  checked  the   progress  of 
Russia  in  Asia,  but  it  cannot  be  for  a  long  time. 


Fig.  471.  —  A  Yakout  woman  from  the 
cold  tundra  region  of  Siberia. 


Fig.  472. — Russian  carriages  in  a  Siberian  town. 


in  raising  large  crops,  if  some  of  the  prod- 
ucts could  not  be  sent  away  and  exchanged 
for  other  things. 

It  was  largely  to  overcome  this  difficulty 
that   the    Russian    government    built    the 
2  a 


Now  that  it  is  possible  for  people  to  enter  this  vast 
territory  to  develop  farms  and  mines,  and  to  ship 
the  surplus  products,  Russia  in  Asia  will  doubtless 
advance  rapidly.  The  one  great  difficulty  still  in  the 
way  is  the  bad  government,  which, as  you  have  learned 
(p.  304),  is  opposed  to  the  progress  of  the  people. 


354 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


There    are    several    important    cities    in 

Asiatic  Russia.     The  largest  in  the  south- 

T  ,.  ...  west  is  Tashkend,  and  the 
Leading  cities   •  . ,         r    ,-.  .  .    . 

city  of    Bukhara  is  next  in 

size.  Tiflis,  between  the  Black  and  Cas- 
pian seas,  is  really  in  Asia,  though  the  Rus- 
sian government  classes  this  region  with  its 
European  provinces.  It  is  somewhat  larger 
than  Tashkend.  There  are  a  number  of 
other  cities  with  a  population  of  from  fifty 
to  a  hundred  thousand.  In  Siberia  there 
are  no  large  cities,  though  several  along  the 
railway,  including  Irkutsk  and  Vladi- 
vostok, are  now  growing  rapidly. 

5.    The  Indian  Empire  and  Ceylon 

The  Indian  Empire  includes  not  only  the 
entire  peninsula  of  India,  but  the  desert 
Divisions  of  country  of  Baluchistan  on  the 
the  empire  west,  and  fertile  Burma  on  the 

east.     The    two   little    countries   of  Nepal 


Fig.  473.  —  A  family  of  Indian  Brahmans  of  high  caste. 


and  Bhutan,  among  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains on  the  north,  have  retained  their  in- 
dependence, largely  because  they  are  so 
protected    by   the    mountains.     They   are, 


however,  to  some  extent  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Indian  Empire. 

There  are  three  extensive  areas  in  India 
of  very  different  altitudes.  (1)  Most  of  the 
peninsula  is  a  plateau,  rarely  Surface 
more  than  two  thousand  feet  features 
high.  (2)  North  of  the  plateau  is  a  broad 
lowland  occupied  by  the  Brahmaputra, 
Ganges,  and  Indus  rivers,  which,  like  the 
Po  River  of  Italy,  have  built  up  the  plains 
out  of  sediment  brought  from  the  moun- 
tains. (3)  To  the  north  of  the  river  plains 
are  lofty  mountains,  the  highest  being  the 
Himalayas.  In  these  mountains  are  scores 
of  peaks  that  reach  an  altitude  of  over  four 
miles.  Even  the  mountain  passes  are  from 
seventeen  to  nineteen  thousand  feet  above 
sea  level,  or  much  higher  than  Mont  Blanc 
in  the  Alps. 

The  coast  of  India  is  remarkably  regular, 
and  there  are,  therefore,  few  good  harbors. 

It  must  be  remembered  that,  while  India 

lies  partly  in  the  trade  wind 

belt,     the     mon-   _,. 

'  ,      Climate 

soons  here  largely 

take  the  place  of  those  winds 
(p.  218).  In  summer  the 
monsoons  blow  from  the 
southwest,  toward  the  heated 
lands  ;  in  the  winter,  from 
the  opposite  direction. 

The  western  coast  of  the 
peninsula,  therefore,  has  a 
heavy  rainfall  in  summer 
(Fig.  309).  There  is  also  an 
abundance  of  rain  in  the  south 
and  at  the  base  of  the  Hima- 
layas. Here,  just  west  of 
Burma,  is  the  region  which 
has  the  heaviest  rainfall  in 
the  world.  Much  of  the  I 
peninsula,  however,  especially    I 

t.ViP.     wpsiprn     ewlp      suffprs     fnr 


the  western  side,  suffers  for 
want  of  rain  in  winter.  It 
becomes  so  dry  here  that  plants  wither, 
and  in  northwestern  India  and  Balu- 
chistan there  is  an  extensive  area  of  true 
desert. 


ASIA 


355 


There  are  315,000,000  inhabitants  in  this 

i  empire,  which  has  an  area  of  about  1,789,- 

People  000  square  miles,  or  somewhat 

1.  Density  of  more  than  half  that  of  the 
population  United  States.  It  will  be  seen, 
therefore,  that  there  is  an  average  of  178 

i  persons  for  every  square  mile.  In  parts  of 
1  the  country  there  are  500  persons  per 
i  square  mile.  How  dense  this  population  is 
i  can  be  better  understood,  if  we  recall  that 
I  there  are  only  nine  persons  per  square 
I  mile  in  the  United  States.  There  are,  in 
'  fact,  more  people  in  India  than  in  North 
I  America,  South  America,  and  Africa  to- 
■  gether. 

India  was  once  inhabited  by  a  swarthy 
race,    which    was    gradually    replaced    b3- 

2.  Races  to  Aryans,  or  people  of  the  white 
which  the  race    from    the    north.       Now 

people  belong         fche  greater  part  of  the  popula. 

tion  belong  to  the  latter  race. 

Although  the  country  has  been  protected  by  the 
sea  and  by  the  mountains  of  the  north,  a  break  in 
the  mountain  barrier  iu  the  northwest  has  permitted 
attack  from  that  direction.  One  of  these  invasions 
was  by  the  Mongols,  who  introduced  Mohammedan- 
ism into  northern  India.  The  capital  of  their 
empire  was  Delhi,  and  it  is  said  that  the  present 
Delhi  is  built  upon  the  ruins' of  ten  older  cities. 

India  is  the  home  of  Brahmanism,  the 
religion    of    about    three    quarters    of   the 

3.  Their  people,  while  a  little  over 
religion  and         one   fifth    are    Mohammedans. 

■nperstition  There     are     Qnly     about     njne 

million  Buddhists  and  three  million  Chris- 
tians. As  already  stated  fp.  233),  Brah- 
manism teaches  the  belief  in  cante,  which 
is  quite  different  from  our  belief  that  all 
men  are  born  free  and  equal.  The  caste 
system  has  been  a  serious  obstacle  to  the 
development  of  the  people.     How  ? 

The  people  of  India  have  many  religious  super- 
stitions. For  example,  the  Ganges,  doubtless  be- 
cause of  its  great  value  for  irrigating  and  fertilizing 
the  soil,  is  considered  a  sacred  river,  and  bathing  in 
its  waters  is  supposed  to  wash  away  disease.  Since 
the  waters  are  also  used  for  drinking,  this  custom  is 
no  doubt  responsible  for  the  spread  of  much  disease. 
The  devout  Hindu  makes  at  least  one  pilgrimage  to 


the  holy  river  as  a  means  of  gaining  divine  favor 
and  forgiveness. 

Over  three  hundred  years  ago  a  company 
of  London  merchants  gained  a  foothold  in 
India    for    trading    purposes.    Government 
At  that  time  the  peninsula  was    j     How  the 
divided    among    many    native   English  ob- 
rulers,  and  the  British  govern-  tainea  contro1 
ment  was  often  called  upon  to  settle  dis- 


Fig.  474.  —  An  Indian  woman  of  low  caste. 

putes  among  them.  Partly  in  this  way, 
and  partly  in  protecting  British  subjects 
engaged  in  the  Indian  trade,  Great  Britain 
gradually  increased  its  control  of  the  penin- 
sula. India  received  its  present  form  of 
government  in  1858,  and  in  1876  the  Indian 
Empire  was  formally  made  a  part  of  the 
British  Empire,  the  queen  of  the   United 


356 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


Kingdom    taking    the    additional    title    of 
Empress  of  India. 

The  entire  population  of  India  is  over  seven 
times  that  of  the  British  Isles  ;  and  in  India 
2  How  they  itself  there  is  but  one  British 
have  been  able  resident  to  every  three  thou- 
to  keep  control  san(j  native  inhabitants.  One 
might  expect  that  so  few  foreigners  would 


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p. 

Fig.  475.  —  Natives  preparing  rattan  in  the  tropical  part  of  southern  India 


find  great  difficulty  in  controlling  so  many 
people.  But  that  has  not  usually  been  the 
case. 

One  reason  for  this  is  that  the  British 
nation  is  united  and  strong,  while  the 
Indian  people,  in  spite  of  their  numbers, 
are  separated  and  weak.  The  caste  system 
is  partly  responsible  for  this,  for  it  tends  to 
keep  the  people  apart  instead  of  drawing 
them  together  for  a  common  purpose. 

Aside  from  this,  the  British  have  done 
much  to  improve  the  country,  and  they 
have  shown  great  wisdom  in  their  govern- 
ment of  the  people.  For  instance,  they 
have  not  attempted  to  overturn  the  numer- 
ous native  states,  nor  to  interfere  seriously 
with  the  established  customs.     A  number 


of  the  native  states  retain  their  rulers,  and 
are  treated  as  dependencies.  The  British 
have  also  appointed  Hindu  officers  to  as 
many  government  positions  as  possible,  and 
now  by  far  the  greater  number  of  such 
offices  are  held  by  natives.  As  in  the  case 
of  Canada,  a  governor  general,'  called  the 
Viceroy,  is  sent  from  Great  Britain  as 
chief  executive  officer. 

There  are  valuable  forests 
on  the  mountain  slopes,  where 
the  trees,  includ-.  The  forests  and 
ing  pines,  firs,  their  products 
and  junipers,  resemble  those 
of  Europe ;  and  there  are 
also  magnolias  and  the  beauti- 
ful deodar,  a  species  of  cedar. 
In  the  hotter  portions  are 
plants  valuable  for  medicines, 
also  spices,  such  as  pepper 
and  cinnamon.  The  teak, 
with  strong,  durable  wood,  of 
use  in  building  ships  and  for  ] 
other  purposes,  and  the  mango, 
whose  fruit  is  important  as  a  j 
food,  are  both  common.  Be- 
sides these,  the  bamboo  and 
various  palms  are  of  great 
value.  The  bamboo  is  used 
in  hundreds  of  ways  in 
making  implements  and 
building  houses ;  and  the  palms  supply 
juices  for  drink,  fiber  for  ropes  and  mats, 
and  cocoanuts  (Fig.  461)  for  food  and 
oil. 

In  parts  of  the  Ganges  valley,  and  elsewhere,  there 
are  jungles,  or  tracts  of  waste  land  densely  covered 
with  bamboos,  canes,  etc.     From  these  wastes  the 
lion   has   almost   disappeared ;   but  the  elephant  is 
still  found,  and  there  are  various  species  of  the  mon- 
key, also  the  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  leopard,  wild  boar, 
wolf,  and  Bengal  tiger   (Fig.  476).     The  tiger  is   1 
much  dreaded,  for  it  not  only  preys  upon  cattle,  but 
even   attacks   men.     Among  the  Himalayas,  goats, 
sheep,   asses,   and   dogs   still  exist  in  a  wild  state. 
Crocodiles   live   in   the  rivers,   and    poisonous   ser-   ji 
pents  are  abundant.     It  is   said   that   as   many  as   li 
twenty  thousand  persons  are   killed  each  year  by 
the  bites  of  snakes,  especially  the  venomous  cobra 
di  capello  (Fig.  4b'0). 


ASIA 


357 


From  the  very  earliest  times 
the  people  of  India  have  been 
Agriculture  engaged  in  farm- 
1.  Farm  prod-  ing,  and  at  pres- 
ets ent  fully  three 
fifths  of  them  follow  that  oc- 
cupation. 

Millet,  which  grows  on  the 
drier  lands,  and  rice,  which  is 
raised   on    the   river   lowlands 
where  the  land  can  be  flooded, 
are   the   staple    foods   of    the 
natives.     After  the  vast  num- 
ber   of    inhabitants    are    fed, 
however,   there    is    little    left, 
though   some   is  exported.     Wheat  is  also 
raised  for  export,  and  India  is  an  important 
granary  for  Great  Britain.       Much  cotton 
is  also  produced.     Some  of  this    is  manu- 
factured into  coarse  fabrics  for  use  at  home, 
and  for  export  to  China  and  Africa.      But 
a  large  amount  is  exported,  as  raw  cotton, 
for  use  in  the  cotton  mills  of  Great  Britain. 
Other  agricultural  products  are  sugar  cane, 


Fio.  477.  —  An  Indian  woman  picking  tea  leaves. 


Fig.  476.  —  The  tiger,  one  of  the  wild  animals  of  southern  Asia. 

tobacco,  opium  obtained  from  a  species  of 
poppy,  indigo  of  value  as  a  dye,  and  jute 
grown  upon  the  sandy  river  bars  for  the 
sake  of  its  coarse,  strong  fiber. 

Much  tea  is  raised  on  the  hills  of  the  very 
rainy  region  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas, 
south  of  Bhutan  (Figs.  477  and  478).     Tea 
requires  a  hot  climate,  an  abundance  of  rain, 
and  slope  enough  to  prevent  the  water  from 
standing    around    the    roots    of 
the  plant.     The  tea  plant,  which 
is  from  two  to  four  feet  high, 
has  bright  green  leaves  resem- 
bling those  of  a  rosebush.     The 
leaves  are  picked  several  times 
a  year,  in  many  cases  by  boys 
and  girls.     After  being  picked, 
the  leaves  are  dried  in  the  sun, 
and  later  under  cover,  in  order 
to  remove  all    moisture    before 
packing. 

Irrigation  is  necessary  for  the 
production   of  rice,  and   in  the 
drier   sections    for   2.   Develop- 
other      crops     as   ment  of  irri- 
well.        Therefore  eation 
this  country,  favored  with  large 
rivers  fed  by  the  rains,  snows, 
and    melting     glaciers    of     the 
mountains,  has  some  of  the  most 
extensive    irrigation    works    in 
the  world.      Where  the  streams 
are   small,    as    on   the    plateau, 


358 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  478.  —  Natives  picking  tea  in  a  tea  plantation  in  India. 


there  are  large  reservoirs  for  storing  the 
flood  waters,  such  as  our  government  is 
now  building  in  the  West. 

Although  these  people  are  so  extensively  engaged 
in  agriculture,  now  and  then,  when 

.'  .  rain  fails,  they  do  not  raise  enough 

famines  and  '      . J  ° 

plagues  food  for  their  own  use.     Then  ter- 

rible famines  result.  Sometimes 
one  section  suffers,  while  another  has  an  abundance 
of  food. 

With  the  building  of  railways  the  danger  of  fam- 
ines becomes  less,  for  railroads  bring  different  sec- 
tions more  closely  together.  The  first  line  was 
begun  in  1854,  and  there  is  now  a  network  of  rail- 
ways across  the  peninsula  (Fig.  455).  Even  the 
railways  do  not  entirely  remove  the  danger;  and 
probably  famines  will  not  cease,  so  long  as  such  vast 
numbers  depend  solely  upon  the  products  of  the 
soil. 


India  has  also  been  visited  by  plagues  which  have 
destroyed  tens  of  thousands  of  lives.  With  a  popu- 
lation so  dense,  in  a  climate  so  hot,  disease  spreads 
rapidly  and  with  terrible  effect.  This  is  especially 
true  among  people  who  are  not  properly  nourished. 

In  addition  to  the  raw  products  of  farms 
and  forests,  there  are  valuable   Mining  and 
minerals,  including  salt,  petro-   manufacturing 
leum,  coal,  and  iron. 

India  has  long  been  noted  for  hand-made 
goods  of  great  beauty  ;  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  these  there  is  little  manufacturing. 
Of  late,  however,  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  by  machinery  has  been  increasing. 
It  is  natural  that  this  kind  of  manufactur- 
ing should  develop  here,  as  in  our  South- 
ern States.     Why? 


i 


ASIA 


359 


So  many  Hindus  are  en- 
gaged in  farming  that  only 
Large  cities        about      five     per 

1.  Their  num-  cent  of  them 
ber  dwell  in  large 
towns.  Nevertheless,  there 
are  eighty-three  cities  with  a 
population  of  over  fifty  thou- 
sand, while  one,  Calcutta,  has 
over  a  million  inhabitants, 
and  two  others,  Bombay  and 
Madras,  over  half  a  million 
each. 

Calcutta  is  a  seaport  on 
the  Gauges  delta.     It  is  the 

2.  cities  on  natural  outlet  of 
the  Ganges         the  fertile  Gauges 

and  Indus  rivers    yaU         bufc   hga   a 


Fig.  479.  — Temples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  at  Benares. 


poor  harbor  on  a  river  that  varies  greatly 
in  volume.  Since  the  city  is  situated  near 
coal  fields,  there  is  some  manufacturing, 
but    Calcutta    is    chiefly    important    as    a 


commercial  center  and  as  the  residence  of 
the  Viceroy. 

Farther  up  the  Ganges  are  two  smaller 
cities,  LucKNOW  and  Benares.    The  latter, 


Fig.  480.  —  Elephants  moving  logs  in  a  lumber  yard  in  Burma. 


360 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


the  "holy  city  of  the  Hindus,"  is  on  that 
part  of  the  Ganges  which  is  deemed  most 
holy.  At  this  point  temples  (Fig.  479)  line 
the  hanks  of  the  river  for  miles,  and  a  steady 
stream  of  pilgrims  pours  in  and  out  of  the 
city. 

While  there  are  several  cities  on  the  Gan- 
ges, there  are  no  large  ones  on  the  Indus. 
This  is  not  because  the  Indus  is  useless  for 
irrigation,  hut  largely  because  its  shallow 
waters  and  sand  bars  interfere  with  naviga- 
tion. This  condition  of  the  river  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  much  of  the  water  is  lost  by 
evaporation  in  crossing  the  arid  plains. 


Fig.  481.  — Native  buffalo  used  for  drawing  wagons  in  India 


Bombay,  next  in  size  to  Calcutta,  and 
the  nearest  port  to  England,  is  a  great 
3.  Bombay  business  center.  It  is,  more- 
and  Madras  over,  the  only  Indian  city  with 
a  really  good  natural  harbor.  Madras,  the 
third  largest  city,  is  situated  at  a  point 
where  there  is  only  an  open  coast  protected 
by  a  breakwater.     Delhi  is  the  capital. 

In  Burma  there  are  many  Mongolians.  Can  you 
suggest  a  reason  for  this  fact?  Vast  quantities  of 
rice  are  raised ;  and  there  are  other 
valuable  products,  such  as  rubies, 
sapphires,  and  tropical  woods.  In  Burma  the 
elephant  is  used  for  moving  logs  (Fig.  480), 
drawing  plows,  and  carrying  passengers.  Native 
humped  cattle  are  also  much  used  as  work  animals 
(Fig.  481). 

Rangoon,  the  seaport,  is  important  for  its  export 
of  rice,  but  Mandalay,  farther  up  the  Irawadi 
River,  is  the  largest  city. 


Ceylon,  with  its  fertile  soil,  abundant  rainfall, 
and  high  though  equable  temperature,  is  a  beautiful 
tropical  garden.  It  was  considered 
by  the  Arabs  to  be  the  Garden  of  y 
Eden.  Among  the  products  are  cocoanuts,  rice, 
fruit,  coffee,  and  tea.  The  island  is  the  third  most 
important  tea-producing  section  in  the  world.  Other 
products  are  sapphires  and  rubies  from  the  stream 
gravels,  and  beautiful  pearls  and  mother  of  pearl 
from  shellfish  which  live  among  the  coral  reefs. 


6.   Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Peninsula 

This  peninsula  is  crossed  from  north  to 
south  by  a  series  of  mountain  chains,  spread- 
ing     fan-shaped      southward.    Surface  and 
Between      these  principal  divi- 
Bjgsg^J     ranges  are  long,   sions 
-^^Q  narrow  valleys,  which  broaden 

toward  the  south  and  end  in 
fertile,  populous  delta  plains 
at  the  river  mouths. 

In  addition  to  Burma,  which 
is  a  part  of  the  Indian  Empire, 
there  are  three  divisions  of 
this    peninsula  :     (1)     Siam, 

(2)  French   Indo-China,   and 

(3)  the  British  Colonies  of 
St?-aits  Settlements  and  Malay 
States. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  tropical  country,  who  are  either  Chinese 
or  Malays,  live  along  the  rivers  Siam 
and  irrigation  canals.  They  1.  its  products 
are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of 
rice,  but  millet,  which  is  raised  in  the  drier 
places,  competes  with  rice  in  importance  as 
a  food.  Among  the  mineral  products 
are  rubies,  sapphires,  gold,  and  tin.  The 
forests  yield  tropical  woods,  especially 
teak  wood,  both  for  use  at  home  and  for 
export. 

Siam  is  a  monarch}',  the  king  being  assisted 
by  a  council  of  ministers  and  by  a  legislative 
body  of  noblemen.  The  poorer  2.  its  govern- 
classes  are  still  kept  in  a  kind  ment  and  chief 
of  serfdom  by  the  local  govern-  Clty 
ors  ;  that  is,  they  may  be  forced  to  work  for 
the  governors  two  or  three  months  each 
year. 


ASIA 


361 


Bangkok,  the  capital  and  largest  cit)-, 
j  is  situated  on  the  hanks  of  a  muddy  river, 
|  up  which  vessels  of  small  draught  are  ahle 
j  to  reach  the  city.  Most  of  the  inhabitants 
;  live  either  in  poor  houses  on  narrow,  ill-kept 
I  streets,  or  else  in  boats  and  floating  houses 
on  the  river.  But  the  king  has  magnificent 
palaces  decorated  with  carved  marble  and 
frescoed  with  gold. 

Buddhism  is  the  religion  of  the  country, 
and  in  Bangkok  alone  there  are  said  to  be  ten 
thousand  Buddhist  priests  whose  temples 
are  gorgeously  decorated  with  gold,  silver, 
and  jewels.  Next  to  the  king,  the  white 
elephant  is  held  in  highest  reverence,  and 
Siam  is  often  called  "  the  Land  of  the 
White  Elephant." 

French  Indo-China  resembles  Siam  both 
in  climate  and  character  of  people.  Its  for- 
French  Indo-  est-covered  hills  yield  valu- 
China  able  teak  and  iron  wood,  and 

in  its  valleys  are  extensive  fields  of  rice 
and  millet.  Silk,  cotton,  tea,  and  spices 
are  other  products,  and  there  are  also  ex- 
tensive coal  beds.  Some  coal  is  exported. 
The  Straits  Settlements  and  Malay  States 
are  the  two  names  given  to  the  British  pos- 
sessions on  the  southern  end  of  the  Malay 
Straits  Settle-  Peninsula.  In  that  hot,  damp 
merits  and  country,  so  near  the  equator, 

Malay  states  such  tropical  prod  ucts  as  rice, 
cocoanuts,  rubber,  and  spices  are  obtained. 
Extensive  deposits  of  tin  are  found  in  this 
region,  which  supplies  more  than  half  the 
tin  used  in  the  world.  The  mining  is  done 
crudely  by  Chinese,  while  the  native  Malays 
are  mainly  engaged  in  farming  and  fishing. 
The  only  city  of  importance  is  Singapore. 

7.     Republic  of  China 

This  republic,  which  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  United  States,  has  more  inhabitants 
Area  and  than  any  other  nation  in  the 

population  world.      It  includes  over  half 

the  population  of  Asia,  and  has  fully  forty 
million  more  people  than  live  in  all  of 
densely  settled  Europe. 


In  spite  of  this  vast  population,  there  are 
some  sections  where  there  are  few  people. 
This  is  true,  for  instance,  of  Distribution  of 
Tibet,  Turkestan,  and  Mongo-  population 
lia,  which  together  make  up  half  of  the  re- 
public. On  the  other  hand,  vast  hordes  of 
Chinese  live  on  the  river  flood  plains  and 
deltas  of  the  south  and  east,  making  this 
the  most  densely  settled  large  area  on  the 
globe. 

The  northern  and  western   half  of   the 

republic  is  a  region   of   plateaus,  in  some 

places  as  high  as  most  moun- 

7    .  .  ,     ,  Reasons  for 

tains,    and    crossed   by   many  such  distribu. 

mountain  ranges  (Fig.  457).  tion 

Not  only  are  the  elevated  por-  i.  why  so  few 

tions  cold,  but  a  large  part  of  people  in  the 

, ,  .  .        .  .  ,        t-,  north  and  west 

the  region  is  also  arid,  b  or, 
while  much  rain  falls  on  the  edge  of  this 
vast  highland,  little  reaches  the  interior. 
The  climate,  therefore,  is  unfavorable  to  all 
industries  save  herding,  and  there  are  large 
areas,  as  in  the  Desert  of  Gobi,  where  even 
that  is  impossible. 

In  the  east  and  south  there  is  much  low, 
level,  and  very  fertile  land.     The  extensive 
flood  plains  of  the  two  great   2.  why  so 
rivers,  the  Hoang-ho  and  the  many  in  the 
Yangtse-kiang,  are  especially  ^st  and  south 
rich.     Most  of  this  part  of  China,  also,  has 
a  temperate  climate,  with  an  abundance  of 
rain  during  the  summer  monsoon.      In  the 
north,  for  example  near  Peking,  which  is 
in  about  the  same  latitude  as  Philadelphia, 
the    summers    are   warm    and    the    winters 
cold  ;  but  farther  south,  as  at  Canton,  just 
south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  climate 
is  tropical.     Here  rain  is  abundant  through- 
out the  year. 

While  the  flood  plains  and  deltas  make  excellent 
farm  land,  they  are  in  constant  danger  of  being 
flooded,  and  are  therefore  not  very  safe  plates  in 
which  to  live.  The  Hoang-ho,  for  instance,  may 
rise  as  much  as  forty  feet  in  summer,  and  some- 
times it  becomes  impossible  to  control  it.  In  the 
last  twenty-five  hundred  years  its  lower  course  has 
changed  eleven  different  times,  and  in  some  cases 
this  has  caused  a  change  of  three  hundred  miles  in 
the  position  of  the  river  mouth.     A  siugle  flood  de- 


362 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


stroyed  a  million  lives.  Because  of  the  repeated 
destruction  of  life  and  property  due  to  such  floods, 
the  Hoang-ho  has  been  called  "China's  Sorrow." 


.  .*>ji*«^  ** 


2.  The  great 
wall  that  they 
built 


Fig.  482.  —  A  view  of  a  part  of  the  great  Chinese  wall 


Another  danger  on  the  low  delta  plains  is  from 
great  sea  waves,  driven  before  the  winds  of  fierce 
storms,  called  typhoons,  which  sometimes  visit  the 
China  sea  in  late  summer  and  early 
autumn.     These  storms  are  like  the 
hurricanes  which  start  in  the  West 
Indies,    and,    sweeping    along    our 
southern    coast,    often    cause    great 
destruction.     The  typhoons  of  Asia, 
most   of    which   start    in   the    East 
Indies,  also  cause  great  destruction 
of  life  and  property. 

Centuries  before  Europeans 

had  risen  above  a  state  of  bar- 
barism, the  Chi- 
nese had  developed 
a  remarkable  civi- 
lization.    The  art 

of  printing,  the  manufacture  of 

gunpowder,  the  production  of 

raw  silk   and   silk    goods,   the 

porcelain,    or    china    ware,   and 

portant    arts    were    known    to 

before  Europeans  learned  them. 


The  peculiar  energy  of  the  Chinese  is  shown  by 
the  great  wall  that  they  built  (Fig.  482).  Having 
the  ocean  as  a  barrier  on  the  south 
and  east,  the 
country  has 
been    most 

open  to  attack  from  the  north 
and  west,  in  spite  of  the  bar- 
riers of  mountains  and  deserts 
on  that  side.  It  was  prob- 
ably from  this  direction  that 
China  was  entered  by  the 
Mongolians,  who  now  make 
up  the  main  part  of  the 
population.  The  constant 
danger  of  invasion  by  nomads 
led,  as  early  as  212  B.C.,  to 
the  building  of  the  Great 
Wall  along  the  northern 
frontier  (Fig.  455). 

This  wall,  twelve  hundred 
miles  long  in  a  straight  line, 
and  fifteen  hundred  miles 
with  all  of  its  windings,  leads 
up  and  down  hill  (Fig.  482), 
and  even  over  a  mountain 
peak.  It  is  twenty-five  feet 
wide  and  thirty  feet  high, 
and  every  few  hundred  feet 
there  are  strong  watchtowers 
rising  still  higher.  This 
wonderful  structure,  which  required  armies  of 
men  to  build,  is  now  over  two  thousand  years 
old;    yet  many  parts  of  it  are  still  perfect. 


Character  of 
the  people 

1.    Their  early 
advance 


Fio.  483. 


-One  of  the  Chinese  rivers  on  which  commerce  is  carried  by  the 
use  of  sail  and  row  boats. 


baking    of 

other    im- 

them    long 


Notwithstanding    their    ancient   civiliza- 
tion,   the    Chinese   have   been  „     _.  .    ,. 
'    .  3.     Their  old- 

outstripped      by      Europeans  fashioned  cus- 
(p.    3-17).      This    is    largely  toms 


ASIA 


363 


due  to  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  have  a 
decided  dislike  for  new  things  and  new 
customs,  as  is  shown  in  their  objection  to 
the  use  of  labor-saving  machinery,  and  to 
new  methods  of  transportation,  such  as  the 
railway.  Much  of  the  commerce  of  the 
country  is  carried  on  by  means  of  canals 
(Fig.  488),  of  which  the  largest  is  the 
Grand  Canal  (Fig.  455),  built  more  than 
twelve  hundred  years  ago.  The  rivers 
are   also   used    (Fig.   483),  even   where  it 


that  a  man's  time  in  China  is  not  valued 
highly. 

The  Chinese  are  followers  of  Confucius, 
and  his  doctrine  is  everywhere  taught.  In 
fact,  it  has  not  been  possible  4  Reasons  for 
for  a  man  to  hold  office  under  such  backward- 
the  government  until  he  had  ness 
passed  an  examination  in  the  teachings  of 
Confucius. 

One  of  the  doctrines  of  Confucius  is  an- 
cestor worship  (Fig.  484),  which  leads  theni 


Fio.  484.  —  A  Chinese  family  engaged  in  ancestor  worship. 


seems  almost  impossible  for  a  boat  to  go ; 
but  poles,  oars,  and  sails  take  the  place  of 
steam. 

Good  roads  are  rare,  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal vehicles  is  the  wheelbarrow,  which  is 
used  even  for  carrying  travelers.  There 
are,  for  example,  two  thousand  passenger 
wheelbarrows  in  Shanghai.  Pack  animals 
and  men  are  employed  for  carrying  loads, 
and  the  wealthy  classes  are  carried  in  chairs 
by  their   servants.     From  this  it  is  plain 


to  regard  new  customs  as  bad.     This  tends 
to  check  progress,  and  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  the  Chinese  have  refused   ^  Tfle  jeae/j_ 
to  adopt  European  and  Ameri-  ing  of  Confu- 
can  civilization.     This  worship  clus 
of  ancestors  is  so  strongly  established  that 
disobedience  to  parents  is  regarded  in  China 
as  one  of  the  worst  of  sins,  for  which  children 
may  be  whipped  to  death.       By  law,   the 
punishment  for  striking  a  parent  is  death. 
Strangers,  therefore,  who  represent  new 


364 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


customs,  have  never  been  welcome.  Some 
parts  of  the  Republic  of  China  have  been  es- 
pecially difficult  for  foreigners  to  enter. 
Until  very  recently,  for  instance,  the  holy 
city  of  Lassa.  in  Tibet,  a  dependency  of 
China,  is  said  to  have  been  visited  by  only 
three  Europeans.  The  inhabitants  wished 
to  save  their  city  and  its  sacred  temples 
from  intrusion,  and  they  captured  and  even 


Government 


Fig.  485.  —  Scene  in  a  Chinese  court  at  Shanghai.    The  prisoners  are  on 
their  knees  before  the  judge. 


tortured   those   whose    curiosity  led   them 
there. 

Another  reason  for  such  backwardness 
has  been  the  fear  that  the  introduction  of 
(%)  The  fear  of  steam  and  machinery  might 
wam  of  work  throw  the  people  out  of  work. 
The  strength  of  this  fear  was  shown  some 
years  ago  when  the  Chinese  government 
finally  gave  permission  for  a  railway  to  be 
built.  The  people  objected  so  strongly  that 
the  railway  was  destroyed. 

China  has  suffered  very  unfair  treatment  from 

some  of   the  European  nations,  which    have  seized 

and  held  Chinese  territory.     Partly 

(3)    The  in-  ^        for     thig     reason)     the     hatred     of 

.     l  '       "foreign   devils"  finally  became   so 

eigners  °,         .      „„„„    ,   J  , 

great   that   in    1900   large   numbers 

of   the  people,   called   Boxers,  arose   and   tried   to 

kill   or  expel   all   foreigners  then   in   the  country. 

It  was   necessary  for   the   United   States   and   the 


nations  of  Europe  to  send  troops  to  protect  their 
citizens. 

Since  then  the  Chinese  have  begun  to  change 
greatly.  Now  they  are  inviting  foreigners  to  China, 
and  are  sending  many  of  their  young  men  to  Europe 
and  the  United  States  to  study.  Railroads  are  being 
built,  mines  opened,  and  factories  started.  It  seems 
as  if,  at  last,  China  had  awakened  from  her  long  sleep. 

Until  1912  the  Chinese  government  was 
an  absolute  monarchy,  with  a  governor,  or 
viceroy,  for  each 
province,  one  of 
whose  duties  it  was  to  collect 
money  for  the  government, 
but  who,  in  some  ways,  was 
independent.  The  Emperor 
was  not  a  Chinaman,  but  be- 
longed to  the  Manchu  division 
of  the  yellow  race,  which  in- 
vaded and  conquered  China  in 
1644.  It  was  then  that  the 
Manchu  custom  of  wearing  a 
long  queue,  or  "  pig-tail,"  was 
introduced  into  China.  This 
form  of  government  finally  be- 
came so  unpopular  that  the 
Chinese  rose  in  rebellion,  and 
established  a  republican  form 
of  government.  It  is  thought 
now  that  with  this  popular 
government  great  progress  will  take  place 
in  China. 

Many  Chinese  are  engaged  in  fishing,  both 
in  the  rivers  and  on  the  ocean.  But  they 
are,  in  the  main,  a  farming  Fishing  and 
people.  The  methods  em-  agriculture 
ployed  are  very  crude,  but  the  Chinese  are 
so  careful  and  industrious,  and  labor  is  of  so 
little  value,  that  they  till  every  bit  of  land 
possible.  For  example,  instead  of  leading 
water  for  irrigation  only  to  land  of  moder- 
ate slope,  as  in  the  United  States,  they 
often  take  it  to  the  very  hilltops.  It  is  first 
raised  from  the  river  by  means  of  wheels, 
turned  either  by  men  or  by  buffaloes,  and 
then  pumped  upward  from  one  terrace  to 
the  next,  until  the  whole  hillside  has  been 
watered. 

The  principal  food  of  the  Chinese  is  rice  ; 


ASIA 


365 


but  their  main  prod- 
ucts for  export  are 
tea  and  silk.  Tea 
is  raised  on  the  damp 
hill  slopes  of  the 
south,  where  the 
conditions  resemble 
those  in  India  (p. 
357).  Fully  forty 
thousand  men  and 
women  are  employed 
in  carrying  tea  into 
Fi'chau  alone. 
They  receiye  but  ten 
cents  a  day  for  their 
labor. 

In  the  warm  south- 
ern portion  of  the 
country,  as  in  France, 
great  quantities  of 
raw  silk  are  obtained 
from  the  cocoon  of 
the  silkworm  cater- 
pillar. Some  of  the  caterpillars  feed  on 
forest  leaves ;   others  on  the  mulberry  leaf. 


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Fig.  486.  —  Chinese  farn 


bit 


Fig.  487.  —  A  Chinese  pagoda  or  temple, 
where  the  people  worship. 


ind.    These  steep  hill  slopes  are  carefully  terraced  and  every 
of  soil  that  can  be  used  is  cultivated. 


It  is  said  that  China  contains  the  largest 
coal  fields  in  the  world,  in  which  both  bitu- 
minous coal  and  anthracite  are  Mining  and 
found  ;  and  there  are  also  de-  manufacturing 
posits  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  iron  ore. 
At  present,  however,  little  use  is  made  of 
these  mineral  resources. 

As  in  other  countries  of  southern  Asia, 
the  bamboo  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
products.  The  seeds  are  ground  up  for 
food,  and  in  spring  the  tender  roots  and 
stalks  are  eaten.  The  roofs  and  walls  of 
houses  (Fig.  488),  as  well  as  nearly  all  arti- 
cles of  furniture,  are  made  of  bamboo  wood. 
It  is,  moreover,  woven  into  mats,  baskets, 
and  hats,  while  paper  is  made  from  its  pulp. 

The  Chinese  are  an  artistic  people,  and 
they  make  some  very  beautiful  china  ware 
and  silk  fabrics ;  but  they  still  do  most  of 
the  work  by  hand,  as  has  been  the  custom 
for  thousands  of  years. 

There  are  so  many  people  in  China,  they 
are  so  industrious  and  intelligent,  and  there 
are  such  vast  resources,  that  when  China 
once   adopts  modern  methods  of  manufac- 


366 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  488.  —  A  Chinese  village,  with  bamboo  houses,  on  the  banks  of  a  canal. 


turing  and  commerce,  she  will  surely  take 
a  leading  place  among  the  nations  of  the 
world.  It  may  even  happen  that  China  will 
then  be  able  to  make  and  sell  goods  more 
cheaply  than  can  be  done  in  Europe  or 
America. 

There  are  many  densely  crowded  cities 
in  China.     The  poorer  people 
Leading  cities    live   huddled  to- 
l.    Canton  and     gether,  while  the 
Hongkong  wealthier  classes 

and  officials  dwell  in  comfort 
and  luxury.  One  .of  the 
largest  cities  is  Canton,  situ- 
ated on  a  densely  populated 
delta,  and  a  port  of  outlet  for 
southern  China.  Many  scores 
of  thousands  of  people  live  in 
boats  moored  in  the  river. 
Canton  is  especially  noted  for 
its  silk. 

Hongkong,  an  island  which 
commands  the  approach  to 
Canton,  belongs  to  the  British. 
Many  of  the  products  of  China 
are  sent  from  this  port  to 
Europe  and  America. 

Hankatj  and  Wuchang, 
on   the  Yangtse-kiang    River, 


are  important  river  ports  for  tea. 
Here,  as  in  the  case  of  most 
Chinese  cities,  the  2.  cities  on 
number  of  inhabit-  the  Yangtse- 
ants  is  uncertain.  ^ River 
For  exaixple,  by  some  estimates 
Hankau  has  a  population  of  over 
a  million,  by  others,  only  half  a 
million.  Shanghai  is  another 
large  city.  It  is  a  treaty  port; 
that  is,  one  where  foreigners  are 
allowed  by  treaty  to  carrj'  on 
trade ;  for  this  is  not  permitted 
in  all  Chinese  cities. 

Peking,  the  capital  of  China, 
is  situated  on  a  broad,  sandy 
plain.     It  has  been   3.    Peking  and 

the     Capital      of      a    Tientsin 

kingdom  for  three  thousand 
years,  and  the  capital  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  for  over  eight  centuries.  This 
city,  like  others  in  China,  is  surrounded 
by  a  high  wall  with  gates  that  are  closed 
at  night,  as  was  the  case  in  European 
cities  in  olden  times  (Fig.  489).  One 
portion  of  the  city,  formerly  reserved  for 


Fig.  489.  —  A  caravan  of  camels,  outside  the  walls  of  Peking 


ASIA 


367 


the  gardens  and  palaces  of  the  emperor, 
is  known  as  the  "  Forbidden  City,"  because 
before  the  Boxer  uprising  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment refused  to  permit  foreigners  to 
enter  it. 

Tientsin,  the  port  nearest  Peking,  and 
the  northern  terminus  of  the  Grand  Canal, 
is  another  important  seaport. 
It  was  from  this  point  that  the 
European  and  American  forces 
started,  in  1900,  to  relieve  the 
foreigners  who  were  besieged 
in  Peking  by  the  Chinese 
Boxers. 


8.  The  Japanese  Empire 
and  Korea 

The  two  principal  islands  of 
Japan  are  Nipon  and  Yezo ;  but 
Parts  of  the  the  empire  extends 
empire  and  as     far     south     as 

importance  of  Formosa,  which 
their  location  wag  captured  from 
the  Chinese  in  the  war  of  1894. 
On  the  north  it  includes  the 
Kurile  Islands,  as  well  as  the 
southern  half  of  Sakhalin, 
which  was  ceded  to  Japan  by 
Russia  at  the  close  of  the  war 
of  1901-1905. 

The  position  of  this  empire, 
a  short  distance  from  the  main- 
land, has  secured  to  the  Japanese 
some  of  the  same  advantages 
that  the  British  have  enjoyed. 
That  is,  it  has  protected  them  from  many 
invasions,  while  it  has  also  given  them  a 
very  favorable  position  for  commerce.  No 
part  of  the  empire  is  far  from  the  sea,  so 
that  shipment  by  water  is  easy.  Estimate 
the  greatest  length  of  the  empire  from 
north  to  south.  Is  the  fact  that  the  islands 
are  so  scattered  an  advantage  or  a  disadvan- 
tage, as  compared  with  the  British  Isles? 

The  combined  area  of  the  islands  is  almost 
Area  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 

population         square  miles.     How  does  that 


compare  with  the  area  of  the  British  Isles  ? 
Of  New  England?     Of  California? 

The  population  is  more  than  fifty-one 
million.  Thus  the  empire  contains  only  a 
few  million  more  than  the  British  Isles. 
How  does  this  compare  with  the  population 
in  New  England  ?     In  California  ? 


Fig.  490.  —  A  Japanese  coolie  carrying  water. 

So  much  of  the  surface  is  mountainous, 
that  not  more  than  one  sixth  of  it  can 
be  cultivated.  Moreover,  the  surface  and 
rugged  surface,  and  the  ab-  climate 
sence  of  navigable  rivers,  make  it  difficult 
to  reach  some  of  the  towns  and  villages  of 
the  interior. 

There  are  numerous  volcanoes  in  the  Jap- 
anese Islands  (Fig.  458)  ;  and,  since  the 
mountains  are  still  growing  (p.  342),  there 
are  many  earthquakes.  These  are  so  fre- 
quent and  violent  that  the  Japanese  build 


368 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


their  houses  of  light  materials,  and  to  no 
great  height,  so  that  they  resist  the  shaking, 
and  cause  less  destruction  of  life  if  they  fall. 
In  what  latitude  does  Formosa  lie  ?  How 
far  is  it  from  the  Philippines?  What  is  the 
latitude  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  em- 
pire? From  these  facts  it  is  plain  that 
Japan  has  a  more  varied  climate  than  the 
British  Isles.     What  must  be  the  effect  on 


Fig.  491. 


-A  Japanese  laborer  drawing  a  two-wheeled  vehicle  called 
a  jinrikisha. 


the  kinds  of  crops,  compared  with  the  kinds 
in  Great  Britain? 

Nipon,  the  main  island,  has  a  warm  temper- 
ate climate  and  abundance  of  rain.  Other 
islands,  near  by,  have  a  similar  climate. 
What  must  be  the  climate  of  Formosa?  Of 
the  islands  in  the  northern  part  of  the  em- 
pire? 

In  early  times,  Japan  was  invaded  by 
Mongolians  from  the  main- 
land, who  drove  the  original 
inhabitants,  the  Ainus,  to  the 
more  barren  northern  islands. 
The  Japanese  are  descendants  of  these  in- 


Origin  of  the 
people  and 
their  early 
history 


vaders.     They  are  small  in  stature,  but  are 
very  strong. 

The  Japanese  are  a  very  artistic  people. 
Centuries  before  the  time  of  Christ,  they 
had  developed  a  civilization  resembling  that 
of  their  kinsmen,  the  Chinese.  Their  fine 
taste  led  them  to  manufacture  many  beauti- 
ful articles  of  silk,  metal,  glass,  and  wood. 
Like  the  Chinese,  the  Japanese  for  a  long 
time  did  not  care  for  modern 
civilization,  and  closed  their 
ports  to  the  outside  world.  In 
1853,  however,  United  States 
war  ships,  under  the  command 
of  Commodore  Peny,  entered 
Yokohama  and  induced  the 
Japanese  to  open  their  ports  tol 
our  commerce.  After  this  im- 1 
portant  step  the  county  was 
finally  opened  to  the  world  in. 
1868. 

One  great  drawback  to  the 
advance  of  Japan  was  the  nature 
of  the  government,  The  govern- 
which  resembled  ment 
the  old  feudal  system  of  Europe 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  While  the 
Mikado  was  emperor  in  name, 
the  real  power  -was  in  the  hands 
of  noblemen  who  had  large 
numbers  of  peasants,  not  only 
to  work,  but  to  fight  for  them 
when  necessary. 

After  the  countiy  was  opened 
to  foreigners,  the  power  of  the  noblemen 
was  lessened,  and  the  Mikado  became  the 
real  emperor.  At  present  he  is  aided  by 
two  legislative  bodies,  one  made  up  chiefly 
of  noblemen,  the  other  elected  by  the 
voters.  There  is  also  a  Cabinet  appointed 
by  the  Mikado,  as  the  Cabinet  of  the  United 
States  is  appointed  by  our  President. 

Since  these  changes,  the  Japanese  have 
become  noted  for  their  ability  to  learn  the 
lessons    of    Western    civiliza-  Recent  ad- 
tion ;  and   their   progress    has  vances 
been  truly  marvelous.     New  schools  have 
been  opened,  and  education  has  been  made 


ASIA 


369 


i  compulsory.  Americans  and  Europeans 
I  have  been  invited  to  Japan  to  teach,  and 
(Japanese  students  have  been  sent  to  Europe 
land  America  to  study  in 
;  the  universities  and  to 
;  learn  what  they  could  of 
|  Western  civilization. 

Thus,  in  a  single  genera- 
l  tion,  the  Japanese  added 

to  their  own   knowledge 

that    of    Europe    and 

America.        They      have 

learned    their   lessons   so 

well     that,     with      their 

patience,  skill,  and  intel- 
ligence, they  alone,  of  all 

the  nations  in  Asia,  have 

taken     rank     with     the 

Great     Powers     of     the 

world. 


dars,  camphor  laurels,  and  lacquer  trees, 
and,  wherever  the  soil  is  suited  to  it,  there 
is    agriculture.      Among    the    products    of 


Fig.  402.  — Japanese  girls  picking  tea  leaves. 


The  progress  they  have  made  is  proved  by  the  fol- 
lowing facts:  Over  two  thousand  newspapers  and 
magazines  are  now  published  in  Japan.  While 
in  167:2  there  was  only  one  short  railway,  from  Yo- 
kohama to  Tokyo,  a  distance  of.  eighteen  miles,  there 
are  now  over  five  thousand  miles  of  railway  in  the 
empire.     The  industries  are  also  highly  developed. 


the  farms  are  wheat,  sugar  cane,  and  rice, 
the    latter     being    the    chief  Lumbering, 
article  of  food,  as  among  other  agriculture, 
Mongolians.      As    in     China,  and  fishing 
both   tea  and  raw  silk  are  produced,  and 
these    form   two    of    the    main    articles   of 


Fig.  493.  —  Japanese  women  gathering  the  cocoons  spun  by  the  silkworm. 

Much    of    our    tea    comes    from 


The    mountain   sides   are   covered    with 
forests  of  great  value,  including  giant  ce- 
2b 


export. 
Japan. 


370 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Besides  these  industries,  fully  two  and 
one  half  millions  of  people  are  engaged  in 
fishing,  for  fish  form  one  of  the  important 
foods  of  this  island  people. 

Among  the  mountains  there  are  valuable 
Mining  and  deposits- of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
manufacturing  sulphur,  petroleum,  iron,  and 
coal,  and  there  are  now  many  mines. 

There  are  many  large  manufactories,  par- 
ticularly of  cotton  and'  silk  goods,  pottery 
and  machinery.  As  in  the  British  Isles, 
cotton  and  raw  products  are  imported  in 


Ln- 

oi- 


cities,  having  a  population  of  several  hun- 
dred thousand,  are  Kyoto,  the  former  capi- 
tal, and  the  center  of  the  tea  district,  and 
Nagoya,  a  center  for  porcelain  manufactur- 
ing, for  which  Japan  has  long  been  noted, 

Japan  gained  control  of  Korea  in  1905,  as  a  resu 
of  the  war  with  Russia.  This  mountainous  penin 
sula  has  a  temperate  climate,  suited 
to  the  production  of  such  crops  as 
grains  in  the  north,  and  rice,  tobacco,  and  cotton  in 
the  south. 

In  many  respects  the  Koreans  resemble  the  Chi- 
nese ;  in  fact,  Korea  was  for  a  long  time  a  depen- 


Fig.  494.  —  Planting  rice  in  the  flooded  fields  in  Japan. 


large  quantities  for  manufacture.  Here, 
too,  much  food  must  be  imported,  especially 
rice,  flour,  and  sugar. 

Tokyo,  a  city  much  larger  than  Philadel- 
phia, and  about  the  size  of  Chicago,  is 
Principal  the  capital  of  Japan.     Besides 

cities  being  the  home  of  the  Mikado, 

and  therefore  having  many  government 
buildings,  it  is  a  busy  manufacturing  center. 
Yokohama,  at  the  entrance  to  Tokyo  Bay, 
was  a  mere  fishing  village  when  visited  by 
Perry  ;  but  since  the  harbor  of  Tokyo  is  un- 
suited  for  large  modern  ships,  Yokohama 
has  grown  rapidly.  It  now  has  the  largest 
foreign  trade  in  Japan. 

The  second  city  in  size  is  Osaka,  a  noted 
cotton-manufacturing  center  with  a  popu- 
lation of  over  a  million.      Other  important 


dency  of  China.  While  there  are  great  natural 
resources,  including  both  coal  and  iron,  little  use  has 
been  made  of  them.  Like  the  Chinese,  the  Koreans 
have  refused  to  allow  foreigners  to  enter,  as  is  indi- 
cated by  the  name  "  Hermit  Kingdom,"  long  ap- 
plied to  Korea.  But  since  the  Japanese  have 
of  the  country,  there  has  been 
The  capital   and   largest  city   is 


obtained   control 

much    progress. 

Seoul. 

General  Facts.     1.   State  the  size  and  position  o: 

Asia.     2.  Describe  its  surface  features.     3.  Its  cl: 

mate.   4.  How  do  the  plants  and  ani-   _     . 

Review 

Questions 


malsof  northern  Asia  resemble  those 
of  Europe  ?  5.  How  and  wiry  do 
the  plants  and  animals  of  southern  Asia  resemble 
those  of  Africa  ?  6.  Explain  our  debt  to  Asia  for 
domesticated  plants  and  animals.  7.  Give  examples 
of  domesticated  animals  in  Asia.  8.  What  can 
you  tell  about  the  number  of  people  and  their 
distribution?  9.  To  what  races  do  they  belong? 
What  is  their  religion  ?  10.  State  reasons  for  their 
early  progress.      11.  Why  have  they  fallen  so  far  be- 


ASIA 


371 


,  hind?     12.  What  signs  are  there  of  progress  in  the 
II  future  ? 

The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire.     13.  AVhy  is  this 

I  empire  of  special  interest  to  us  ?     14.  Describe  its 

I  surface  and  climate  ?     15.  How  has  its  position  been 

i  a  disadvantage  ?    16.  Give  some  facts  about  its  iudus- 

i  tries,  products,  and  chief  cities.     17.  Tell  about  the 

|  area,  surface,  and  climate  of  the  Holy  Land.   18.  What 

|  important  events  happened  here?     19.  What  do  you 

know  about  the  former  products  and  commerce  of 

(Palestine?      20.   What  are  the  present  attractions 

here,  and  what  are  the  methods  of  travel?     21.  State 

some  facts  from  the  ancient  history  of  Mesopotamia. 

i  22.  What  importance  has  it  at  present? 

Arabia,  Persia,  am!  Afghanistan.  23.  Describe  the 
|  surface  features  and  climate  of  Arabia.  24.  What 
about  its  former  importance?  25.  How  is  Mecca  of 
importance  ?  26.  Tell  about  the  population  and  prod- 
ucts of  Arabia.  27.  Its  government.  28.  Describe 
the  surface  features  and  climate  of  Persia.  29.  Name 
its  agricultural  products.  30.  Tell  about  its  mining 
and  manufacturing.  31.  Its  government  and  chief 
city.  32.  State  what  facts  you  can  about  the  sur- 
face, climate,  and  people  of  Afghanistan.  33.  Its 
government  and  its  recent  importance. 

Russia  in  Asia.  34.  What  are  the  area  and  princi- 
pal divisions  of  this  region  ?  35.  Describe  the  prin- 
cipal belts  of  climate,  and  of  plant  and  animal  life. 
36.  Of  what  importance  has  this  region  been  in  the 
past?    37.  Why   has  it  not  been  more  important? 

38.  What    recent  improvements    have  been    made 
here   and   what   are   the  prospects  for  the  future? 

39.  Name  and  locate  the  leading  cities. 

The  Indian  Empire  and  Ceylon.     40.  Name  and  lo- 
cate the  main  divisions  of  this  empire.    41.  Describe 
I  its  surface.     42.  Its  climate.     43.  What  about  the 
I  density  of  its  population?   44.  To  what  races  do  the 
i  people  belong?    45.  (Jive  facts  about  their  religion 
and  superstition.     46.  How  did  the  English  get  con- 
trol of  this  region?    47.  How  have  they  been  able 
to  keep  control?    48.  State  the  principal  facts  about 
the  forests  and  their  products.     49.  The  farm  prod- 
ucts ;     the    development    of    irrigation.      50.   The 
danger   of  famines  and   plagues.     51.  Mining  and 
manufacturing.     52.    The   leading   cities.     53.   Tell 
what  you  can  about  Burma.     54.  Ceylon. 

Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Peninsula.  55.  Describe 
the  surface  features  and  name  the  principal  divisions 
of  this  region.  56.  State  the  principal  facts  about 
Siam.  57.  About  French  Indo-China.  58.  The 
Straits  Settlements  and  Malay  States. 

Republic  of  China.  59.  AVhat  facts  can  you  give 
about  its  area  and  population  ?  60.  About  the  dis- 
tribution of  its  population?  61.  State  reasons  for 
such  distribution.  62.  What  early  advance  was 
made  by  the  people?  63.  Describe  the  great  wall 
that  they  built.  64.  Give  instances  of  their  old- 
fashioned  customs.     65.  State  reasons  for  such  back- 


America 


wardness.  66.  What  about  their  government  ? 
67.  Their  fishing  and  agriculture?  68.  Mining 
and  manufacturing?  69.  Locate  and  tell  about  the 
leading  cities. 

Japanese  Empire  and  Korea.  70.  What  are  the 
parts  of  this  empire,  and  how  is  the  position  of  the 
empire  important?  71.  AVhat  about  the  area  and 
population?  72.  Describe  the  surface  features  and 
climate.  73.  AVhat  is  the  origin  of  the  people? 
Give  facts  from  their  early  history.  74.  Describe 
their  government.  75.  AVhat  about  the  recent  ad- 
vances of  the  Japanese?  76.  Give  the  principal 
facts  about  lumbering,  agriculture,  and  fishing. 
77.  Mining  and  manufacturing.  78.  Principal  cities. 
79.  Tell  about  Korea. 

1.    How  do  North  America   and  Asia   differ   in 

form  ?     In  regularity  of  coast  line  ?     In  direction  of 

mountain  ranges?     In  extent  of  the 

deserts?       2.    Does    the    Canadian    General  review 

Pacific  Railway  lie  to  the  north  or   1uestlons  and 

south  of  the  Siberian  railway  ?  AArhich       ..J?  „    ,. 
■    4.1.     i  q     o   t     e        c  Wlth  North 

is  the  longer  r     6.  Is  San  irancisco 

north  or  south  of  Peking?  4.  Name 
the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Asia ;  of  southern 
Europe.  AArhich  of  the  six  is  nearest  the  latitude  of 
Florida?  5.  Name  the  large  rivers  of  Asia  and  of 
Canada  that  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  On  a  globe 
estimate  the  shortest  distance  between  the  mouths 
of  the  Mackenzie  and  Lena  rivers.  6.  How  do  the 
great  rivers  of  China  compare  in  length  with  the 
Mississippi  ?  AArith  the  Volga  ?  7.  How  do  the  in- 
terior lakes  and  seas  of  Asia  compare  in  value  for 
commerce  with  our  Great  Lakes?  AVhy?  8.  AVith 
what  salt  lake  in  North  America  may  the  Aral  Sea 
be  compared?  9.  AAfiat  ocean  currents  affect  the 
climate  of  Asia  ?  Of  North  America?  10.  Compare 
the  climatic  belts  of  Siberia  with  those  of  Canada. 

11.  Is  western  Asia  more  or  less  suited  to  agriculture 
and  commerce  than  western  North  America  ?     Why  ? 

12.  In  what  portions  of  North  America  and  Asia  is 
rice  cultivated  ?  13.  Answer  the  same  question  for 
cotton.  14.  AArhat  important  crops  in  Asia  are  not 
extensively  raised  in  the  United  States?  15.  Name 
some  of  the  leading  imports  from  Asia  to  the  United 
States.  16.  AVhat  about  mining  in  Asia  compared 
with  that  in  the  United  States?  17.  Make  the 
same  comparison  for  manufacturing;  for  railways. 
18.  AArhat  is  the  chief  kind  of  government  in  each 
of  the  two  continents? 

1.  AA'hat  do  you  know  about  recent  massacres  of 
Armenian  Christians  by  the  Turks?  2.  Make  a 
sand  or  clay  map  of  the  Holy  Land  Snlr_„tin_9 
(Fig.  465).  3.  Point  out  on  the  map  *uSgesllons 
(Fig.  465)  some  of  the  places  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  describe  some  of  the  events 
that  occurred  there.  4.  AVhat  Bible  events  have 
their  scene  in  Mesopotamia?  5.  AArrite  a  paper 
showing  how  our  present  civilization  is  indebted  to 


372 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


the  Holy  Land.  6.  Find  out  some  facts  about  the 
Crusades.  7.  About  how  far  is  it  by  rail  from  Lisbon 
in  Portugal  to  Port  Arthur  on  the  Pacific?  8.  Read 
Kipling's  "  Jungle  Books."  9.  Why  should  the  Great 
Wall  of  China  have  less  value  now  than  formerly? 

10.  Find  out  about  our  laws  for  the  exclusion  of  the 
Chinese,   and   the  reasons   why  they  were   passed. 

11.  Find  out  about  some  of  the  events  connected  with 
the  Boxer  trouble  in  China  in  1900.  12.  What 
Asiatic  countries  have  you  seen  represented  among 
the  immigrants  to  the  United  States  ?     13.  Examine 


pictures  of  buildings  in  Asia  (in  this  book  or  -else- 
where), to  note  how  they  differ  from  our  own. 
14.  Write  a  paper  telling  in  what  respects  you  would 
expect  to  find  an  Asiatic  city  different  from  one  of 
your  own.  15.  By  what  water  routes  could  you  go 
from  New  York  to  Tientsin?  Would  it  be  nearer 
to  go   by  rail  as  far  as  San  Francisco  or  Seattle? 

16.  By  what  three  all-water  routes  could  you  go  from 
New   York  to   Bombay?    Which   is   the  shortest? 

17.  Who  first  reached  India  by  water?  18.  Who 
was  Marco  Polo  ? 


Fig.  495.  —  Relief  map  of  Africa. 


AFRICA 


373 


Map  Study 


II.  Africa 

1.  Compare  Africa  with  the  other  continents  in 
size  (Fig.  1).  -.  Sketch  the  outline  of  Africa, 
and  locate  the  principal  rivers  and 
lakes.  3.  What  peculiar  fact  do 
you  notice  about  the  location  of  the  mountains? 
4.  What  zones  cross  Africa?  5.  What  kind  of 
climate  would  you  expect  to  find  («)  in  the  extreme 
north  ;  (b)  in  the  extreme  south  ;  (c)  at  the  equator ; 
(il)  near  the  tropics?  6.  Find  the  desert  country 
north  and  south  of  the  equator  (Fig.  497).  7.  In 
what  sections  are  most  railways  found?  What  rea- 
sons can  you  suggest  for  their  location?  8.  Where 
are  the  large  cities  ?  Compare  their  number  with 
those  in  other  continents. 


i.   General  Facts 

Africa,  the  second  continent  in  size,  re- 
sembles   South    America    in    outline.       Its 

Surface  form   is   roughly 

features  that     of     a     tri- 

1.  Shape  of        angle,   broad   at 

the  continent  tne      north      an(J 

tapering  toward  the  south. 
The  coast  line  is  very  regular, 
in  this  respect  being  quite 
different  from  the  coast  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
America,  but  resembling  that 
of  South  America  and  Aus- 
tralia. What  effect  must  such 
a  regular  coast  have  on  the 
number  of  harbors  ?  What 
gulfs,  seas,  and  large  islands 
are  found  on  the  map  of 
Africa  ? 

Africa  differs  from  all  other 
continents     in    its    mountain 

2.  Themoun-  systems.  The 
tains  and  continent      is 

plateaus  mainly  a  plateau;  but  near  the 

coast  the  plateau  edges  are  broken,  and  the 
rocks  uplifted,  so  that  there  is  an  almost 
complete  mountain  rim  (Fig.  498).  Trace 
the  mountain  rim  (Fig.  495)  ;  from  what 
part  of  the  coast  is  it  absent  ?  In  northern 
Africa  some  of  the  peaks  of  the  Atlas 
ranges  rise   to  a  height  of   fourteen  thou- 


sand feet ;  but  the  loftiest  mountains  are 
in  the  east  central  part.  Among  the  latter 
is  the  volcanic  cone  of  Kilimanjaro.  Find 
this  peak  and  trace  the  mountains  from 
there  northward.  Notice  the  elevated  land 
in  Abyssinia. 

Owing  to  the  mountain  rim,  the  rivers  of 
Africa  are  peculiar.  For  instance,  the 
Niger,  after  rising  among  the  3.  The  drain- 
highlands  near  the  west  coast,  a8e 
sweeps  around  in  a  great  curve  before  enter- 
ing the  Atlantic.  The  Zambezi,  in  the 
south,  also  rises  near  the  west  coast,  but 
flows  eastward  across  the  continent  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Trace  the  courses  of  the 
Nile  and  the  Congo,  the  two  largest  rivers. 

In  descending  from  the  interior  plateau 
each  of  these  streams  is  interrupted  by 
rapids  and  falls.     Find  the  Victoria  Falls 


Fig.  498.  —  The  mountainous  rim  of  the  African  plateau  at  Cape  Town. 


of  the  Zambezi  (Fig.  497) ;  the  cataracts  of 
the  Nile;  also  Leopold ville  on  the  Congo, 
below  which  are  some  falls.  How  must 
these  great  rivers  compare,  therefore,  with 
the  Mississippi  or  Amazon  as  routes  for 
commerce  ?  How  must  these  falls  affect 
the  development  of  Africa  ? 

In  one  part  of  Africa  there   are  several 


374 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


large  lakes.     Name  the  three  largest.     Into 

what  rivers  do  they  empty  ?     How  do  they 

compare  in  size  with  our  Great 

4.    The  lakes        T    ,  ,  .  ...  .  oi  .„ 

Lakes    (Appendix,    p.    4al)  ! 

Why  are  they  not  as  useful  for  navigation 
and  commerce  ? 

The  equator  crosses  so  near  the  middle 
of  Africa  that  only  the  northern  and  south- 
Climate  ern  extremities  are  in  the  tem- 
1.  its  general  perate  zones.  Therefore  the 
character  climate  of  most  of  the  conti- 
nent, like  that  of  South  America,  is  tropical. 


II  Deserts 
\'  i  Steppes 
I ;     I  So  vannas 


|  Forests 

"TROPIC  OF  CAPRICORN' 


Fig.  409.  —  To  show  the  influence  ol  climate  on  vegetation. 
In  the  savanna  area  there  are  numerous  lorest-covered 
sections,  especially  near  the  rivers. 

Since  the  African  plateau  rises  to  nearly 
the  same  elevation  in  all  parts,  the  belts  of 
climate  extend  nearly  east  and  west.  Is 
this  true  of  South  America  ? 

For  some  distance  both  to  the  north  and 
south  of  the  equator,  there  is  such  a  hot, 
2.  The  forest  rainy  climate  that,  as  in  the 
teit  Amazon    Valley,   the   land   is 

covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest. 
This  is  especially  true  near  the  coast  at 
the  base  of  the  plateau,  where  the  narrow 
strip  of  coastal  plain  is  hot,  reeking  with 
moisture,  and  is  therefore  the  seat  of  deadly 
malaria. 

The  interior,  owing  to  its  greater  eleva- 


tion, is  cooler  and  more  healthful;  but  even 
there  tropical  heat  and  rain  prevail  near  the 
equator.  It  is  this  heavy  rainfall  that 
supplies  the  Congo  and  Nile  with  their 
immense  volumes  of  water. 

Both  north  and  south  of  the  rainy  region 
is  the  savanna  belt  (Fig.  499),  where  the 
rainfall  varies  with  the  season.  „     _ 
Why    (p.    214)?     Where    are  nas  north  and 
the  corresponding  savannas  in  south  of  this 
South     America     (p.      238)?  belt 
Why  are  the   savanna  belts   covered  with 
grass  instead  of  forests  (p.  228)  ? 

The  small  number  of  streams  cm  the  map 
(Fig.  497)  shows  how  dry  the  climate  must  be  in  the 
savanna  belts.  So,  also,  does  the  condition  of 
Lake  Chad ;  for,  although  a  good-sized  stream  enters 
this  lake,  no  water  flows  out.  The  size  of  this  lake 
is  not  always  the  same,  for  during  the  dry  season 
the  lake  shrinks  until  it  is  smaller  than  Lake  Erie, 
but  with  the  coming  of  the  wet  season  it  rises  until 
it  becomes  several  times  as  large. 

As  the  tropical  forest  grades  into  the  sa- 
vanna, so  the  savanna  merges  into  the  true 
desert  (p.  377),  where  the  in-  4  The  tw0 
fluence  of  the  drying  trade 
winds  is  felt  at  all  times  of 
the  year.  In  only  a  few  parts 
of  northern  and  southern  Africa  is  there  a 
fair  amount  of  rain;  that  is  on  the  moun- 
tain slopes  near  the  Mediterranean  (Fig. 
298)  and  on  the  southeastern  slopes  of 
South  Africa,  where  the  winds  blow  from 
the  sea. 

The  northern  desert  is  much  larger  than 
that  south  of  the  equator.  This  is  due 
partly  to  the  fact  that  the 
continent  is  so  broad  in  the 
north,  and  partly  to  the  large 
land  areas  which  lie  to  the 
north  and  east.  Since  the  north  and  east 
are  the  directions  from  which  the  winds  of 
northern  Africa  must  come,  they  reach  this 
region  with  little  vapor.  Thus  the  Sahara 
forms  a  part  of  the  most  extensive  desert 
belt  in  the  world. 


desert  regions 

(1)  Their  loca- 
tion 


(2)   Why  the 
northern  desert 
is  much  the 
larger 


In  the  Sahara  there  are  cloudless  skies,  and  there 
is  very  little  rain;  but  here  and  there,  on  the  rnoun- 


ELEPHANT 

,ThE  M.N  CO,BUFFALO. 


LION 


Fio.  500.  —  Some  of  the  wild  animals  of  Africa. 


376 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


climate  in  the 
Sahara 


The  native 
plant  and  ani- 
mal life 

1.     In  the 

savannas  and 
the  forest  belt 


tain  slopes,  there  is  moderate  rainfall.  It  is  this 
which  supplies  the  widely  scattered  springs,  and  the 
short  mountain  streams  that  nourish 
(3)  The  kind  of  the  vegetation  of  the  oases.  In  the 
dry,  clear  desert  air,  the  nights  are 
cool,  even  in  summer.  Although 
the  midday  temperature  may  rise  as  high  as  100°, 
or  even  115°,  in  the  shade,  blankets  are  needed  for 
cover  at  night. 

The  open  country  between  the  desert  and  the 
tropical  forest  abounds  in  large  animals  (Fig.  500). 
Among  these,  on  the  savannas,  and 
on  the  edge  of  the  forest,  are  the 
antelope,  giraffe,  buffalo,  zebra,  ele- 
phant, lion,  leopard,  and  rhinoceros, 
while  the  crocodile  and  the  huge  hip- 
popotamus live  in  the  rivers.  The 
dense  forest  itself  is  shunned  by  many 
of  the  larger  animals,  though  teeming  with   insect 

life,  birds,  reptiles, 
and  tree-dwelling 
mammals.  Among 
the  latter  are  the 
baboon,  the  gorilla, 
and  the  chim- 
panzee (Fig.  500). 
Portions  of  the 
desert,     especially 

„  _  .,  where 
2.    In  the  , 

covered 
desert  .   ,   , 

with 
regions  ' 

dunes 

of    moving    sand, 

have  almost  no 
plant  life.  Ani- 
mals are  also  few 
in  number,  among 
them  being  the 
ostrich  (Fig.  500) 
and  the  camel. 
The  oases,  on  the 
other  hand,  sup- 
port a  number  of  plants.  Of  these  the  date  palm 
is  most  notable,  for  it  is  an  important  source  of  food 
for  the  nomads  of  the  desert. 

Central  and  southern  Africa  is  the  home 
of  the  negroes,  who  are  divided  into  many 
Native  inhab-  tribes  with  different  customs, 
itants  of  For  centuries  the  negroes  were 

Africa  captured    by    the    whites    and 

1.  Negroes  soiti  jnto  slaVery;  but  the  day 
of  the  slave  trade  is  now  almost  past. 

In  spite  of  the  frequent  slave-hunting 
raids,  and  the  great  destruction  of  life  in 
the  fierce  tribal  wars,  there  are  many  negroes 


Fig.  501 


-An  African  negro  woman 
planting. 


left.  Some  are  fierce  and  warlike;  others 
peaceful.  Those  who  dwell  in  the  forest 
live  by  hunting;  those  upon  the  savannas, 
by  simple  forms  of  agriculture  (Fig.  501) 
and  by  herding.  With  a  fertile  soil,  and 
in  a  warm  climate,  they  are  able  to  sup- 
port themselves  with  little  work,  especially 
along  the  rivers  and  on  the  savannas. 

The  forest  and  much  of  the  savanna  have 
been  occupied  by  the  negro,  even  down  to 
the  present  day;  but  the  arid 
sections  of  northern  Africa 
have  been  held  by  the  white  race  since  very 
early  times.  They  are  in  part  herders, 
living  the  nomadic  life  common  to  such 
lands.  These  people  are  intelligent  and 
full  of  energy,  though  fierce  and  warlike. 
On  the  oases  are  a  more  peaceful  class,  liv- 
ing the  life  of  farmers.  Near  the  border 
line  between  the  blacks  and  whites  there 


ATLANTIC 
OCEAN 


AFRICA 
Density  of  Population 

'||  Under  2  inhab.  per  eq.  mile 

"BSi..«    ■ 


I  200  <u512  "  ti  I 
j  Ot'ei-512  ti  it  i 
Cities  with  over  100,000 
inhabitant*  are  ehawn 


MADAGASCAR 


Fig.  502. 

has  been  such  a  mixture  of  blood  that  the 
population  consists  largely  of   half-breeds. 

Although  Africa  is  so  near  Exploration 
Europe,  it  has  been  less  ex-  and  settlement 
plored  and  settled  by  Euro-  i.  why  so  little 
peans  than  any  other  continent,  of  either 


AFRICA 


377 


There  are  several  reasons  for  this,  the  most 
important  being  the  fact  that  so  much  of 
Africa  has  a  tropical  climate.  The  desert 
repels  people,  and  the  hot,  damp  climate  of 
the  coastal  strip,  upon  which  colonies  would 
naturally  be  first  started,  was  found  to  be 
very  unhealthful  (p.  374).  Disease  is  apt 
to  seize  white  men  even  while  they  are 
crossing  the  coastal  strip.  Besides,  progress 
into  the  interior  was  checked  by  hostile 
hordes  of  blacks,  and  by  the  absence  of 
navigable  rivers.  Moreover,  men  who  were 
willing  to  leave  Europe  were  more  attracted 
toward  Australia  and  America.      Why  ? 

Even  before  the  famous  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus, the  Portuguese  —  the  most  progressive 

2.  Exploration  sailors  of  that  day  — were  try- 
and  settlements  ing  to  reach  the  East  Indies 
by  the  Portu-  "by  sailing  around  the  southern 
end  of  Africa.  After  various 
voyages,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  finally 
passed,  and  in  1498  the  way  to  the  Indies 
by  water  was  opened.  The  Portuguese 
made  settlements  on  the  east  and  west 
coasts  of  Africa,  and  they  still  have  large 
colonies  there  (Fig.  496). 

By  far  the  most  successful  colony  in  the 
newly  discovered  parts  of  Africa  was  that 
8.    By  the  started  by  the  Dutch  at  Cape 

Dutch  Colony,  a  little  later  than  their 

settlement  of  New  York.  As  was  the  case 
in  New  York,  the  British  seized  the  Dutch 
territory;  but  by  migrating  northward,  the 
Dutch  were  able  to  remain  independent  for 
a  long  time.  Finally,  in  1900,  that  territory 
also  was  seized  by  the  British,  who  still 
hold  it. 

During  the  nineteenth  century,  Living- 
stone, Stanley,  and  other  explorers  entered 
4.  By  other  the  "dark  continent";  and 
people  since  these  expeditions  there 

has  been  great  progress  in  exploring  Africa. 
Many  European  nations  have  taken  part  in 
the  exploration,  and  as  a  result  have  laid 
claim  to  the  territory.  Among  these  the 
British  have  been  by  far  the  most  active. 
What  other  nations  have  possessions  in 
Africa  (Fig.  496)? 


2.  Northern  Africa 

Much  of  northern  Africa  is  such  a  desert 
that  its  inhabitants  are  few  and  scattered. 
It  is,  however,  under  the  con-  Divisions  0f 
trol   of    several  nations.     The  this  region, 
greater  part  of  the  Sahara  is  and  their  gov- 
claimed  by  the  French,  though  ernment 
the  Spanish  hold  a  small  section  on  the  west- 
ern coast,  and  the  British  control  both  the 
Libyan  desert  and  the   Egyptian  Sudan  in 
the  east. 

Along  the  Mediterranean  coast  are  several 
well-settled  sections,  the  best  known  being 
Egypt.  The  four  countries  west  of  Egypt 
— -  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Morocco  — 
are  often  called  the  Barbary  States  (the 
home  of  the  Berbers).  Tripoli  and  Egypt 
are  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  although 
the  latter  is  partly  under  the  control  of  the 
English  ;  Algeria  and  Tunis  belong  to 
France ;  and  Morocco  is  independent.  It 
is  ruled  by  an  absolute  monarch,  called  the 
Sultan. 

From  the  Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
from  near  the  Mediterranean  coast  to  the 
grass  lands  of  the  Sudan,  there  The  Sahara 
is  almost  unbroken  desert  —  1.  its  extent 
the  famous  Sahara.  Its  area  is  estimated 
to  be  from  three  to  four  million  square 
miles,  or  about  equal  to  that  of  the  entire 
United  States. 

It  is  a  plateau  of  uneven  surface,  with 
low  mountain  ranges  here  and  there,  and 
bordered  on  the  north  by  the  2.  its  surface 
Atlas  Mountains.  The  wind-  features 
swept  highlands  are  bare  and  stony,  while 
in  the  lowlands  there  are  extensive  areas  of 
sand  dunes.  Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile, 
and  with  rainfall  would  yield  abundant 
crops.  But  nature  has  forbidden  rain,  and 
its  surface  is  therefore  barren  in  the  ex- 
treme. Only  on  the  oases,  of  which  there 
are  some  four  hundred  in  the  Sahara,  is 
there  water  for  irrigation  and  for  drink- 
ing (Fig.  503). 

Caravans  cross  this  desert  in  order  to 
carry  the  products  of  central  Africa  to  the 


378 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


northern  coast.     These  .include  ivory,  skins, 
3.    Caravans       and  ostrich  feathers,  obtained 

(1)  Their  object  by  bartering  with  the  negroes. 

One  of  the  important  routes  is  from  Tafilet  in 
Morocco,  southward  to  Timbuktu,  and  the  trip  re- 

_     „  quires  fully  three  months.     Estimate 

(2)  How  they        ?.      -,.  .      '        „,  ,       .. 

are  conducted       the  dlstance-     Tllere  may  be  Ilom  a 
thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  camels  in 

a  single  caravan,  and  a  full  year  may  be  needed  to 

equip  it.    Each  camel  is  carefully  selected  by  the  chief 


but  the  better  grades  are  able  to  go  six  or  seven 

days  without  water,  and  with  almost  no  food. 

There  are  dangers  in  the  journey  aside  from  that 

of    thirst.       Sometimes     sand    storms     arise ;    and 

although  such  a  storm  may  not  last    ,„.   _     , 

£  .,  j     .     '  i    ,      (3)   The  dangers 

many  hours,  it  may  destroy  a  whole 

caravan.     The  wind  then  blows  fiercely,  and  sand 

fills  the  air,  drifting  about  in  such  quantities  that 

animals  and  men  alike  are  smothered  in  the  drifts. 

Small  caravans  are  in  danger  of  being  attacked  by 

wandering  tribes ;  and  near  the  southern  edge  of  the 


Fig.  503.  —  Algerian  natives  drawing  water  from  a  well  on  the  edge  of  an  oasis  in  the  Sahara  desert. 


of  the  caravan,  and  extra  camels  are  taken  to  replace 
those  that  give  out  on  the  journey.  Usually  about  a 
third  of  the  animals  perish  in  the  round  trip  ;  and  be- 
fore the  return  journey  is  begun,  it  is  necessary  for 
those  that  have  survived  to  have  a  rest  of  several 
weeks. 

There  is  one  driver  for  every  dozen  camels. 
Upon  starting,  the  loads  are  carefully  packed  on  the 
camels'  backs,  each  animal  bearing  about  three 
hundred  pounds.  A  day's  inarch  lasts  sixteen  hours, 
the  camels  traveling  some  thirty  abreast,  at  the  rate 
of  about  two  miles  an  hour.  Ordinary  camels  can- 
not travel  more  than  three  days  without  drinking ; 


desert  the  danger  from  attack  by  the  lion  is  added. 
It  requires  courage  and  great  powers  of  endurance 
to  engage  in  the  caravan  trade. 

Egypt  and  the  Libyan  desert  are  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Sahara,  and  have  all  the 
features  of  the  desert  just  de-  Egypt  and 
scribed.  Even  at  Cairo  the 
average  yearly  rainfall  is  but 
an  inch  and  a  half.  The  cli- 
mate of  northern  Egypt,  both 
in   summer  and  winter,   closely   resembles 


neighboring 
British  terri- 
tory 

1.     Its  climate 


AFRICA 


379 


2.     The  Nile 
River 

(1)   Where  its 
waters  come 
from 


that  of  the  desert  portion 

of  western  Arizona  and 

southeastern  California. 
The    Egyptian   Sudan 

and  the  country  south  of 
it,  on  the 
other  hand, 
have  a  tropi- 
cal climate, 
arid   in  the 

north,    but     warm     and 

humid     in     the     south, 

where    the    influence    of 

the  tropical  rains  is  felt. 

The  head  waters  of  the 

Nile,   near    the    equator, 

are  fed  by  such  heavy  rains  that  the  river  is 

able  to  flow  across  the  desert  in  spite  of  the 

fact  that  no  tributaries  enter  the  lower  half 

of  its  course.     How  great  a  distance  is  that  ? 
After   leaving    the    rainy    region    of    the 


31  EDI    T  E  It  H  AJS—E^A   N 


SEA 


Fig.  505.  —  The  lower  Nile.  The  shaded  area  between  the 
two  deserts  is  farming  land,  which  is  reached  by  water 
from  the  river.  The  numerous  crossed  lines  are  rail- 
ways. Find  the  Pyramids.  Why  is  the  location  at  the 
head  of  a  fertile  delta,  and  at  the  outlet  of  a  narrow 
river  valley  bounded  by  desert,  a  favorable  one  for  a 
large  city? 


(2)  lis  character 


Fig.  504.  —  One  of  the  Pyramids. 

south,  the  Nile  crosses  the  desert  through 

a  valley — in  places  a  thousand  feet  deep 

—  which    it    has    cut    in    the 

plateau.      In   this  part   of    its 

course   there   are    several    cataracts    (Fig. 

496). 

Below  Cairo  the  river  leaves  its  narrow  valley, 
divides  into  several  channels,  and  flows  across  a 
plain  (Fig.  505).  This  plain  is  the  delta  which  the 
Nile  has  built  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  during  the 
ages  that  the  river  has  been  bringing  sediment  from 
its  upper  course.  It  is  the  Kile  that  suggested  the 
term  delta,  now  given  to  similar  deposits  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The 
word  comes  from  the  Greek  letter  delta  (A),  which 
has  the  form  of  a  triangle.  Notice  that  shape  in 
Figure  505. 

When  the  rainy  season  swells  the  Nile 
tributaries  among  the  Abyssinian  Moun- 
tains, the  river  rises  so  high  (3)  its  impor- 
that  it  overflows  large  tracts  tance 
of  the  broad  delta  below  Cairo.  The  rise 
begins  in  June  and  reaches  its  height  in 
October.  By  this  overflow  the  land  is  irri- 
gated, and  a  thin  layer  of  fine  mud  is  spread 
over  the  fields.  This  serves  to  fertilize  the 
soil  so  that,  year  after  year,  heavy  crops  may 
be  raised  without  making  the  soil  sterile. 

Without  the  Nile  the  whole  of  northern 
Egypt  would  be  a  sparsely  inhabited  des- 
ert ;  but  the  precious  river  waters  trans- 
form the  section  near  the  Mediterranean 
into  a  great  oasis.     This  has  become  the 


380 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,    AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


seat  of  an  im- 
portant agricul- 
tural industry, 
and  is  densely 
settled. 

Because  of 
these  very  fa- 
vorable condi- 
tions, the  Nile 
delta  has  been 
occupied    by 

3.  Agri-  an  agri- 
culture cultural 
people  from  the 
very  earliest 
times.  It  is 
still  the  seat  of 
a  great  grain 
industry,  pro- 
ducing wheat, 
corn,  millet, 
and  barley. 
Much  rice  and 
sugar  cane  are 
also  raised,  and 
much  cotton, 
which  is  of 
especial  value  because  of  its  long  fiber. 
There  are  many  vineyards,  and  orange, 
lemon,  and  fig  groves;  and  both  along  the 
Nile  and  on  the  oases  of  the  desert  there  are 
groves  of  date  palms.  Graz- 
ing is  important  in  the  Nile 
Valley  and  on  the  neighboring 
plateau.  The  animals  raised 
include  the  buffalo  and  camel, 
in  addition  to  sheep,  goats, 
cattle,  horses,  and  donkeys. 

The  known  history  of  Egypt 
reaches  back  several  thousand 
years  before  the 
time  of  Christ. 
ity  in  ancient  The  fertile  soil 
and  favorable 
climate  encouraged  agriculture 
then,  as  now ;  and  the  sur- 
rounding desert  and  sea  gave 
protection   from   frequent  in- 


Fig.  506.  —  An  obelisk  in  Egypt. 


vasions.  This  led  to  the  growth  of  a  pros- 
perous nation,  in  which  there  arose  a 
civilization  in  advance  of  that  of  the  neigh- 
boring sections  of  Europe  and  Asia.  In 
fact,  at  the  time  when  Europe  was  inhabited 
by  barbarians,  Egypt  had  made  long  ad- 
vances in  civilization.  It  was  from  Egypt 
that  Europeans  learned  some  of  their  early 
lessons. 

We  read  in  the  Bible  of  the  Pharaohs  who  ruled 
over  Egypt.  Can  you  recall  any  of  the  Bible  sto- 
ries which  mention  these  rulers;  for  example,  the 
story  of  Joseph  ?  During  those  times  the  Egyptians 
built  the  obelisks  (Fig.  50G),  the  Sphinx  (Fig.  507), 
and  the  marvelous  pyramids  (Fig.  504)  which  are 
really  the  tombs  of  kings.  By  a  peculiar  process 
they  preserved  the  bodies  of  their  dead,  and  these 
mummies  may  be  seen  in  the  museums  in  mauy  of 
our  large  cities.  Among  the  mummies  that  have 
been  found  are  the  remains  of  some  of  the  Pharaohs 
themselves. 

Egypt  later  became  one  of  the  highways 
of  the  world,  when  the  people  who  dwelt 
along  the  eastern  shores  of  (2)  How  it  later 
the  Mediterranean,  and  farther  suffered 
east  in  Asia,  began  to  migrate  westward. 
Against  its  people  many  destructive  wars 
were  waged,  and  as  other  nations  have  ad- 
vanced, the  Egyptians  have  steadily  lost 
ground.  The  famous  conqueror,  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  overcame  the  Egyptians 
and  founded  the  city  of  Alexandria ;  later 


4.     History 

(1)  Its  prosper- 
ity in  i 
times 


507.  —  The  Sphinx  in  the  Egyptian  desert. 


AFRICA 


381 


the  Romans  made  conquest  of  the  terri- 
tory ;  and  since  then  it  has  been  repeat- 
edly invaded,  for  it  has  continued  to  be 
a  highway  of  trade  for  three  continents. 
Among  the  last  conquerors  of  Egypt  were 
the  Mohammedan  Turks,  and  for  a  long 
time  Turkey  has  had  some  control  over 
the  country.  At  present  Egypt  is  required 
to  pay  annual  tribute  to  Turkey  ;  but  it 
is  otherwise  independent  of  that  country. 

The  government 

of     Egypt    is    a 

monarchy,      and 

the  ruler  is  called 

the  Khedive. 
Egypt  was  governed  so  badly 
that  the  French  and  British 
finally  took  control  of  the 
finances  of  the  nation.  When 
the  French  refused  to  aid  in 
subduing  a  rebellion  in  Egypt, 
the  British  alone  took  a  large 
share  in  the  control  of  Egyp- 
tian affairs. 


of  twenty-six  feet  and  a  width  at  the  surface  of 
from  sixty-five  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  yards. 
Its  length  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  but  it  was  easier  to  dig,  for  the  country  is 
quite  level,  and  about  twenty-one  miles  of  the  canal 
is  through  a  lake.  Ten  vessels,  on  an  average,  pass 
through  the  Suez  Canal  each  day.  Estimate  the 
distance  saved  by  this  canal  in  going  from  London 
to  Calcutta. 

At  the  head  of  the  delta,  just  above  the 
point  where  the  Nile  branches  (Fig.  505), 


(3)  How  it  came 
partly  under 
control  of  the 
English,  unci 
the  results 


As  a  result  of  British  direction, 
there  lias  recently  been  much  prog- 
ress in  Egypt.  Extensive  irrigation 
works  have  been  undertaken,  by  which  the  area 
suitable  for  raising  cotton  and  sugar  cane  has  been 
greatly  increased.  By  means  of  reservoirs  and  canals 
it  is  further  planned  to  reclaim  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  the  desert.  Several  railway  lines  have  also 
been  built  (Fig.  496),  including  a  part  of  a  proposed 
line  from  Cairo  to  Cape  Town,  as  far  as  Khartum. 
Outside  of  the  Kile  Valley,  however,  travel  still  de- 
pends largely  upon  the  use  of  camels  (Fig.  507). 

Northeastern  Egypt  includes  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez,  which  connects  Africa  with  Asia. 
5.  The  Suez  This  narrow  neck  of  land  has 
Canal  for  centuries  stood  as  a  barrier 

to  water  travel  from  Europe  to  southeastern 
Asia,  forcing  European  vessels  to  pass  all 
the  way  around  Africa  in  order  to  reach 
southern  Asia.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  therefore,  that  a  ship  canal  has  been  dug 
across  this  isthmus. 

The  Suez  Canal,  begun  in  1859,  was  finished  in 
1869.  It  extends  from  Suez  to  Port  Said  (Fig. 
508),  and  is  eighty-seven  miles  long,  with  a  depth 


Fig.  508.  —  Ships  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal. 


is  Cairo,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of 
Egypt  and,  in  fact,  of  all  Africa.  It  has  a 
population  of  over  half  a  mil-  6.  Leading 
lion.  This  interesting  place  cities 
is  visited  each  year  by  a  stream  of  tourists, 
some  attracted  by  its  reputation  as  a  winter 
health  resort,  others  by  the  strange  life  of 
the  country  and  by  the  remarkable  ruins  of 
the  ancient  civilization  (Figs.  504,  506,  and 
507). 

Cairo  itself  contains  the  palace  of  the 
Khedive,  several  interesting  mosques,  and 
a  museum  in  which  there  are  many  Egyp- 
tian relics  and  works  of  art.  The  natives 
also  attract  attention,  for  in  the  streets  may 
be  seen  many  people,  with  different  lan- 
guages and  peculiar  customs  (Fig.  509). 
The  differences  among  the  people  are  indi- 
cated by  the  following  fact :  There  are 
three  Sabbaths  each  week,  Friday,  the  Sab- 
bath of  the  Mohammedans ;   Saturday,  ob- 


382 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


served  by  the  Jews ;  and  Sunday,  by  the 
Christians. 

Alexandria,  connected  with  Cairo  by 
roil,  is  the  seaport  of  Egypt   and   the 
second   city   in   size.     Nearly  half  the 
trade  is  with  Great  Britain. 

State  the  position  of  each  of  the  four 
countries  west  of  Egypt.     While  these 
TheBarbary      countries     border     the 
States  Mediterranean,    they 

1.  Their  sur-  extend  far  SOUth- 
face  and  climate  ward  into  the  des- 
ert (p.  377).  What  about  the 
government  of  each  ? 

The  Atlas  Mountains  skirt 
the  Mediterranean  coast  from 
the  Atlantic  to  Tunis,  where 
they  project  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean, forming  the  most 
northerly  point  in  Africa. 
These  mountains  cause  vapor 
to  be  condensed  when  winds 
blow  from  the  ocean  or  from 
the  Mediterranean.  For  this 
reason  many  of  the  valleys 
among  the  mountains  are  well 
watered. 

Forests    cover    some    of    the    mountain 
slopes,  and  one  of  the  valuable  trees  is  the 


Fig.  509.  —  An  Arab  woman  in  the 
streets  of  Cairo. 


cork  oak.     Large  numbers  of  camels,  sheep, 

goats,   and    cattle    are    raised 

°  ,,  ,    .  -,    2.  Their   prod- 

among     the     mountains     and  ucts 

upon  the  plateaus. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  here  and 
there,  often  by  means  of  irrigation, 
with  water  supplied  by  the  moun- 
tain snows  and  rains,  as  in  south- 
ern    California.        Among     the 
crops   are    dates,   grains,   figs, 
grapes,    and    olives.      Wine 
from  the  grapes  of  Algeria 
is   shipped  in  large   quan- 
tities   to    France ;     and 
much  olive  oil  and  the 
best    dates    in    the 
world      come 
from  Tunis. 

The      moun- 
tains contain 
many    valuable 
mineral      prod- 
ucts, including  precious  metals 
in  Morocco  and  Algeria,  and 
marble  and  alabaster  in  the  lat- 
ter country.    Little  use  is  made 
of  these  minerals,  however. 
The   original    occupants   of  this   region, 
the  Berbers,  still  dwell  on  the  desert  and 


Fig.  510.  —  Nomads  encamped  in  the  desert  of  Algeria,  south  of  Biskra. 


AFRICA 


383 


Fig.  511.  —  Algerian  natives  plowing  with  a  camel  on  an  oasis  in  the  desert. 


among 

3.  Character 
of  the  inhabit 
ants 


the 


mountains,    where    they 
driven  long  ago  bj- 
invading   Arabs. 
Most  of  the  natives 
are  Mohammedans. 


were 


Mohammedan  Bible.     What  does  such  a  condi- 


Many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Morocco 
are  still  barbarians,  and  some  of  the 
tribes  among  the  mountains  even 
refuse  to  recognize  the  rule  of  the 
Sultan.  On  the  whole  the  people  are 
cruel  and  treacherous,  and  if  a  vessel 
is  wrecked  upon  their  coast,  it  is  sure 
to  be  plundered  by  them.  Even  within 
the  last  few  years,  Europeans  have 
been  seized  and  held  for  ransom.  It 
is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  why  it  has 
been  necessary  for  Spain,  with  the  con- 
sent of  other  Powers,  to  attempt  to 
control  these  wild  people. 

Conditions  of  life  in  Morocco  are 
illustrated  by  the  following:  The 
writer  once  visited  a  school  in  Tangier 
consisting  of  a  dozen  boys  from  nine 
to  ten  years  of  age.  The  room  where 
they  studied  received  its  only  light 
from  the  open  door,  and  it  contained 
■  no  seats,  desks,  or  furniture  of  any 
I  kind.  The  children  sat  on  the  floor. 
I  in  a  semicircle  around  a  long-bearded 
I  old  man,  who  also  sat  on  the  floor; 
I    and   the   only   object    that    each    had 


An  Arab  school  in  northern  Africa. 


384 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


tion  of  education  suggest  in  regard  to  progress  ?  If 
this  is  the  ease  on  the  coast,  almost  within  the 
shadow  of  Europe,  what  must  be  the  condition 
farther  inland? 

The  capitals  are  the  principal  cities 
among  the  Barbary  States.  Fez,  one  of 
4.  Principal  the  capitals  of  Morocco,  is  in 
cities  the    interior  ;    but  the  Sultan 

and  his  court  do  not  reside  there  all  the 
year.  Name  the  other  capital.  Tangier, 
on  the  coast,  is  better  known.     Why  should 


t 


Fig.  513.  —  A  Zulu  womau  ruakiug  a  carpet. 

it  be?  In  Algeria,  the  seaport  Algiers  is 
the  capital  and  largest  city.  It  is  an  in- 
teresting place,  having  both  ancient  and 
modern  buildings  side  bjr  side.  Under 
the  French  it  has  become  an  important 
trading  center.  The  same  is  true  of 
Tunis,  the  capital  of  the  country  by  that 
name.     Locate  the  capital  of  Tripoli. 

3.    Southern  Africa 

In  some  important  respects  northern  and 
southern  Africa  are  much   alike,  although 


they  lie  in  different  hemispheres.  How 
do  they  resemble  each  other  in  climate 
(p.  374)  and  surface  features  Points  of  simi. 
(p.  373)'?  There  is  a  resem-  larity  to  north- 
blance,  too,  in  the  fact  that  both  ern  Africa 
sections  have  long  been  settled  by  white 
men.  What  difference  is  there  in  the 
length  of  time  that  white  men  have  oc- 
cupied the  two  regions? 

It  is  to  the  Dutch  that  we  owe  the  first 
important  development  of  South  Africa 
Settling  at  Control  of 
Cape  Town,  the  region 
and  then  1.  By  the 
spreading  Dutcl1 
over  the  neighboring 
region,  they  took  posses- 
sion of  the  country  occu- 
pied by  the  negroes,  and 
introduced  the  industries 
of  farming  and  ranching. 
When     Cane    Colon  v. 


When  Cape  Colony, 
now  called  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  came  into  posses- 
sion of  the  British  (p. 
377),  many  of  the  Dutch 
remained;  but  others 
emigrated,  or  "trekked," 
northward  to  find  new 
homes  in  the  interior, 
where  they  set  up  two 
republics,  the  Transvaal 
and  the  Orange  Free 
State,  in  which  they 
wished  to  continue  the 
customs  of  their  forefathers  and  follow  the 
occupations  of  farming  and  herding. 

Doubtless  the  Boers,  as  these  people  are 
called,  would  have  been  left  to  themselves 
but  for  the  discovery  of  rich  2.  By  the 
deposits  of  gold  in  their  new  English  and 
territory.       The    mines    were  other  peoples 
worked  by  British  capital,  and  trouble  arose 
between  the  mine  owners  and  the    Boers. 
War  followed,  as   a   result   of   which   the 
Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State  were 
declared  British  colonies  in  1900.      Even 
before  this  the  British  had  gained  control  of 


AFRICA 


385 


a  large  tract  of  land  to  the  north  of  the 
Dutch  country,  in  tropical  Africa. 

At  present,  therefore,  the  British  control 
a  broad  strip  of  territory  from  the  southern 
tip  of  Africa  northward  to  the  southern  end 
of  Lake  Tanganyika.  What  are  the  names 
of  the  British  colonies  in  South  Africa 
(Fig.  495)?  They  are  now  united  to  form 
The  Union  of  South  Africa. 

There  are  many  British  in  South  Africa, 
especially  in  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  at  the 


Fig.  514.  —  Workmen  picking  out  diamonds  at  Kimberley 

gold  mines  of  the  Transvaal.  There  are 
also  many  savage  negroes  in  this  region,  par- 
ticularly in  the  tropical  section,  and  in 
Zululand  in  northern  Natal  (Fig.  326). 
Some  of  them,  like  the  Zulus  (Fig.  513), 
have  fiercely  opposed  the  advance  of  the 
whites,  and  still  maintain  partial  indepen- 
dence. They  have  made  some  progress  to- 
ward civilization. 

Along  the  eastern  coast,  and  in  some  of 
the  interior  valleys,  agriculture  is   an   im- 
portant industry.     Sugar  cane, 
bananas,  pineapples,  tea,  cof- 
fee,  and    rice   are    raised    near    the    coast, 
where  the  climate  is  warm  and  damp.     But 
j  wheat,  tobacco,  vegetables,  and  grapes  are 
>  grown   in   the   cooler   south   and  upon   the 
2c 


Agriculture 


uplands  wherever  the  rainfall  is  sufficient, 
or  where  irrigation  is  possible. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  South  Africa  is 
an  arid  plateau,  and  its  elevation  causes  cold 
winters  in  spite  of  the  latitude.  Forests  are 
lacking ;  but  grass  springs  into  life  after  the 
summer  rains  (November  and  December), 
and  the  country  becomes  green  and  beauti- 
ful. Then  follows  a  long  drought,  when 
vegetation  withers  ;  but,  as  in  the  arid  part 
of  western  United  States,  the  grass  dries 
on  the  ground  and  becomes 
hay  upon  which  cattle  and 
sheep  thrive. 

Upon  this  plateau,  there- 
fore, immense  numbers  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are 
raised,  and  also  many  os- 
triches. In  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
alone  there  are  about  nineteen 
million  sheep  and  goats,  two 
million  cattle,  and  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  os- 
triches. From  this  it  follows 
that  the  production  of  wool, 
hides,  meat,  and  ostrich 
feathers  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. Of  what  value  are 
these  products  to  Great 
Britain  ? 

The    discovery    of    gold    in 
South    Africa   has    brought   great   changes, 

as  it  did  in  the  arid  section  of  „.  . 

Mining 
western    Lnited    States.      I  he 

gold  is  found  scattered  through  a  large  bed 
of  rock  in  the  Transvaal,  near  the  city  of 
Johannesburg,  which  on  account  of  the 
valuable  mines  has  become  one  of  the  larg- 
est cities  of  South  Africa.  This  is  now  the 
most  important  gold-producing  region  in 
the  world  ;  indeed,  more  gold  is  mined  here 
than  in  the  whole  United  States. 

Other  valuable  minerals,  including  cop- 
per, iron,  and  coal,  also  occur  ;  but  as  yet 
they  have  been  little  developed.  At  Kim- 
berley, there  are  wonderful  diamond 
mines,  which  now  supply  most  of  the  dia- 
monds used  in  the  world. 


386 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


The  diamonds  occur  as  rounded  crystals  in  a 
partly  decayed  volcanic  rock,  and  are  obtained  by 
digging  out  the  soft  rock  and  carefully  removing  the 
crystals  (Fig.  514).  After  this,  the  crystals  must 
be  cut  into  the  proper  shape  and  polished.  There 
are  various  grades,  some  clear  and  beautiful,  others 
impure  and  dull.  So  productive  is  this  deposit  of 
precious  stones  that  it  has  already  yielded  three 
hundred  million  dollars'  worth  of  diamonds. 

The  two  chief  rivers  of  South  Africa  are 
of  little  use  as  trade  routes.  The  Orange 
The  lack  of  River  is  not  navigable,  because 
conveniences  of  lack  of  water ;  moreover, 
for  transports-  there  are  rapids  at  the  edge  of 
tion  the  plateau.     The  other  large 

river,   the  Zambezi,   is  navigable  by  small 
boats  for  a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles 


good  port,  and  around  its  shores,  beauti 
fully  situated  at  the  base  of  Table  Moun 
tain  (Fig.  498),  is  Cape  Town,  Principal 
the  capital  and  largest  city  cities 
of  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  connected 
with  the  interior  by  a  railway,  which  forms 
the  southern  end  of  the  proposed  railway 
from  Cape  Town  to  Cairo. 

A  second  important  harbor  is  that  of 
Delagoa  Bay,  upon  •which  is  situated  LoTJ- 
eenco  Maequez,  the  capital  of  Portuguese 
East  Africa.  Being  connected  by  rail  with 
the  interior,  this  port  has  been  much  used  for 
the  shipment  of  Transvaal  products.  Due- 
ban,  the  seaport  of  Natal,  is  a  small  city  . 
also  connected  with  the  Transvaal  by  rail. 
The  two  principal  interior  cities 
are  Kimbeeley  and  Johan- 
nesbueg.  For  what  are  they 
noted  (p.  385)  ?  There  is  no  im- 
portant town  in  German  South- 
west Africa,  which  for  the  most 
part  is  an  arid  plateau.  To 
what  nation  does  Walfisch  Bay 
belong  ? 


■ 


4.   Central  Africa 


Fig.  515.  —  A  steamboat  on  the  Congo. 

from  its  mouth ;  but  the  climate  near  the 
coast,  especially  on  the  delta,  is  warm,  damp, 
and  unhealthful.  Rapids  check  further 
navigation,  and  at  one  point  there  is  a  cata- 
ract, the  Victoria  Falls,  -which  rivals  even 
Niagara  in  grandeur.  This  cataract  has  a 
width  of  over  a  mile,  and  a  height  of  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.  It  is  therefore 
both  wider  and  higher  than  Niagara;  but 
the  volume  of  water  is  less. 

Not  only  are  the  rivers  nnsuited  to  the 
needs  of  internal  commerce,  but  the  coast 
is  unfavorable  to  foreign  commerce.  For 
long  distances  there  are  no  good  harbors, 
while  the  river  mouths  are  choked  with 
sand  bars. 

A    breakwater   has   made   Table   Bay   a 


This  vast   area    is    in    large 
part  unknown.     Much  of  it  is 
tropical     forest  ;     but    on    the 
northern  and  southern  sides  are  open  sa- 
vannas (p.  374). 

Owing  to  the  heavy  rainfall  of  the  forest 
belt,  the  rivers  are  large.  The  Nile  and 
Zambezi,  already  described,  value  of  the 
and  the  Niger  and  Congo,  rivers  for 
all  receive  water  from  the  transportation 
equatorial  rains.  The  Niger  is  navigable 
in  sections  ;  but  there  are  rapids  in  some 
parts,  and  in  its  northern  portion  the  river 
dwindles  in  size  because  of  the  dry  climate 
there.  Its  large  tributary,  the  Benue,  is 
navigable. 

It  is  the  immense  Congo,  which  empties 
into  the  sea  a  few  degrees  south  of  the 
equator,  that  offers  the  best  natural  high- 
way   to     central     Africa.       Unfortunately 


AFRICA 


387 


there  is  a  series  of  falls  in  the  river  a 
short  distance  from  the  coast  ;  but  above 
Stanley  Pool  there  are  thousands  of  miles 
of  navigable  waters  in  the  main  river  (Fig. 
515)  and  its  tributaries. 

It  was  Stanley  who  first  explored  the  Congo,  in 
1876;  and  since  that  time  this  part  of  Africa  has 
been  rapidly  developing.  Formerly  it  was  neces- 
sary to  carry  goods  around  the  rapids,  each  native 
porter  carrying  about  sixty  pounds  on  his  back. 
Only  in  this  way  was  Stanley  able  to  take  his  boats 


tropical  forests.  The  full-grown  men  are  only  three 
or  four  feet  ill  height.  They  live  by  hunting,  by 
gathering  the  vegetable  products  of  the  forest,  and 
by  theft  from  the  neighboring  agricultural  tribes. 
Their  villages  are  usually  built  in  the  forest  where 
two  paths  cross.  In  that  hot  climate  they  find  little 
need  for  clothing. 

.  With  a  small  spear,  a  short  bow  with  poisoned 
arrows,  and  a  knife,  they  hunt  with  wonderful  skill; 
and  by  means  of  pitfalls  they  capture  even  the  ele- 
phant. They  know  all  the  forest  paths,  and  neither 
bird  nor  beast  can  escape  them.  According  to  Stan- 
ley, they  offer  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  explora- 


Fig.  516.  —  A  negro  village  in  Africa. 


to  the  navigable  portion  farther  upstream.  Now, 
however,  a  railway,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in 
length,  connects  the  lower  Congo  with  Leopoldville, 
on  Stanley  Pool,  above  the  falls.  Thence,  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  steamers  may  go  a  thousand  miles 
lip  the  river,  and  also  into  many  of  the  tributaries. 

Very  few  Europeans  have  settled  in  cen- 
tral Africa  and  the  native  blacks  live  al- 
most  as   their    ancestors   did. 
The  native  M     t      f     h      inhabjtants    ]iye 

inhabitants         . 

in    huts    made    of    brush,    or 

some  similar  material,  and  clustered  in 
villages  (Fig.  51G).  They  have  a  kind 
of  tribal  government,  each  tribe  having  a 
leader  whose  power  is  absolute,  and  under 
whom  are  minor  chiefs.  Some  of  the  tribes 
are  cannibals. 

Among  the  blacks  none  are  more  remarkable  than 
the  pygmies,  whom  Stanley  discovered  in  the  dense 


tion  ;  for  they  are  stealthy,  they  attack  a  party  with 
great  courage,  and  can  easily  escape  pursuit  in  the 
trackless  forests. 

European   nations   have   been  active   in 
claiming  the  greater  part  of  central  Africa  ; 
but  they  have  little  real  control  Divisions 
over    the    native    inhabitants,  of  this  region 
The  following  are  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant parts  of  central  Africa. 

The  Sudan  includes  the  vast  area  that 
lies  between  the  Sahara  and  the  tropical 
forest.  What  can  you  tell 
about  its  climate  (p.  374)  ? 
More  than  half  of  the  Sudan  is  claimed 
by  the  French,  and  most  of  the  remainder, 
including  Nigeria  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan, 
is  held  by  the  British.  The  inhabitants  in 
the  nortli  are  nomadic,  while  those  in  the 


388 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


south  are  agricultural,  though  they  raise 
little  more  than  is  needed  for  their  own 
use.  There  is  some  gold  in  the  west ;  but 
the  principal  products  are  ivory,  ostrich 
feathers,  ebony,  rubber,  and  gums. 

The  Sudan  is  difficult  to  reach,  being  bordered  by 
the  Sahara  on  the  north,  the  tropical  forest  on  the 
south,  and  the  plateau  edge  elsewhere.  Water  routes 
are  of  little  service,  since  some  of  the  drainage  is  into 
the  interior  basins,  like  Lake  Chad,  and  some  into 


Fig.  517.  —  Negroes  and  a  native  hut  in  Central  Africa. 


the  Nile  and  Niger.  The  difficulty  of  reaching  Tim- 
buktu, for  example,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  there 
is  still  an  important  caravan  route  from  that  place 
across  the  wide  Sahara  to  the  Mediterranean  (p.  378). 
A  railway  to  connect  Timbuktu  with  the  coast  is 
now  partly  built.  What  effect  must  this  have  on  the 
caravan  route,  if  completed  ?  Why?  A  railway  has 
also  been  proposed  across  the  Sahara  from  north 
to  south ;  and  already  there  is  a  railway  into  that 
part  of  the  Sudan  which  the  Nile  crosses.  With 
railways  much  of  the  open  savanna  country  of  the 
Sudan  will  doubtless  be  found  attractive  to  white 
settlers. 

East  of  the  Sudan  is  Abyssinia,  which  is, 
for  the  most  part,  a  rocky  plateau,  crossed 
2.  Abyssinia  by  mountains,  and  difficult  of 
and  surrounding  access.  The  condition  of  this 
territory  country  is  well  shown  by  the 

fact  that  the  position  of  the  capital  is 
changed  when  the  supply  of  firewood  is 
exhausted.      It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 


there  are  no  government  buildings.  Th 
inhabitants,  who  are  mainly  of  the  white 
race,  belong  to  different  tribes  which  are 
often  hostile  to  one  another.  Many  of  the 
people  still  hold  to  Christianity,  in  spite  o: 
the  invasion  by  Mohammedans  nearly  four 
centuries  ago.  The  exports  of  Abyssinia 
include  coffee,  hides,  skins,  ivory,  and  gold, 
Abyssinia  is  surrounded  by  colonies  of 
other  nations.  Italy  holds  Eritrea  and 
Italian  Somaliland.  What 
other  nations  occupy  a  part  of 
the  coast  on  the  border  of 
Abyssinia? 

The  map  shows  several  small 
countries  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  The  divi-  3.  Sman  coun. 
sions  colored  pink  tries  on  the  west 
belong  to  the  coast 
British  ;  those  marked  green  to 
the  Germans.  AVhat  are  some 
of  their  names  ?  Find  a  section 
belonging  to  Spain.  What 
parts  are  controlled  by  France  ? 
One  of  these  small  countries 
is  Liberia,  which  is  of  special 
interest  to  Americans.  It  is  a 
negro  republic,  established  in 
1822  by  Americans  as  a  home 
for  freed  slaves ;  and  its  capital,  Mon- 
rovia, is  named  after  Presideut  Monroe. 
No  white  man  is  allowed  to  become  a 
citizen.  The  republic  was  modeled  after 
Sierra  Leone,  next  to  it  on  the  west,  which 
the  British  founded  as  a  home  for  liberated 
slaves. 

Belgian  Congo,  crossed  by  the  equator  and 
drained  by  the  Congo  and  its  tributaries, 
was  founded  by  Leopold,  king  Belgian  Congo 
of  Belgium,  who  supported  and  neighbor- 
Stanley  in  his  explorations  of  ing  territory 
this  region.  It  is  now  under  the  control 
of  Belgium.  It  is  in  large  part  a  forest- 
covered  plateau,  but  there  are  extensive 
areas  of  grass  land.  Hordes  of  savages, 
including  the  pygmies,  inhabit  the  forests 
and  savannas;  the  buffalo,  elephant,  and 
leopard  live  on  the  plains  ;  and  the  roar  of 


AFRICA 


389 


the  lion  is  frequently  heard.  Large  quan- 
tities of  rubber,  ivory,  palm  oil,  gum,  and 
cocoa,  as  well  as  tropical  woods,  are  obtained 
from  this  region.  Some  gold  is  also  ex- 
ported. 

East  of  the  Belgian  Congo  are  British  and  German 
territories.  What  are  their  names?  What  can  you 
tell  about  their  climate  (p.  374)  ?  What  products 
would  you  expect  ? 

Observe  to  what  extent  the  British  claim  Africa. 
What  break  is  there  in  the  British  territory  between 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  Mediterranean  ? 
What  variety  of  climate  do  these  British  colonies 
include? 

Several  railways  have  already  been  men- 
tioned. Where  are  they  ?  Besides  these, 
The  need  of  ar*d  parts  of  the  great  rivers, 
more  railways  the  three  large  lakes  —  Nyassa, 
!re  Tanganyika,  and  Victoria  Ny- 

anza  —  are  of  great  service  in  the  trans- 
portation of  goods.  Already  there  are 
steamers  upon  these  lakes.  A  railway  con- 
nects Victoria  Nyanza  with  the  sea,  and 
others  are  planned.  But  many  more  rail- 
ways are  needed  ;  for  otherwise  caravans 
of  native  porters  must  bear  the  products  on 
their  backs,  traveling  along  narrow  paths 
through  the  forest. 


5.   Islands  near  Africa 

The  island  of  Madagascar,  which  is  larger 
than  any  of  our  states  except  Texas,  lies  a 
Islands  on  the  little  more  than  two  hundred 
east  side  miles  from  the  mainland.      It 

contains  much  highland,  especially  on  the 
eastern  side  ;  but  the  coastal  region  is  low- 
land. The  island  is  controlled  by  the 
French,  and  produces  cattle,  hides,  valuable 
tropical  woods,  rubber,  and  coffee.  While 
there  are  some  Arabs,  and  tribes  of  negro 
origin  in  the  west,  the  natives  are  for  the 
most  part  Malays,  called  Hovas,  who  came 
by  water  from  the  northeast. 

The  principal  small  islands  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Africa  are  Zanzihar  (British)  near  the  coast,  and 
Reunion  (French),  and  Mauritius  (British)  east  of 
Madagascar.  Find  each  of  these  (Fig.  49i>).  There 
are  many  others,  as  you  can  see.     These  islands  are 


of  value  as  naval  stations.  Their  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  fishing  and  in  agriculture,  raising  sugar 
cane  and  other  tropical  products. 

Of  the  many  small  islands  near  the  western  coast 
the  northernmost  are  the  Madeira  Islands.  These, 
together  with  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 


Islands  on  the 
west  side 


farther  southwest,  have  belonged  to 

Portugal  since  the  early  Portuguese 

voyages  of  discovery  (p.  377).     The  Canary  Islands, 

which  belong  to  Spain,  lie  between  these  two  groups. 

Ascension  Island  and  St.  Helena,  south  of  the 
equator,  are  volcanoes,  like  the  other  groups  of 
islands  just  named.  They  belong  to  Great  Britain. 
St.  Helena  is  noted  especially  as  the  prison  home  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

1.  What  is  the  general  shape  of  Africa?  What 
about  the  regularity  of  its  coast  line  ?  2.  Describe 
the  arrangement   of   its    mountains 


Review 
Questions 


and   lowlands.     3.    State   the   effect 

of  this  arrangement  on  the   rivers. 

4.    Where   are   the   principal    lakes,    and   what  are 

their   names  ?     5.  Describe  the  climate  in   general. 

6.  Tell   about    the    forest    belt.     7.    The   savannas 

north  and  south  of  it.     8.    The  two  desert  regions. 

9.  What  about  the  native  plant  and   animal   life? 

10.  What  about  the  native  inhabitants  of  Africa? 

11.  Tell    about    the    exploration    and    settlement. 

12.  What  are  the  divisions  of  northern  Africa,  and 
what  is  their  form  of  government?  13.  What  is 
the  area  of  the  Sahara?  14.  Describe  its  surface 
features.  15.  Tell  about  the  caravans  there.  16.  De- 
scribe the  climate  of  Egypt.  17.  What  can  you  tell 
about  the  Nile  River  ?  18.  Name  the  agricultural 
products  of  Egypt.  19.  Give  some  facts  in  the 
history  of  that  country.  20.  Locate  and  describe 
the  Suez  Canal.  21.  Locate  and  state  the  chief 
facts  about  the  leading  cities.  22.  What  about  the 
surface,  climate,  and  products  of  the  Barbary  States  ? 
23.  What  is  the  character  of  the  jieople?  24.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  cities.  25.  How  does  the 
southern  part  of  Africa  resemble  the  northern  part  ? 
26.  State  what  you  can  about  the  government  of  the 
southern  part.  27.  What  do  you  know  about  the 
agriculture  there?  28.  The  mining?  29.  The  lack 
of  conveniences  for  transportation  ?  30.  Locate 
and  state  the  chief  facts  about  the  leading  cities. 
31.  How  valuable  are  the  rivers  of  central  Africa 
for  transportation?  32.  Tell  about  the  native  in- 
habitants. 33.  Locate  the  Sudan  and  name  its 
divisions.  What  about  conveniences  for  transpor- 
tation there?  34.  State  the  principal  facts  about 
Abyssinia  and  surrounding  territory.  35.  Name 
and  locate  the  small  countries  on  the  west  coast. 
36.  State  the  principal  facts  about  the  Belgian  Congo 
and  neighboring  territory.  37.  Explain  the  need 
of  railways  there  ?  38.  Locate  and  describe  Mad- 
agascar. 39.  Locate  island  groups  near  Africa.  To 
what  nation  does  each  group  belong? 


390 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


1.   Give  several  reasons  why  Africa  has  been  ex- 
plored and  settled  so  much  later  than  either  North 
.or  South  America.     2.    What  rivers 
General  review   of  North  America  resemble  those  of 
questions  and       ...  ,  . ,         ,    „  ,, 

^  ,  Africa   in    having   rapids  and   tails 

comparisons         ,      .        .  .  °       L  „    „ 

that  interfere  with  commerce  r    How 

have  these  obstacles  been  overcome  in  our  rivers? 
3.  Contrast  the  Mississippi  River  with  the  Nile. 
Make  a  drawing  of  each,  showing  the  principal  trib- 
utaries and  towns.  4.  Compare  the  Congo  with 
the  Missouri  in  length ;  with  the  Amazon  (Appendix, 
p.  431)'.  5.  Compare  the  area  of  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza  with  that  of  Lake  Superior  (Appendix, 
p.  431).  6.  Is  Africa,  on  the  whole,  as  well  adapted 
to  agriculture  as  is  South  America?  Give  your 
reasons.  7.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  the  Atlantic, 
and  compare  the  position  of  Africa  with  that  of 
South  America.  What  part  of  America  is  in  the 
same  latitude  as  the  Sahara?  8.  Cape  Horn  is  how 
much  farther  south  than  Cape  of  Good  Hope? 
9.  Why  is  not  a  large  part  of  northern  South 
America  a  desert,  like  northern  Africa?  10.  Com- 
pare southern  Africa  with  southern  South  America 
in  products  and  importance.  Why  the  difference  ? 
11.  What  products  of  Africa  are  also  cultivated  i:i 
the  United  States?  12.  What  products  of  Africa 
are  not  raised  in  our  country? 

1.  What  per  cent  of  the  present  population  of  the 
United  States  belongs  to  the  negro  race  ?  2.  Read 
the  Bible  story  of  Joseph  in  Egypt. 
3.  Read  the  story  of  Moses.  4.  Find 
out  some  facts  about  the  Pyramids.  5.  Why  is 
England  especially  benefited  by  the  Suez  Canal? 
6.  What  obstacles  are  in  the  way  of  building  rail- 
ways across  the  Sahara  ?  7.  Read  about  our  short 
war  with  Tripoli  in  1804.  8.  Why  was  the  south- 
ern point  of  Africa  called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope? 

9.  Examine  a  diamond  to  see  how  it  has  been  cut. 

10.  Find  out  something  about  missionary  work  in 
Africa.  11.  Find  out  about  the  peculiar  animal  life 
upon  the  island  of  Madagascar.  12.  Find  some 
facts  about  Livingstone,  Mungo  Park,  Stanley,  and 
other  African  explorers.  13.  Read  one  of  the  books 
of  these  explorers;  you  will  find  Du  Chaillu's  books 
on  Africa  very  interesting.  14.  Who  were  Barthol- 
omew Diaz  and  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  what  part  did 
they  take  in  the  discovery  of  the  water  route  to 
India?  15.  Find  out  about  Kruger  and  the  British 
war  with  the  Boers  in  1900. 

III.    Australia  and  Island  Gkoups 
i    Australia 

1.   Judging  from  the  railways  and  cities,  which  is 

the  best  settled  part  of  Australia?     2.    Which  part  is 

least   settled?     3.    Can  you  suggest 

Map  Questions   any  reasons  for  these  facts  ?  4.  From 


Suggestions 


the  lakes  and  rivers,  what  do  you  conclude  concern- 
ing the  climate  of  the  interior?  5.  How  does  Tas- 
mania compare  in  area  with  Pennsylvania  (Appendix, 
p.  425)?  With  your  own  state?  6.  Make  the 
same  comparison  for  New  Zealand.  7.  For  Borneo 
and  New  Guinea.  8.  What  nations  claim  parts  of 
Borneo?    New  Guinea? 

Australia  lies  apart  from  the  rest  of  the 
world.  It  is  the  smallest  of  the  continents, 
the  only  continent  wholly  sur-  Location 
rounded  by  water,  and  the  ani  al6a- 
only  continent  wholly  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. With  its  area  of  three  million 
square  miles,  it  approaches  the  United 
States  or  Europe  in  size. 

The  surface,  like  that  of  Ireland,  suggests 
a  plate  in  form,  since  the  low  interior  rises 
gradually  to  a  broken  rim  of  Surface 
plateaus  and  mountains  of  features 
moderate  height.  While  there  are  some 
low,  short  ranges  in  the  interior,  the  highest 
land  is  in  the  east,  where  the  mountains 
run  parallel  to  the  coast.  In  the  southeast 
some  of  the  peaks  reach  a  height  of  over 
a  mile. 

The  coast  of  Australia  is  so  regular  that 
for  long  distances  there  are  no  good  harbors  ; 
but  the  sinking  of  the  land  in  the  southeast- 
ern part  has  formed  some  excellent  ports. 
Off  the  northeastern  coast  is  the  Great 
Barrier  Reef,  the  longest  coral  reef  in  the 
world. 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  northern  part 
of  Australia  '?      Of  the  south- 
ern    part?     What,    therefore, 
can  you  say  about  the  temperature  of  the 
continent  ? 

Australia  lies  within  the  belt  of  the  south- 
east trade  winds  (Fig.  300).     The  eastern 
highland,  therefore,  has  an  abundant  rain- 
fall, on  its  seaward  side,  and  is  clothed  wit 
dense   forests.     After  crossing   the  moun 
tains,  however,  the  winds  are  so  dry  thai 
the   forest  gradually  disappears;     and  the 
interior    is    a    vast  desert.      It  is  therefore 
only  along  portions  of  the  coast  that  the 
is  enough  rainfall  tor  agriculture,  while  th 
interior,  and  much  of   the  greater  part  o: 
the  continent,  is  either  arid  or  desert. 


AUSTRALIA  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


391 


The  maps  of   Australia  show  a  striking 
lack  of  large  rivers.     Some  of  the  streams 

Effect  of  rain-  end  in  sa^  lakes<  and  others 
fall  on  rivers  evaporate  in  the  dry  climate, 
and  distribu-  Many  unite  with  the  Darling 
turn  of  popula-  alul  Murray  rivers  .   but  these 

only  at  times  are  navigable  for 
long    distances.     During    the  dry  summer 


the  southeastern  part  seems  capable  of  sup- 
porting a  dense  population. 

Australian  vegetation  is  peculiar  and  well  suited 
to    the     climate     of     the    country. 
Among   the   desert   grasses,   one   of    Native  plants 
the  most  remarkable  is  the   porcu- 
pine grass,  which  is  so  hard,  wiry,  and  spiny  as  to 
prevent  passage  through  it. 

The  "scrub"  trees  of  the  arid  interior  have  de- 


Fig.  520.  —  Relief  map  of  Australia. 


season  all  except  the  Murray  may  dwindle 
to  mere  chains  of  water  holes.  A  sand  bar 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Murray  River  closes  it 
to  ocean  steamers,  so  that,  unlike  the  Mis- 
sissippi, no  large  cities  have  grown  up  along 
its  banks. 

Partly  because  of  the  desert,  and  partly 
because  of  the  absence  of  navigable  streams, 
there  are  large  tracts  in  the  interior  about 
which,  even  now,  little   is  known.     Only 


veloped  a  foliage  able  to  resist  evaporation.  Fores- 
ample,  the  gum  trees  (Eucalyptus)  hold  their 
narrow  leaf  blades  vertically,  with  only  the  edges 
toward  the  sun's  rays  ;  the  leaves  of  wattles  (Acacia) 
and  other  plants  have  shrunk  to  thorns;  and  some 
trees  secrete  odorous  oils  which  check  evaporation. 
Plants  with  leaves  which  taste  of  salt  also  thrive 
here.  These  "  salt  bushes  "  are  so  valuable  as  forage 
for  sheep  and  cattle  that  they  are  now  introduced 
into  the  arid  section  of  southwestern  United  States. 
On  the  equable  rainy  slopes,  near  the  coast,  some 
of  the  gum  trees  are  giants.     They  rival  the  "  Big 


392 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Native  ani- 
mals 


Fig.  521.  —  Tree  ferns  and  other  undergrowth  in  the  Australian  forest. 


Trees  "  of  California,  which  also  thrive  where  damp 
winds  blow  from  the  ocean.  The  undergrowth  of 
the  forest  (Fig.  521),  which  is  almost  tropical  in 
character,  includes  tree  ferns,  palms,  and  orchids. 
These  dense  woods  are  called  the  "  bush." 

Figure  523  shows  the  more  important  animals,  in- 
cluding the  rabbit,  which  was  introduced  into  Aus- 
tralia from  Europe.  What  are  their 
names?  They  are  very  different 
from  animals  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  because  Australia  is  so  far  separated  by 
water  from  all  the  other  continents  that  animals 
from  other  places  have  not  been  able  to  migrate 
there. 

When  discovered,  Australia  was  sparsely 
settled  by  blacks,  related  to  the  negroes  of 
Africa.  Some  of  these  natives 
still  live  in  the  interior,  build- 
ing the  rudest  of  shelters,  and 
gaining  their  living  by  hunt- 
ing. They  still  use  that  pe- 
culiar weapon,  the  boomerang,  which,  when 
skillfully  thrown,  will  fly  in  curves  and 
even  return  to  the  thrower. 

Although  it  had  long  been  known  that 
there  was  an  Australian  continent,  settle- 
2.  Early  set-  ments  were  not  made  there 
tiement  until  1788.     For  a  time  the  dis- 

tant land  was  used  as  an  English  prison  ; 
anil  naturally,  under  such  conditions,  not 
many  free  settlers  came  to  the  country. 
Some  came,  however,  and  as  their  number 


History 

1.   Native  in- 
habitants and 
their  manner  of 
life 


increased,  they  brought  it  about 
that  criminals  were  no  longer 
sent  there. 

Almost  at  the  same  time  that 
gold  was  discovered  in  Cali- 
fornia, it  was  also  3.  Effect  of 
found  in  Australia,  discovery  of 
and  tens  of  thou-  goId 
sands  of  people  rushed  there  to 
wash  the  sands  for  the  precious 
metal.  Since  the  miners  needed 
supplies,  many  of  the  settlers 
turned  their  attention  to  other 
industries,  especially  agriculture 
and  grazing.  Therefore,  in  Aus- 
tralia, as  in  California,  the  gold 
mines  quickly  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country's  resources. 
New  South  Wales,  as  the  first  colony  was 
called,  finally  grew  so  large,  and  the  settle- 
ments were  so  scattered,  that 
it  became  difficult  to  control 
the  whole  colony  under  a  single  government. 
To  meet  this  difficulty,  Tasmania,  Victoria, 


4.   Government 


Fig.  522. —  Australian  natives,  who  have  just 
killed  a  kangaroo  with  the  boomerang. 
The  boy  holds  a  hoomeraug  in  his  bauds. 


RABBIT 


PLATYPUS 


The  '•'  N  Ql,BuFFAL( 


KANGAROO 


Fig.  52.3.  —  Sume  of  the  Australian  animals. 


394 


ASIA,   AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


and  Queensland  were  one  by  one  set  off  as  sep- 
arate colonies.  South  Australia  and  Western 
Australia  were  settled  as  distinct  colonies. 

The  colonies  have  so  many  interests  in 
common,  that,  in  1901,  they  united  to  form 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia.  This  new 
commonwealth  has  a  government  similar  to 


'.PACIFIC      OCEAN- 


Fig.  524.  —  Density  of  population  in  Australia  and  neigh- 
boring islands. 

that  of  Canada,  and  is  independent  of  Eng- 
land in  all  matters  except  those  which  affect 
the  British  Empire  as  a  whole. 

Although  it  was  gold  that  brought  the 
Agriculture  rush  of.  settlers  to  Australia, 
1.  Sheep  ner  greatest  wealth  lies  in  her 

raising  flocks  of  Merino  sheep.     Aus- 

tralian wool  is  the  finest  in  the  world. 

Sheep  were  first  known  in  Asia,  where  doubtless 
they  were  originally  wild  animals  ;  and  the  ancestors 
of  the  Merino  were  such  as  those  tended  by  Jacob. 
From  Asia  the  breed  spread  along  the  Mediterranean 
and  found  in  Spain  a  favorable,  dry  climate.  From 
this  point  flocks  were  taken  to  the  early  Dutch 
colony  of  South  Africa,  and  thence  to  Australia. 
Here  the  dry  climate  and  native  plants  have  still 
further  improved  the  quality  of  the  wool. 

In  the  early  days  of  Australia  the  flocks 
were  reared  upon  the  un fenced  government 
land,  as  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States  (p.  133).  The  sheep  were  driven  to 
pasture  and  watered  and  cared  for  at  night 


3.   Farming 


by  lonely  shepherds,  much  as  in  the  days  of 
David.  Now,  however,  the  land  is  largely 
fenced  with  wire,  each  sheep  station  having 
its  own  run,  or  ranch.  To-day  grazing  is 
the  most  typical  as  well  as  the  leading  occu- 
pation in  Australia.  There  are  over  eighty 
three  million  sheep,  and  wool  is  the  principal 
export  of  the  commonwealth. 

Horses,  cattle,  and  swine  are  also  raised  in  large 
numbers;  and  frozen  or  canned  beef  and   mutton, 
together  with  hides  and  tallow,  are 
exported.    Many  cattle    are   raised     *  ,      ."    . 

for  their  dairy  products,  and  butter   Broflucts 
is  sent  to  England.     At  the  season 
when  the  cows  of  Belgium  and  Denmark  are  kept  in 
barns  on  account  of  the  cold,  the  dairy  herds  of  New 
South  Wales  feed  on  fresh  pastures.     How  can  you 
account  for  this  fact? 

On  the  damp  lowlands,  where  there  is 
rainfall  enough,  and  in  the  interior  where 
irrigation  is  possible,  there  is 
much  farming.  Next  to  hay, 
wheat  (Fig.  536)  is  the  most  important 
crop,  and  flour  forms  one  of  the  chief 
exports  of  the  country. 

The  farm  products  vary  with  the  climate. 
For  example,  oats  and  other  hardy  grains  are 
raised  in  the  cooler  south,  while  corn  is  im- 
portant only  from  New  South  Wales  north- 
ward. There  are  large  sugar  plantations 
in  Queensland ;  and  along  the  northern 
coast  tropical  products  are  obtained.  Much 
fruit  is  raised,  and  this,  too,  varies  with  the 
climate.  Oranges  are  grown  in  the  north, 
and  the  orchard  and  small  fruits  of  cool 
temperate  lands  in  the  south.  In  Victoria 
and  South  Australia,  there  are  many  vine- 
yards. 

On  the  coral  reefs  east  of  the  mainland, 
and  along  the  northern  coast  of  Australia, 
small  sailboats  are  engaged  in  Fishing  and 
fishing   for  pearls,  pearl  shell,   mining 
and  other  products  of  tropical  waters. 

The  gold  of  Australia,  like  that  of  Cali- 
fornia, was  first  found  in  the  gravels;  but 
mines  were  later  opened  along  the  veins  in 
the  mountain  rocks.  Gold  mining  is  still 
very  important,  and  Australia  ranks  third 
among  gold-producing  nations  (Fig.  556). 


AUSTRALIA   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


395 


$^-*#''J&iMI£ 


'mw-s-i-  m 


Fig.  525.  —  Harvesting  oats  ill  Australia. 


Copper,  silver,  and  tin  are  other  important 
metals  found  in  Australia.  Coal  of  good 
quality  exists  in  several  places,  the  best- 
developed  field  being  near  the  coast  of  New 
South  Wales.  Rich  iron  ores,  together  with 
limestone,  are  found  near  these  coal  fields. 

Some    wool    is    woven   into    cloth ;   some 

leather  is  tanned  and  made  into  shoes  ;  and 

„      ,    .  much    flour  is  made  from  the 

Manufacturing 

wheat,  ihere  are  sawmills  and 
planing  mills  ;  and  other  forms  of  simple 
manufacturing  are  carried  on.  But  most  of 
the  manufactured  goods  used  in  the  country 
are  imported.  They  are  largely  obtained  from 
England,  and  are  paid  for  with  raw  products. 

Australian  cities  have  grown  very  rapidly, 
and  one  third  of  the  people  live  in  the  capi- 
Principal  cities  tals  of  the  six  divisions  of  the 
1.  The  capitals  commonwealth.  These  capi- 
tals are  seaports  connected  with  the  interior 
by  railway,  and  have  therefore  become  the 
leading  commercial  centers.  They  have 
fine  government  buildings  and  large  public 
parks  and  gardens. 

Melbourne,  the  second  city  in  size  in 
Australia    and  the   capital   of   Victoria,    is 


beautifully  situated  at  the  head  of  a  broad 
harbor.  Sydney  (Fig.  526),  the  largest 
city  of  Australia  and  the  capital  of   New 


Fig.  526.  —  A  street  in  Sydney,  in  New  South  Wales. 


396 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


2.    Mining 
centers 


South  Wales,  was  founded  in  1788,  and  is, 
therefore,  the  oldest  city  of  Australia. 
Both  of  these  cities  rank  among  the 
great  seaports  of  the  British  Empire. 
Adelaide  is  a  third  large  city.  Of  which 
division  is  it  the  capital  ?  Name  the  other 
capitals. 

Since  nine  tenths  of  the  Australians  live  on  the 
coast  lands,  much  of  the  commerce  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  steamboats,  and  most  of 
the  cities  are  seaports  connected  by 
rail  with  the  interior  farms,  mines, 
and  sheep  country.  A  few  mining  centers,  like  Bal- 
larat  and  Bendigo,  in  Victoria,  have  become  large 
towns. 

2.   Island  Groups 

More  than  a  thousand  miles  southeast  of 
Australia  are  the  two  large  mountainous  is- 
New  Zealand  lands  of  New  Zealand.  In 
1.  Surface  and  South  Island  there  are  great 
climate  glaciers  among  the  mountains  ; 

while  in  North  Island  there  are  active  vol- 
canoes,  and   also   hot  springs   and   geysers 


(Fig.  627),  like  those  of  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park. 

Since  these  islands  lie  in  the  belt  of 
stormy  west  winds,  there  is  heavy  rainfall 
on  the  western  slopes.  The  mountains  are 
therefore  clothed  with  forests  of  pine  and 
other  trees.  On  the  lee,  or  eastern,  slopes 
the  rainfall  is  less,  and  the  land  is  cov- 
ered with  wiry  grasses.  What  effect  must 
the  presence  of  water  on  all  sides  have  upon 
the  temperature  ? 

The  native  people,  or  Maoris,  who  must  have  come 
to  the  islands  in  boats,  were  a  hardy,  warlike  race, 
living  in  protected  villages,  in   the 


2.   Native  in- 
habitants 


Fig.  527.  —  A  geyser  in  eruption  in 
New  Zealand. 


midst  of  cultivated  fields.  At  first 
they  opposed  the  white  men,  and  the 
country  was  not  settled  until  a  half  century  after 
the  founding  of  Sydney.  After  a  time  the  Maoris 
were  conquered,  and  those  that  survive  live  mostly  in 
the  interior  of  the  North  Island.  Many  of  them  are 
civilized,  and  they  are  now  allowed  representatives  in 
the  legislature. 

As  in  Australia,  pastoral  industries  take 
the  lead.  There  are  twenty  million  sheep* 
and  wool  and  frozen  mutton  3.  industries 
are  exported  to  England.  Cat-  and  government 
tie  are  likewise  kept,  and  butter  is  exported. 
Agriculture  is  important,  but  much  land 
that  is  suited  to  farming  has  never  been 
cleared  of  forest. 

In  the  south  the  crops  are  those  of  the  cool 
temperate  belt;  but  in  the  north  the  climate 
is  mild  enough  for  the  growth  of  oranges 
There  are  gold,  silver,  and  coal  mines  anion 
the  mountains  ;  and  valuable  timber  is  ob- 
tained from  their  slopes.  Manufacturing  is 
only  slightly  developed,  and  is  chiefly  for 
home  use. 

The  situation  of  these  islands,  in  the  temperate 
zone,  is  favorable  to  rapid  progress,  and  the  British 
people  who  have  settled  here  have  done  much  to  de- 
velop the  resources.  They  have  also  established  one 
of  the  best  governments  in  the  world.  Being  so  far 
away  from  Australia,  and  therefore,  with  such  dif- 
ferent interests,  New  Zealand  has  not  joined  the  Aus- 
tralian Commonwealth. 

Several  short  lines  of  railway  connect  the  settled 
interior   with    the    seaports;    roads 
and  stage  lines  extend  to  the  more   and  ^  "ties 
distant  districts  ;   and  steamers  ply 
around  the  coasts  and  to  distant  countries.     There 


AUSTRALIA   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


397 


are  four  cities  of  nearly  the  same  size,  the 
smallest  of  -which  is  Dukedin,  aud  the  largest, 
Auckland.     Find  the  other  two. 

Between  Asia  and  Australia  are  hundreds 
of  islands,  some  very  large,  others  so  small 
The  East  that  they  find  no  place  on  our 

Indies  map.      Of   these   the    greater 

1.  Divisions  number  have  animals,  plants, 
among  them  an(j  people  similar  to  those  of 
Asia.  New  Guinea,  however,  which  is 
nearest  to  Australia,  resembles  that  conti- 
nent rather  than  Asia. 

While  the  islands  farther  west  are  overrun  with 
Malays  from  Asia,  the  natives  of  New  Guinea  are 
like  the  native  Australians.  The  animal  life  also 
resembles  thatof  Australia.  It  is  believed,  therefore, 
that  Xew  Guinea  and  Australia  were  once  connected. 
For  these  reasons  Xew  Guinea  is  usually  considered 
a  part  of  Australia,  while  the  islands  to  the  west  and 
northwest  are  classed  with  Asia. 

The  Philippine  Islands,  which  belong  to  the  United 
States,  are  really  a  northern  extension  of  the  East 
Indies.     "What  can  you  tell  about  thetn  (p.  15S)  ? 

Many  of  the  islands  of  this  region,  in- 
cluding Sumatra,  Java,  the  Celebes,  and  a 

2.  Government  large  part  of  Borneo  and  New 
of  the  islands  Guinea  are  Dutch  colonies. 
What  nations  control  the  island  of  Timor  ? 
What  three  nations  have  possession  of  New 
Guinea  ? 

The  immense  size  of  these  islands  is  shown  by  the. 
fact  that  Java  lias  a  greater  area  than  Xew  York 
State,  while  Sumatra  is  larger  than 
California.  Borneo,  one  of  the 
largest  islands  in  the  world,  is  larger  than  all  the 
Xew  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  together. 
New  Guinea,  another  of  the  largest  islands  in  the 
world,  has  an  area  greater  than  that  of  Texas.  The 
Dutch  East  Indies  alone  are  fifty-eight  times  as 
large  as  The  Netherlands,  and  have  over  six  times 
as  many  inhabitants,  or  not  quite  half  as  many  as 
the  United  States. 

All  of  the  larger  islands,  are  mountainous  ; 
in  fact,  they  are  parts  of  mountain  ranges 
4.  Their  sur-  rising  out  of  the  sea,  and  among 
face  and  climate  them  are  many  active  volca- 
noes, some  of  which  have  had  terribly  de- 
structive eruptions.  Many  of  the  smaller 
islands  are  merely  coral  reefs  slightly  raised 
above  the  ocean. 


3.    Their  area 


Lying  so  near  the  equator,  all  the  islands 
have  a  tropical  temperature  and  heavy  rain- 
fall. The  dampness  and  heat  together  make 
them  very  unhealthful  in  places.  Because  of 
the  climate,  and  of  the  mountains  and  the 
dense  jungles,  there  are  large  areas  which 
have  never  been  explored. 

The  forests  supply  valuable  woods  and 
gums,  including  rubber  and  camphor.  Large 
areas,  especially  in  Java,  are  ,    _,_ 

.  ,    .  ,  5.    The  products 

highly  cultivated  and  produce 

quantities  of  rice,   sugar  cane,   and   coffee. 


w 

fmt 

-«$yf 

ji^llP^is^r 

/"IT'S" 

1  m 

s  W-  id 

•iBE-     J 

Fig.  528. — Xew  Guinea  houses  built  in  trees. 

Iii  the  production  of  the  last  two  articles, 
Java  is  one  of  the  leading  regions  of  the 
world  (Figs.  539  and  542).  Among  the 
noted  products  of  the  East  Indies  are  spices, 
such  as  pepper,  cloves,  and  nutmegs  ;  in 
fact,  one  of  the  island  groups  is  known  as 
the  Spice  Islands.  What  is  its  other  name  ? 
There  are  also  valuable  minerals,  including 
tin,  gold,  and  precious  stones  ;  and  in  the 
tropical  sea  beautiful  pearl  shells  are  found. 
The  largest  city  among  all  the  islands  in 
this  region  is  MANILA,  in  the  Philippines  ; 
and  next  in  size  is  Batavia,  the  center  of 
the  Dutch  colonial  government. 


398 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  529.  —  A  Malay  village  built  on  piles  in  the  water. 


The  map   (Fig.  518)  shows  the  western  Pacific 
dotted  with  island  groups  ;  but  all  these  islands  are 

t  i     j      * «.        very   small.      What   names   among 
Islands  ot  the      , ,         ,  ,         ,  , 

p     .„  them  have  you  heard  be- 

fore ?  Name  and  locate 
those  that  belong  to  the  United  States. 
All  together,  these  thousands  of  islands 
have  a  population  of  less  than  a  million 
persons. 

The  "high,"  or  volcanic  islands, 
like  Fiji  and  New  Caledonia,  have 
peaks  which  rise  several  thousand 
feet.  On  these  islands  there  are 
sugar  and  coffee  plantations,  as  in 
Hawaii,  while  tropical  fruits,  such 
as  bananas  and  pineapples,  are 
raised  in  large  quantities. 

On  the  "  low,"  or  coral  islands, 
on   the  other  hand,  the  cocoanut 
palm  is  the  mainstay  of  human  life, 
supplying      food,      clothing,     shelter, 
boats,  and  many  utensils.     Copra,  the 
main  export  from  Samoa,  and  from 
many  other    Pacific   islands,  is  the 
dried  meat  of  the  cocoanut.     It  is  of 
value  for  food,  as  well  as  for  its  oil.   > 

1.   Describe   the  surface  of   Aus-    ' 

tralia,  including  the  coast  line. 

„     .  2.    Describe   the 

Review  ,.  „   „,    . 

_      to  climate.  3.  State 

the  effect  of  the 
rainfall  on  rivers,  and  distribu- 
tion of  population.  4.  What 
about  the  native  plants? 
5.  Native  animals?  0.  In  the 
history   of   the   country,   give 


Fig.  530.  —  A  native  of  Fiji  Islands. 


some  facts  about  the  native  inhabitants ;  the  early 
settlements;  effect  of  discovery  of  gold;  the  govern- 
ment.     7.   State   the   principal   facts    about   sheep 
ranching.     8.  Other  animals  and  animal  prod- 
ucts.   9.  Name  the  chief  farm  products.     How 
are  they  distributed?    10.  What   about  fish- 
11.  What  mineral  products  are  found? 

12.  What  is  the  condition  of  manufacturing? 

13.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities.     For 
what  is  each  important?     14.  What  are  the 

surface  features  and  climate  of   New   Zea- 
land?    15.   What  about  the  native 
inhabitants?      16.   The    industries 
and   government?     17.   Name   and 
ocate   the    chief   cities.      18.   Tell 
about  the   East   Indies;    divisions 
among   them;    government;    area; 
surface  and  climate;   products  and  chief 
city.      19.   AVhat   can  you   tell    about  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific? 

1.  Australia  resembles  South  Africa  in 
its  surface,  climate,  occupations,  and  prod- 
ucts.    Show   how  this   is    _  ,       . 
.            „     .          i-i       General  review 
true.      2.    Australia    also  . 
....                         ,    questions  and 
resembles  the  western  part 

i  *i     tt  m.  j  ci  *      ■      comparisons 

Vof  the  tinted  States  in 
climate,  in  occupation  and  products,  and 
in  the  order  of  development 
of  her  resources.  Show  how 
this  is  true,  also.  3.  In  what 
respects  does  southern  South 
America  (Chile  and  Argen- 
tina) resemble  Australia  ? 
4.  What  part  of  Australia 
has  the  same  latitude,  in  the 
southern      hemisphere,      that 


AUSTRALIA  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


399 


southern  Florida  has  in  the  northern  ?  5.  Which 
one  of  our  states  most  nearly  equals  New  Zealand  in 
area'.'  6.  What  peninsula  of  Europe  resembles 
New  Zealand  in  shape?  How  do  the  two  countries 
compare  in  area?  In  population?  7.  What  part 
of  South  America  most  resembles  the  East  Indies 
in  climate  and  products?  What  part  of  North 
America  most  resembles  them  in  these  respects? 

1.  If  it  were  within  your  power,  how  would  you 
arrange  the  highlands  of  Australia   so  as  to  secure 
.  the  most  even  distribution  of  rain? 

2.  Estimate  the  greatest  length  of 
New  Zealand.  Compare  it  with  a  line  extending 
from  Xew  Orleans  northward.  3.  Estimate  the  dis- 
tance from  Batavia  to  Manila.     4.  Write  your  im- 


pression of  the  climate  of  Melbourne  in  January;  in 
July.  5.  Through  some  fruit  dealer  obtain  a  cocoa- 
nut  in  its  husk,  aud  examine  it.  0.  Read  Whittier's 
poem  on  the  Palm  Tree.  7.  Learn  something  about 
the  work  of  missionaries  in  the  small  Pacific  islands. 
8.  Collect  pictures  for  the  school,  showing  the  Pacific 
islands  and  their  life.  9.  By  what  routes  can  one  go 
from  Xew  York  City  to  Australia?  Through  what 
waters?  Which  route  is  the  shortest?  About  how 
many  miles  shorter?  10.  Answer  the  same  questions 
for  a  voyage  from  New  York  to  Manila.  11.  Read 
in  Tarr's  "Elementary  Geology"  (pp.  251-256) 
about  the  origin  of  atolls.  12.  Read  about  the 
eruption  of  Krakatoa  (same  book,  p.  343)  in  the 
Sunda  Strait,  near  Batavia. 


PART  VI     REVIEW   OE  UNITED   STATES  AND 
COMPARISONS   WITH   OTHER   COUNTRIES* 


In  spite  of  the  vast  extent  of  the  United 
States,  there  are  four  empires 
in    the    Old    World    with    a 
Which  are  they  (Fig.  531)  ? 


British  Empire 


Russian  Empire 


Chinese  Empire 


U.  S.  and 
Possessions 


Area  and 
population 

greater  area. 
Which  coun- 
try is  fifth  in 
size?  Sixth? 
Compare  the 
United 
States  with 
each  of  these 
in  area. 

The  Unit- 
ed States 
ranks  fourth  in  population  (Fig.  532). 
Name  the  six  most  populous  countries  in  the 
order  of  their  rank.  Figure  534  shows  the 
density  of  population,  or  the  number  of  peo- 
ple per  square  mile,  in  some  of  the  countries 
in  the  world.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  United 
States  is  very  thinly 
settled,  compared 
with  many  coun- 
tries. Compare  the 
United  States  in 
this  regard  with 
Belgium,     England, 


North     America     compare    with    that    of 
Europe  ?     Compare    the    sur-   Surface 
face  of  the  United  States  with  features 
that    of    European    Russia    (p.    302) ;    of 


Fig.  531.  —  Areas  of  six  largest  nations  (1910). 


Brazil  (p.  243) ;  of  China  (p.  361). 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  northern  and 
of   the   southern   boundary   of 
the  United  States  ?     Compare 
the  latitude  of  our  country  with  that  of  the 


Chinese  Empire 


439,214,000 


.:    '    a 


A 


British  Empire 


397,261,509 


tt  a       a  Germany 

Russian  Empire  "■  b-  and     France  and        and 
m  na_  —    I  P°ss''ss"ms  Possessions  Possessions 
lb0,09o,200 


93,402,157 


SO.905.895 


79,449,423 


Fig.  532.—  Population  of  six  most  populous  nations  (1910). 


Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

Name  and  locate  the  principal  mountain 
Density  of  systems  in  the  United  States  ; 
the  chief  ranges  in  the  West. 
Describe  the  drainage  of  the 
United  States.  Name  and  lo- 
cate our  principal  rivers.  Which  continent 
has  its  principal  mountains  arranged  most 
like  those  of  North  America?  Show  this. 
How  does  the  arrangement  of  mountains  in 


population  in 

several 

countries 


British  Isles  (Fig.  2);  with  that  of  Ger- 
many, Italy,  Egypt,  India,  China,  Argen- 
tina, Australia. 

How  do  ocean  currents  affect  the  temper- 
ature of  the  eastern  part  of  our  country  ? 
Of  the  western  part  (p.  222)?  Compare 
our  temperature  with  that  of 
in  Europe  having  most  nearly 
latitude  (p.  260).  Why  the 
(p.  261)? 


countries 
the  same 
difference 


*  The  statistics  in  the  figures  of  this  section  are  for  1910. 
400 


Q 

o 


55 


o 


55 

o 

H 

P 


H 
x 


COMPARISONS    WITH   OTHER   COUNTRIES 


401 


Tell  about  the  prevailing  winds  and  the 
rainfall  in  western  United  States  (p.  211); 
the  cyclonic  storms  and  their 
effects  (p.  214)  ;  the  prevail- 
ing winds  of  Europe  (p.  261)  ; 
the  rainfall  there,  with  rea- 
sons (p.  217).  In  what  re- 
spects are  North  America  and 
Europe  alike  in  regard  to 
winds  and  rain  ? 

What  about  native  plants 
and  animals  in  the  northern 
Native  plants  part  of  North 
and  animals  America  (p.  13)? 
In  the  arid  part  of  the  United 
States  (p.  16)  ?  In  other 
parts  of  the  United  States 
(p.  17)  ?  In  tropical  North 
America  (p.  19)?  Compare 
the  native  plants  and  animals 
of  North  America  with  those 
of  South  America  (p.  239)  ; 
Africa  (p.  376)  ;  Asia  (p. 
343)  ;  Australia  (p.   391). 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
Raw  food  some    nations    are    larger   and 

products  more      densely      settled,     the 

1.  Com  United  States  leads  the  world 

in  many  very  important   respects,  and  ap- 


proaches leadership  in  several  others.     Fig- 
ure 535  shows  that  no  nation  is  a  close  rival 


Belgium             655 

England  SWales6l6 

Japan                 343 

Germany           310 

Italy                 309 

China               266 

France             190 

India                167 

Spain                 90 

Philippine  Is.    71.9 

Russia                66 

Cuba                  46 

United  Stales  3U.9 

Hawaii           29.75 

Mexico                19 

Chile                   11 

Brazil                 6.6 

Argentina          5.9 

Australia            1.5 

Canada            1.48 

2.   Wheat 


Fig.  531. — Density  of  population  of  some  of  the  countries  of  the  world  (1910). 

to  us  in  the  area  of  com  production.  What 
countries,  however,  raise  large  quantities  of 
it  ?  Why  is  no  corn  raised  in  the  British 
Isles  (p.  265)  ? 

Wheat  is  more 
widely  culti- 
vated 
t  h  a  n 

corn  (Fig.  536). 
We  rank  second 
in  the  produc- 
tion of  that 
grain.  Point  out 
(Fig.  536)  the 
leading  wheat 
fields  of  the 
world.  Which 
sections  are  im- 
portant for  both 
wheat  and  corn? 
On  which  side  of 
the  Atlantic  is 
wheat  raised  far- 


Fig.  535.  —  Corn  sections  of  the  world. 


2  D 


402 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED  STATES 


Fig.  536.  —  Wheat  sections  of  the  world. 


Russia 


United  States 


695,443,000. 


India 


357,941,000 


Austria- 
Hungary 


241,394,000 

Italy 

Italy    153,337,000 


Fig.  537.  —  Six  leading  wheat-producing  countries  (1'JIO) . 


Fig.  538.  —  Sugar  cane  and  sugar  beet  sections  of  the  world. 


thest  north?  Why 
(p.  223)  ?  Name 
in  order  the  six 
countries  that 
lead  in  the  pro- 
duction of  this 
grain  (Fig.  537). 

3.   Sugar  cane 
and  sugar  beets 

Note  what  sec- 
tions of  the  world 
raise  sugar  cane 
and  sugar  beets 
(Fig.  538).  Name 
countries  and 
islands  engaged 
in  these  indus- 
tries. Is  it  main- 
ly the  sugar  beet 
or  sugar 
cane  that  is 
r  a  is  e  d  in 
Europe? 
Why  (p. 
313)?  What 
is  our  rank 
in  the  rais- 
ing of  sugar 
cane  and 
sugar  beets 
(Fig.  538)? 
Name  the  six 
regions  that 
lead  in  this 
kind  of  agri 
culture. 

4.  Rice 

Figure  540 
shows  the 
principal  rice 
sections  of  the 
world.  What 
continent 
grows  by  far 
the  largest 
amount? 
What  coun- 


! 


COMPARISONS   WITH  OTHER   COUNTRIES 


403 


tries    in    that 

continent? 

What   other 

parts    of    the 

world  produce 

much    of    it  ? 

What  parts  of 

the     United 

States?  What 

climate  does  it 

require,    and 

how  is  it  raised 

(p.  76)? 

Figure     541 

shows       that 

coffee     is     not 

-   o  «      grown 
5.  Coffee    8  . ,  .  . 
Within 

our  states,  al- 
though in  al- 
most every 
household  it 
is  used  every 
day.  Notice, 
however,  that 
it  is  produced 
in  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  the 
Philippine  Is- 
lands (Fig. 
541).  To 

what  climate 
and  countries 
is  it  confined  ? 
State  the  rank 
of  the  principal 
coffee-produc- 
ing sections, 
and  compare 
their  output 
(Fig.  542). 
Our  tea,  also, 
comes 
almost 
entirely  from 
abroad.  Main- 
ly from  what 
parts    of    the 


British  India 


Cuba 


i       2,100.000  Tons 


1,900,000 


United  State9 


Java 


1,266,000 


1,175,000 


British 

Q""""1     Formosa 


310,000      230,000 


Fig.  5i>9.  —  The  six  countries  producing  the  most  cane  sugar  (1910). 


Fig.  540.  —  Rice  sections  of  the  world. 


Fig.  541.  —  Coffee-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


404 


BEVIEW  OF   UNITED   STATES 


Brazil 


Brazil 

1,483,172,000  70003!! 

West  Indies 

06,261,000 

W.I.    v 

C     G 

98,916^000 

3 

Colombia 

92,598,000 

Guatemala 

86,168,000 

Salvador  62,764,000 

Fig.  542.  —  Leading  coffee-producing  countries  (1910). 


Fig.  54o.  —  Tea  and  cocoa  producing  sections  of  the  world. 


Fig.  044.  —  Cattle  and  sheep  sections  of  the  world. 


COMPARISONS    WITH   OTHER   COUNTRIES 


405 


countries 
7.  Meat 


2.  Cotton 


world  ?     Name  the  principal  countries  and 
islands. 

Note  the  distribution  of  cattle  and  sheep 
(Fig.  544).  What 
are  in- 
cluded ? 
Recall 
some  facts  concern- 
ing sheep  raising  in 
Australia,  Argen- 
tina, and  the  United 
States.  Why  are 
cattle  and  sheep 
raised  in  the  same  regions  ? 
Raw  textile  Figure   545   shows   the   six 

products  leading    ?roo/-producing    coun- 

l.  Wool  tries.     Name  them.     What  is 

the  rank  of   the 
United  States  ? 

Cotton  is  lim- 
ited to 
warm 
climates,  so  that 
fewer  countries 
raise  it.  Name 
the  principal  sec- 
tions (Fig.  546). 
Within  what  par- 
allels of  latitude 
are  they  found  ? 
Name  the  five 
countries  that 
lead  in  its  pro- 
duction (Fig. 
547).  Howmuch 
greater  is  the 
output    of    the 

United  States  than  that  of  the  five  other 
countries  together? 

Figure  548  shows  the  sections  that 
produce  silk.  What  are  their  names  ? 
„   „       ...  What  about  this  indus- 

3.  Raw  silk  .,„..,,-, 

try  in  the  L  nited  States  ? 
Name  the  countries,  in  order,  that 
produce  most  raw  silk  (Fig.  549). 
Recall  how  the  work  is  carried  on 
(p.   286). 

The  great  importance  of  coal  and 


iron  for  use  in  manufacturing  has  often  been 
pointed  out.  Figure  550  shows  that  the 
coal  fields  are  very  limited.     What  coun- 


United 
Kingdom 


Fig.  545.  —  The  six  leading  wool-producing  countries  (1910). 


tries  have  little  or  no  coal  ?  Mineral 
Name  the  leading  coal-produc-  products 
ing  sections,  and  state  the  rank   1-  Coal 


Fig.  546.  —  The  cotton  sections  of  the  world. 


of  the  United  States  in  the  production  of 
this  mineral  (Fig.  551). 

United  States 


11,488,000  Bales  of  500  lb 

India 

'8,082,000 

Egypt       Russia 

1,506,000 

000,000 

B 

Cliina  775,000 

Brazil  810,000 

Fig.  547.  —  The  six  leading  cotton-producing  countries  (1910). 


406 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED  STATES 


Fig.  548.  —  The  raw-silk-produeing  sections  of  the  world. 


Japan 

Chlna 

Italy 

19,577,000  Pounds 

14,198,000 

■8,702,000 

Austria 

776,000* 

~^::-i=~ 

India     474.0OQ 

Fig.  549.  —  The  six  leading  raw-silk-produeing  countries  (1910). 


1.  United  St  area 

2.  On:ut  Britain 

3.  Germany 

A.  AuKtria-Uungary 
"  6.    France 
0.  Delffim 

7.  R\ 

8.  Japan 


GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTION 

OF  COAL 


121 


Fig,  550.  —  Leading  coal-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


COMPARISONS   WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


407 


The  United  States 
leads  the  world  in 
„   „      ,         the     pro- 

2.  Petroleum     .         .r. 

a  u  c  1 1  o  n 
of  petroleum,  or  min- 
eral oil  (Fig.  552). 
The  second  most  im- 
portant district  is  in 
Kussia,  near  the 
Caspian  Sea. 
Other  districts 
produce  little 
petroleum. 
What  are  its 
uses? 


United  States 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

501,590,378  Short  Tons 

296,007,099 

245,048,120 

AH           F 

B 

Austria-Hungary 

54,573,788 

France                      42,516,282 
Belgium                     20,874,986 

Fig.  551.  —  The  six  leading  eoal-producing  countries  (l'JIO). 


3.  Iron  ore  and 
pig  iron 

Is  iron  ore 
more  or  less 
widely  dis- 
tributed than 
coal  (Fig- 
553)?  How 
does  the 
United  States 
rank  in  the 
output  of  this 
mineral  (Fig. 
554)?  How 
does  the  output  of 
coal  and  iron  cor- 
respond to  the 
importance  of 
countries  as  man- 
ufacturing na- 
tions (Fig.  560)  ? 

4.  The  precious 
metals 

Tell  about  the 
distribution  of 
gold  (Fig.  555), 
and  give  our 
rank  in  the  pro- 
duction of  that 
metal  (Fig.  556). 

Where  are  the 
principal      silver- 


Ah 


Rubber 

[    ,    ■]  Petroleltn 


Fig.  552.  —  The  leading  petroleum-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


Fig.  553.  —  Leading  sections  of  the  world  that  produce  iron  ore. 


408 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED   STATES 


mining  sections  (Fig.  557)  ?     How  does  the 
United  States  compare  with  other  countries 


tities   of   other   minerals.     Name   some   of 
them  (pp.  105  and  106).     In  the  production 


United  States 


26,108,199  Tons 


Germany 


12,917,653 


United  Kingdom 


9,818,916 


France       Russia 


3,632,105 


Austria- 
Hungary    B 


2,871.332 


L958.7S6 


Belgium  1,632,350 
Canada       687,923 


Fig.  554.  — Tbe  eight  leading  pig-iron-producing  countries  (1910). 


in  this  product  (Fig.  558)  ?     Notice  to  what 
extent   the  world  is  indebted  to  the  New 


of  some,  such  as  copper  and  nat-  5.  other  min- 
ural  gas,  our  country  also  leads,  eral  products 


Fig.  555.  —  Leading  gold-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


World  for  silver.     How  does  the  value  of  the 
total  silver  production  compare  with  that  of 


According  to  Figure  559,  what  two  conti- 
nents lead  in  manufactur-     Manufacturing 


Africa 


$175,189,900 


United  States 


$96,269,100 


Australasia 


$65,470,000 


Russia.        Mexico 
>85,J79,60082t,9i0,600'^-L 


British  India     $10,718,400 


Fig.  5511.  —  The  six  leading  gold-producing  countries  (1910). 


gold  in  the  five  leading  regions  for  each  ? 
The  United  States  produces  great  quan- 


ingi 


What  other  smaller  sections  are  ac 


tive  in  this  industry  ?     Taking  into  account 


COMPARISONS   WITH  OTHER    COUNTRIES 


409 


the  size  of 
our  coun- 
try, the  abun- 
dance of  our 
raw  materials, 
and  the  ener- 
gy and  intel- 
ligence of  our 
people,  it  is 
not  surprising 
that  we  sur- 
pass all  other 
countries  in 
such  work 
(Fig.  560). 
State  the  rank 
of  other  lead- 
ing nations  in 
this  occupa- 
tion. 

Into  what  articles  is 
corn  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  (p.  95)? 
"Where  (p.  96)  ?  Answer 
the  same  questions  about 
wheat  (p.  106).  What 
are  the  leading  centers 
for  the  preparation  of 
meats  in  the  United  States 
(p.  109)?  What  coun- 
tries in  South 
America  are  ex- 
tensively engaged 
in  this  industry 
(pp.  246  and  247)? 
In  what  parts  of 
the  United  States 
is  most  cotton 
manufacturing 
carried  on  (p. 
8  2)?  Why 

there?  What 
other  countries 
have  much  cotton 
manufacturing? 
What  countries  of 
the  world  are 
noted    for    the 


Fig.  557.  —  Leading  silver-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


Mexico 

United  States 

Canada 

Australasia 

$38,541,000 

J>- 

$30,854,500 

$17,749,400 

$11,634,700 

C 

f:hil» 

$3,504,700 

Fig.  5.j8.  —  The  six  leading  silver-producing  countries  (1910). 


Principal 
Manufacturing  RtgionM 

L<>*  important 
Manufacturing  Region* 


GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTION 
OF  MANUFACTURES 


12> 


Fig.  559.  —  Manufacturing  sections  of  the  world. 


410 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED  STATES 


manufacture  of  pig  iron  and  other  iron  and 
steel  goods?     Name  great  centers  for  this 

United     States 


13,004  Million  Dollars 


United 

Kingdom. 


5,000 


Germany 


4,600 


France 


3,450 


Fig.  560.  —The  four  leading  manufacturing  countries. 

industry  in   our   own   country;    in  foreign 
countries. 


United  States 


240,488  Mile*. 


Russia       Germany 


45,078 


Austria-  British 
.Huneary  India. 


87,586 


Fiu.  561.  —  The  six  countries  having  greatest  length  of  railways  (1910) 

In  provision  for  transportation  by  rail  the 
United  States  also  takes  the  leading  place. 


It  has  a  far  greater  number  of   miles  of 
railway  than  any  other  nation  (Fig.  561) ; 
but    several    small    Euro-   commerce 
pean  nations  have  a  great-  i.    conven- 
er   number    of    miles     in  iences  for  trans- 
proportion    to   their   area.    Portation 

The  United  States  ranks  second  in 
provision    for    transportation    by   water 
(Fig.  562).     State  the  rank  of  the  five 
chief  countries  in  total  length  of  rail- 
ways,  and  in    merchant   marine.     Give 
reasons  why  the  United  Kingdom  should 
lead  in  merchant  marine  (p.  275).      Why 
should  Norway  be   of  importance   in   this 
respect  (p.  297)? 

We  produce  many  more  raw  prod- 
ucts   and   manufacture    many    more 
goods  than  we  can  use.  2.    Our  trade 
These  Ave  send  abroad,  with  foreign 
or  export,  to  other  coun-  countries 
tries,  and  for  that  reason  W  0ur  exPorts 
they  are  called  our  exports.     Our  ten 
leading  exports,  named  in  order  of 
value,    together    with    the    principal 
countries  to  which  the  goods  are  sent,  are 
as  follows  :  — 


Principal  Exports  of  the  United  States  during  the  Fiscal  Year  ended 

June  30,  1911 


10. 


Articles  Value 

Cotton  (mainly  unmanufactured)  $626,170,787 

Breadstuffs  (wheat,  corn,  flour,  etc.)  107,388,698 

Meat  and  dairy  products  132,671,336 

Iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  of  230,725,351 

Mineral  oils  (crude  and  refined)  98,115,516 

Copper,  and  manufactures  of  104,908,406 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of  92,255,951 

Leather,  and  manufactures  of  55,673,057 

Tobacco,  and  manufactures  of  43,638,904 

Coal  45,013,436 

Total  value  of  exports  (merchandise)  8 1,536,561 ,442 


United    Kingdom 


19,133,870     Tons 


United     State. 


7,50S,0S2 


Germany       Norway         France 


4,301,1'J 


1.021,103 


1,899,62 


Principal  Countries  to  which  they  are  sent 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  Italy. 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  Belgium,  Netherlands, 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  Belgium,  France. 
Canada,  Mexico,  Japan,  United  Kingdom. 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  China,  Netherlands. 
Netherlands,  Germany,  United  Kingdom,  France. 
United  Kingdom,  Canada,  Mexico,  Argentina. 
United  Kingdom,  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Canada. 
Canada,  Mexico,  West  Indies. 
United  Kingdom,  Italy,  Germany,  France. 


Name  from  memory  our 
principal  exports  in  the  order 
of  their  value. 

While  there  is  thus  an  enor- 
mous quantity  of  goods  that 
we  sell  to  other  countries,  we 
must  also  buy  many  other 
things.     One  of  these  is  coffee, 


Italy 


1,407,800 


J- 


Fig.  562.  —  The  six  countries  having  the  largest  merchant  mariue  (1910). 


as  shown  in   Figure 


54: 


we 


COMPARISONS    WITH   OTHER   COUNTRIES 


411 


produce  far  less  sugar  each  year  than  we 
consume ;  we  depend  wholly  on  foreign 
_   „  nations    for    raw    silk     (Fig. 

(2)  Our  imports    ...  v      ° 

o49);  our  tea  comes  almost 
entirely  from  abroad  (Fig.  543);  and  while 
much  rice  is  produced  in  our  Southern 
States,  a  large  amount  has  to  be  purchased. 


These  goods,  and  many  others,  have  to  be 
brought  to  our  shores,  or  imported,  from 
other  countries,  and  for  that  reason  they 
are  called  our  imports. 

Our  ten  leading  imports,  named  in  order  ot 
value,  together  with  the  principal  countries 
from  which  they  come,  are  as  follows  :  — 


Principal  Imports  of  the  United  States  during  the  Fiscal  Year  ended 

June  30,  1911 


Articles 

1.  Silk,  and  manufactures  of 

2.  Fibers,  and  manufactures  of 

3.  Sugar 

4.  Chemicals,  drugs,  and  dyes 

5.  Cotton,  and  manufactures  of 
0.  Coffee 

7.  Hides  and  skins 

8.  Wood,  and  manufactures  of 

9.  Wool,  and  manufacture^^ 
10.    India  rubber  and  guita'^percha 

Total  value  of  imports  (merchandise) 


Value  Some  of  the  Principal  Countries  from  which  they  come 

§106.824,058  Japan,  France,  Italy,  China. 

85,578,249  Mexico,  East  Indies,  Philippines. 

9(5,091,006  Cuba,  East  Indies,  Germany  (beet  sugar). 

95,101,006  Germany,  United  Kingdom,  France. 

91,772,871  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  Switzerland. 

90,567,788  Brazil,  Cent.  America,  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Mexico. 

70,504,980  East  Indies,  United  Kingdom,  Russia,  Argentina, 
Mexico. 

52,031,803  Canada,  Sweden,  Germany. 

41,797,796  United  Kingdom,  Australia,  France,  Germany. 

92,910,513  Brazil,  Mexico. 
§824,620,160 


Compare  the  value  and  nature  of  our  ex- 
ports and  imports.     How  is  the  result  en- 


couraging in  comparison  with  statistics  of 
other  countries  given  in  the  table  below  ? 


The  Ten  Leading  Countries  with  which  we  Trade 


Countries 

1.  United  Kingdom 

2.  Germany 

3.  Canada 

4.  France 

5.  Cuba 

6.  Netherlands 

7.  Brazil 

8.  Mexico 

9.  Japan 
10.  Italy 


Value  for  Y< 
June  30, 


ar  ended 
1911 


Exports 
Imports 
Total 
Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

Exports 

Imports 

Total 

(Exports 
Imports 
Total 


§676,613,974 
261,289,106 
837,903,080 
287,495,814 

163.242.560 
450,738,374 
269,806,013 
100.863,418 
270,669,431 
135,271,648 
115,414.784 
250,686,432 
60,709,062 

110,309,468 

171,018.530 
96,103,376 
32,926.492 

120,029,868 
27,240,146 

100.867,184 

128,107,330 
61.281,715 
57,450,111 

118,731,826 
36,721,409 
78,527,496 

115,248,905 
60,580,766 
47,334,809 

107,915,575 


Some  of  the  Principal  Exports  and  Imports 

Cotton,  breadstuffs,  meat  and  dairy  products,  mineral  oil. 
Cotton  goods,  wool  and  woolen  goods,  tin,  manufactured 

fibers. 
Cotton,   breadstuffs,   meat  and  dairy  products,   copper, 

mineral  oils. 
Chemicals   and   drugs,  beet  sugar,  toys,   cotton  goods, 

paper,  silk  goods. 
Iron  manufactures,  coal,  cotton  goods. 
Lumber,  wood  pulp,  fish,  copper,  hides. 

Cotton,  copper,  mineral  oils,  tobacco. 

Silk  goods,  woolen  goods,  cotton  goods,  wines. 


Breadstuffs,    machinery,    cotton 

meat  and  dairy  products. 
Sugar,  tobacco,  iron  ore,  fruits. 


goods,   leather    goods, 


Breadstuffs,  meat  and  dairy  products,  copper,  mineral  oils. 
Tobacco,  diamonds 

Machinery,  breadstuffs,  mineral  oils,  scientific  instruments. 
Coffee,  rubber,  cocoa,  hides. 

Iron  goods,  leather  goods,  coal." 
Fibers,  copper,  lead  ore,  coffee,  hides. 


Cotton,  machinery, 
Silk,  tea,  rice. 


mineral  oils,  breadstuffs. 


Cotton,  tobacco,  breadstuffs. 
Silk,  fruits,  olive  oil. 


412 


REVIEW  OF   UNITED   STATES 


More  than  one  third  of  all  our  foreign 
trade  is,  as  you  can  see,  with  the  British 
Isles. 

Figure  563  shows  the  ocean  routes  that 
vessels  engaged  in  the  commerce  between 
„  p .  .  .  nations  generally  take  he- 
transportation  tween  the  United  States  and 
routes  on  the  Europe.  To  what  European 
countries  do  they  extend? 
Trace  other  routes  across  the  Atlantic, 
and  tell  what  countries  they  connect. 
Name  some  goods  that  are  carried  in  each 
case,  if  you  can.  Do  the  same  for  the 
Pacific. 

Our  many  exports  and  imports  show  how  depend- 
ent we  are  upon  other  countries.  We  are  wonderfully 
favored  in  the  abundance  of  our  re- 
sources. Yet  it  would  be  of  no  use 
to  produce  so  many  things  if  foreign 
countries  did  not  buy  some  of  them. 
Again,  although  we  have  so  many 
products,  there  are  still  many  things  that  we  need 
from  other  lands.     It  is  true  that  we  probably  could 


we  promise 
great  progress 
in  the  future 

1  and  2.     Our 


4.  The  depend 
ence  or  nations 
upon  one  an- 
other 


United  States 


130,000  Million  Dollars 
IMii'JI'll 


British  Isles 


80,000 


Fig.  564. 


depend  upon  ourselves  for  all  that  we  want  bet- 
ter than  any  other  nation.  The  English,  for  in- 
stance, would  starve  within  a  few  weeks,  if  no 
food  were  imported  there.  Yet  note  the  things 
that  we  import.  How  do  they  compare,  in  value, 
with  our  exports?  Thus,  in  spite  of  our  great 
resources,  we  are  really  very  dependent  upon  other 
countries. 

Owing  to  our  trade  relations  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  what  hardships  would  probably  be  brought 
upon  the  British  if  they  entered  upon  a  war  with  us? 
How  might  the  Germans  suffer  if  they  were  at  war 
with  us?  How  might  J,he  French  suffer?  On  the 
other  hand,  what  hardships  would  come  to  us  in 
each  case  ? 

All  the  preceding  facts  prepare  us  for 
Wealth  of  Figure  564,  which  shows  that 

nations  the     United     States     is      the 

wealthiest  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 


Compare   our   wealth   with   that   of   other 
leading  countries. 

The  figures  and  diagrams  that  you  have 
studied  show  that  several  European  coun- 
tries compete  actively  with  the 
United  States   in   the   world's  ^easonsThy 
trade.     Give  examples. 

So  far  as  the  future  is  con 
cerned,  however,  several   im- 
portant facts  are  in  our  favor,   youthfuiness 
In  the  first  place,  we  are  still  *f"ndance 

r  '  of  room 

in  our  youth  as  a  people, 
while  some  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe 
have,  perhaps,  already  reached  the  height 
of  their  power.  In  the  second  place,  the 
territory  of  most  of  those  countries  is 
densely  settled,  as  shown  in  Figure  534. 
Note  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square 
mile  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  France. 
When  we  contrast  with  these  figures  our 
average  of  only  thirty  persons  per  square 
mile,    our    possible    future    growth   seems 

almost  without 
limit.  Im- 
mense tracts  of 
land,  which  in 
Europe  would 
be  carefully 
tilled,  are  in  our 
country    not 

The  six  wealthiest  nations  of  the  world  (1910).  even  cleared  for 

pasture.    In  no  large  section  of  the  United 


France 


65,000 


Germany 


60,500 


Russia 


40,000 


Austria 
-Hungary 


25.000 


States  do  we  even  approach  the  careful  til- 
lage of  the  soil  by  hand  that  is  common  in 
Belgium  and  some  other  European  countries. 

The  varied  climate  and  surface  features 
of  our  vast  country  are  also  favorable  to 
us ;  for  they  guarantee  a  va-  3  0ur  variety 
riety  of  products.  Almost  all  of  climate  and 
farm  products  can  be  easily  surface  features 
raised,  and  our  wonderful  mineral  resources 
are,  so  far  as  we  know,  not  equaled  on  any 
continent.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  that 
our  natural  resources,  which  have  been  so 
important  in  giving  us  our  present  position, 
promise  equally  well  for  the  future. 

The  character  of  our  people  is  another 
thing  that  must  be  considered  in  reckoning 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER   COUNTRIES 


413 


our  future  promise.  The  condition  of 
China  shows  that  resources  alone  will  not 
make  an  energetic  people  and 
a  great  nation;   for,  in  spite  of 


4.     The  charac- 
ter of  our  people 


the  fact  that  they  have  heen 
greatly  favored  in  their  resources,  they  have 
made  very  little  use  of  them.  Indeed, 
their  customs  have  even  prevented  prog- 
ress (p.  363). 

Our  people  have  consisted,  in  large  part, 
of  persons  who  had  energy  and  ambition 
enough  to  migrate  to  a  new  land  in  the 
hope  of  bettering  their  condition.  In  their 
new  home  the  opportunities  have  been  so 
great  that  they  have  been  encouraged  to 
work  and  to  improve  themselves.  The 
conditions  in  the  desert  have  produced  the 
nomad ;  the  ease  of  life  in  the  tropical  forest 
the  shiftless  savage ;  but  the  conditions 
in  the  United  States  have  produced  a  race 
noted  for  its  energy  and  enterprise.  This 
race  has  been  possible,  however,  largely  be- 
cause it  comes  from  a  mixture  of  peoples 
already  gifted. 


The  statement  of  reasons  for   expecting 
great  future  progress  in  the  United  States 
would  not  be  complete,  if  left  g  and  6     0ur 
here.       There    are    two    other   care  for  edu- 
f actors    of   great    importance;    cation,  and  our 
namely,  education  and  govern-  8°™™°^ 
ment.     Where    people    are    ignorant,    and 
where    rulers    hamper    them    by    bad   laws 
and  heavy  taxes,  there  is  little  chance  of 
progress.       It    is    those     European    coun- 
tries  in  which  there  are  the   best  oppor- 
tunities   for    education,    and    the    greatest 
freedom,    that    have    made    the    greatest 
progress. 

No  nation  in  the  world  pays  more  atten- 
tion to  education  or  guarantees  its  people  a 
more  active  part  in  their  government  than 
the  United  States.  These  facts,  even  as 
fully  as  the  resources  and  the  character  of 
the  people,  help  to  explain  our  astonishing 
progress  in  the  past,  and  to  give  reason  for 
hope  in  the  future. 


APPENDIX 


REFERENCES  TO  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES 


KEY  TO  ABBREVIATIONS 

Publishing  Houses.  —  American  Book  Co., 
New  York  (A.B.C.) ;  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New 
York  ( App.) ;  The  Century  Co.,  New  York  (Cent.) ; 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York  (Doub.) ;  E.  P. 
Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York  (Dutt.)  ;  Educational 
Publishing  Co.,  Boston  (E.P.C.) ;  The  Ginn  Co., 
Boston  (Ginn)  :  Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York  (H.B.)  ; 
Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston  (H.M.C.) ;  J.  B. 
Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia  (Lipp.)  ;  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  New  York  (L.G.) ;  The  Macmillan 
Co.,  New  York  (McM.) ;  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons, 
New  York  (Put.)  ;  Rand,  McNaUy  &  Co.,  Chicago 
(R.McN.)  :  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York 
(Scrib.) ;  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York  (S.B.C.). 

Magazines.  —  Publications  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  Washington,  D.C.  (B.  Amer. 
R.)  ;  Journal  of  School  Geography,  until  1902 
(J.S.G.),  beginning  1902,  Journal  of  Geography 
{J.G.,  $0.15  a  number,  $1.00  a  year;  Madison, 
Wis.);  National  Geographic  Magazine  (80.25  a 
number,  82.50  a  year;  including  membership  to 
Society),  Washington,  D.C.  (N.G.M.). 

General.  —  Many  of  the  references  in  the 
First  Book  would  serve  for  this  volume  also.  It  is 
not,  of  course,  expected  that  schools  will  find  it 
possible  to  obtain  all  or  even  a  large  proportion 
of  those  mentioned.  These  lists,  which  could 
easily  be  multiplied  to  many  times  their  present 
size,  are  offered  merely  as  suggestions  to  aid  th-ose 
teachers  who  wish  to  have  a  good  working  library. 
Many  good  books  are  omitted  from  them,  either 
because  of  their  cost  or  for  other  reasons.  At  the 
end  of  each  section  of  Mill's  "International  Geog- 
raphy "  are  references  to  good  standard  books. 
See  also  Mill,  "  Hints  to  Teachers  and  Students  on 
the  Choice  of  Geographical  Books "  (Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  SI. 2.5). 

Among  the  many  valuable  but  expensive  books 
of  reference  mention  may  be  made  of  Reelus, 
"The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants"  (App.,  19  vols., 
$5.00  each);  Stanford,  "Compendiums  of  Geog- 
raphy" (Scrib.,  10  vols.,  $5.50  each);  and  Bae- 
deker, "Guide  Books"  (Scrib.,  prices  variable). 
The  latter  may  be  found  in  the  libraries  of  friends 
who  have  traveled  abroad. 

There  are  a  number  of  series  for  young  people 
which  contain  good  material.  For  example, 
Butterworth,  "Zigzag  Journev  Series"  (Dana 
Estes  &  Co.,  Boston,  IS  vols.,  $1.50  each) ;   Car- 


penter, "Geographical  Readers"  (A.B.C. ,  6  vols., 
80.60  each)  ;  Carroll,  "Around  the  World  Series" 
(S.B.C.,  6  vols.,  $0.60  each)  ;  Chamberlain,  "  Home 
and  World  Series"  (McM.,  4  vols.,  $0.40  each); 
Champney,  "Three  Vassar  Girls  Series"  (Dana 
Estes  &  Co.,  Boston,  11  vols.,  $0.75  each) ;  Hale, 
"  Family  Flight  Series  "  (Lothrop  Pub.  Co.,  Boston, 
5  vols.,  $1.50  each);  "Highways  and  Byways 
Series"  (McM.,  30  vols.,  $2.00  each);  Knox, 
"Boy  Traveler  Series"  (H.B.,  15  vols.,  $2.00 
each)  ;  "Peeps  at  Many  Lands  Series"  (McM.,  30 
vols.,  $0.75  each);  Pratt,  "People  and  Places, 
Here  and  There"  (E.P.C,  5  vols.,  $0.40  each); 
"List  of  Books  of  Travel  in  European  Countries" 
(J.G.,  Dec,  '07:    173). 

Every  teacher  of  geography  would  find  Mill's 
"International  Geography"  "(App.,  $3.50)  and 
"The  Statesman's  Year  Book"  (McM.,  $3.00)  of 
inestimable  value.  For  physiography  and  climate 
see  Tarr,  "New  Physical  Geography"  (McM., 
$1.00).  Every  teacher  ought  to  have  access  to 
at  least  one  of  the  geographical  magazines,  and 
the  subscription  price  is  so  low  that  they  are 
accessible  to  all.  Notice  how  frequently  the 
National  Geographical  Magazine  and  the  Journal 
of  Geography  are  referred  to  in  the  following  lists. 
Many  articles  of  timely  interest  appear  in  World's 
Work,  Harper's,  Scribner's,  and  other  magazines. 

Government  Publications.  —  Almost  no  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  many  government  publications 
of  geographic  interest.  There  are  far  too  man}'  for 
so  brief  a  list.  For  instance,  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  Annual  Report  usually  contains  articles 
on  geographic  subjects,  and  the  Fish  Commission 
has  published  many  excellent  accounts  of  the  dif- 
ferent fishing  industries.  From  the  Weather 
Bureau  are  issued  not  merely  weather  maps,  but 
Annual  Reports  and  Monthly  Weather  Reviews. 

Among  the  publications  of  the  Geological  Survey 
are  reports  upon  Irrigation,  Annual  Reports  con- 
taining many  excellent  accounts  of  the  geology  of 
interesting  regions,  especially  mining  regions,  and 
also  Annual  Reports  of  the  Mineral  Resources  of 
the  country,  with  statistics.  Besides  these,  the 
Geological  Survey  issues  topographic  maps  (five 
cents  each).  A  list  of  these  maps  can  be  obtained 
upon  application,  and  the  teacher  may  find  a  map 
of  the  region  where  the  school  is  situated. 

A  great  range  of  topics  is  covered  by  the  various 
Annual  Reports  (called  Year  Books)  and  Bulletins 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  upon  such  sub- 


415 


416 


APPENDIX 


jects  as  farming,  various  crops,  forestry,  botany, 
mammals,  irrigation,  etc.  Special  reports  of  im- 
portance are  issued  by  the  Treasury  Department, 
which  also  issues  Statistical  Abstracts  on  com- 
merce, finance,  population,  etc.  From  the  State 
Department,  besides  valuable  special  papers  (like 
the  Report  of  the  Philippine  Commission),  are 
issued  the  Consular  Reports,  which  have  articles 
and  notes  upon  foreign  industries,  etc.  A  wealth 
of  geographical  information  is  contained  in  the 
various  Census  volumes.  Besides  these,  there  are 
other  reports,  as  that  on  the  Precious  Metals, 
issued  annually  by  the  Director,  of  the  Mint,  the 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  the  Re- 
port of  the  Commissioner  on  Indian  Affairs.  The 
maps  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  will  be 
found  of  value,  especially  in  those  schools  located 
on  the  coast,  which  should  certainly  have  maps  of 
their  immediate  locality.  Many  states  also  issue 
valuable  reports  on  agriculture,  mining,  manu- 
facturing, etc. 

In  order  to  find  out  about  the  government  pub- 
lications, one  can  often  obtain  a  list  of  those 
issued  by  a  given  bureau  by  writing  to  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Documents,  Washington,  D.C. 
A  monthly  list  of  all  government  publications  is 
also  prepared  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Documents,  thus  permitting  one  to  keep  track 
of  new  publications.  Some  of  the  publications 
must  be  purchased,  but  many  may  be  obtained  by 
writing  to  one's  congressman  or  senator,  to  whom 
copies  are  given  for  free  distribution  among  con- 
stituents. The  great  majority  of  government 
documents  are  issued  for  free  distribution.  Appli- 
cations for  these,  in  moderation,  are  invariably 
granted  when  needed  for  schools,  provided  the 
quota  is  not  already  exhausted. 

General.  —  Adams,  "  Text-book  of  Commer- 
cial Geography"  (App.,  $1.30);  Allen,  "Children 
of  the  Palm  Lands"  (E.P.C.,  $0.50);  American 
Commonwealth  Series  (volume  for  each  state, 
H.M.C.,  $1.25  each);  Ballou,  "Footprints  of 
Travel"  (Ginn,  $1.00);  Bartholomew,  "The 
Handy  Reference  Atlas  of  the  World"  (Dutt., 
$2.50)  ;  Brigham,  "Geographic  Influence  in 
American  History"  (Ginn,  $1.25) ;  Brooks,  "Cen- 
tury Book  for  Young  Americans"  (Cent., 
$1.50);  Carpenter,  "How  the  World  is  Fed" 
(A.B.C.,  $0.60);  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Read- 
ers "  (one  for  each  continent,  A.B.C.,  $0.60  to  $0.70 
each);  Chase  and  Clow,  "Stories  of  Industry " 
(E.P.C.,  2  vols.,  $0.40  each) ;  Colquhoun,  "The 
Mastery  of  the  Pacific"  (McM.,  $3.00) ;  Gannett 
"Commercial  Geography"  (A. B.C.,  $1.00) ;  Geikie 
"The  Teaching  of  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.60) 
George,  "Relations  of  Geography  and  History' 
(Oxford  University  Press,  New  York,  $1.10) 
Hammond,  "Handy  Atlas  of  the  World"  (C.  S 
Hammond  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00);  Herbert-son 
"Descriptive  Geographies  from  Original  Sources' 
(for  each  continent,  McM.,  $0.70  to  $0.90  each) 
Herbertson,  "Man  and  His  Work"  (McM.,  $0.60) 


Hurlburt,  "Stories  about  Children  of  All  Nations" 
(J.  C  Winstoi.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  $0.75) ;  Johnson, 
"  Mathematical  Geography  "  (A.B.C.,  $1.00) ;  King, 
"Picturesque  Geographical  Readers"  (Lee  & 
Shepard,  Boston,  Vol.  2,  $0.72,  Vols.  3,  4,  and  5, 
each  $0.56) ;  Kirkham,  "In  the  Open"  (P.  Elder 
&  Co.,  San  Francisco,  $1.75);  Lummis,  "Some 
Strange  Corners  of  Our  Continent"  (Cent.,  $1.50) ; 
Lyde,  "A  School  Text-book  of  Geography" 
(McM.,  $1.00) ;  Lyde,  "Geographies  of  the  Various 
Continents"  (McM.,  $0.50  to  $1.40) ;  Lyde,  "Man 
and  his  Markets "  (McM.,  $0.50) ;  McMurry, 
"Special  Method  in  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.70); 
McMurry,  "Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography" 
(McM.,  $0.40) ;  Morris,  "Home  Life  in  All  Lands" 
(Lipp.,  $1.00);  Reclus,  "The  Earth  and  its  In- 
habitants," Vols.  XV,  XVI,  and  XVII  (App., 
$5,00  each) ;  Reynolds,  "World  Pictures"  (McM., 
$0.70) ;  Rocheleau,  "The  Geography  of  Commerce 
and  Industry"  (E.P.C.,  $1.00);  Rocheleau, 
"Great  American  Industries"  (C.  A.  Flanagan, 
Chicago,  2  vols.,  $0.50  each) ;  Shaler,  "  Man  and 
the  Earth"  (Ginn,  $1.50);  Smith,  "Our  Own 
Country"  (S.B.C.,  $0.50);  Stanford,  "Compen- 
dium of  Geography  and  Travel,"  North  America: 
Vol.  1,  "Canada"' by  Dawson;  Vol.  2,  "United 
States"  by  Gannett  (Scrib.,  $5.50 each) ;  Tarr  and 
McMurry,  "Five  Book  Series"  (McM.,  $0.40  to 
$0.75  each);  Toothaker,  "Commercial  Raw 
Materials"  (Ginn,  $1.25);  Trotter,  "Geography 
of  Commerce"  (McM.,  $1.10);  Austin,  "Queer 
Methods  of  Travel"  (N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '07:  6S7); 
Fav,  "The  World's  Highest  Altitudes"  (N.G.M., 
June,  '00:  493) ;  Mill,  "The  Development  of  Hab- 
itable Lands"  (J.S.G.,  May,  '00:  161;  and  June, 
'00:  218). 

North  America.  —  Carpenter,  "Geographical 
Reader  of  North  America  "  (A.B.C.,  $0.60) ;  Her- 
bertson, "Descriptive  Geography:  North  Amer- 
ica" (McM.,  $0.75) ;  Hurlburt,  "  Historic  Highways 
of  North  America"  (A.  H.  Clark  Co.,  Cleveland, 
$2.50);  McMurry,  "Excursions  and  Lessons  in 
Home  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.50);  McMurry, 
"Larger  Types  of  American  Geography"  (McM., 
$0.75);  Pratt,  "American  History  Stories" 
(E.P.C.,  4  vols.,  $0.36  each);  Reynolds,  "The 
Americas"  (McM.,  $0.75);  Russell,  "North 
America"  (App.,  $2.50);  Russell,  "Glaciers  of 
North  America"  (Ginn,  $1.75);  Russell,  "Lakes 
of  North  America  "  (Ginn,  $1 .50) ;  Russell,  "  Rivers 
of  North  America"  (Put.,  $2.00) ;  Semple,  "Amer- 
ican History  and  its  Geographic  Conditions" 
(H.M.C.,  $1.25). 

The  United  States.  General.  —  Adams, 
"America's  Economic  Supremacy."  (McM.,  $1.25) ; 
Adams,  "The  New  Empire"'  (McM.,  $1.50); 
Austin,  "Steps  in  the  Expansion  of  our  Territory  " 
(App.,  $1.25);  Baedeker,  "The  United  States" 
(Scrib.,  $3.60) ;  Brigham,  "Geographic  Influences 
in  American  History"  (Ginn,  $1.25);  Brooks, 
"Century  Book  of  American  Colonies"  (Cent., 
$1.50);    Brooks,   "First   across    the  Continent" 


REFERENCES    TO  BOOKS  AXD  ARTICLES 


417 


(Smb.,  81.50);  Brvce,  "American  Common- 
wealth" (McM.,  $4.00;  abridged  edition,  SI. 75) ; 
Channing,  "Students'  History  of  the  United 
States"  (McM.,  S1.40);  Fiske,""How  the  United 
States  became  a  Great  Nation"  (Ginn,  SI. 2.5)  ; 
Gannett,  "The  Building  of  a  Nation"  (H.  T. 
Thomas  Co.,  New  York,  $2.50) ;  Hale,  "Tarry  at 
Home  Travels"  (McM.,  82.50);  King,  "Hand- 
book of  the  United  States "  (Moses  King  Cor- 
poration, New  York,  S2.50) ;  MacCoun,  "An 
Historical  Geography  of  the  United  States " 
(Townsend  MacCoun,  New  York,  S1.00) ;  McMurry, 
"Tvpe  Studies  from  Geographv  of  the  United 
States  "  (McM.,  80.50)  :  Newell,  "  Irrigation  in  the 
United  States"  (Crowell  &  Co.,  New  York,  82.00) ; 
"Our  Country"  (U.  L.  Mason,  New  York,  80.50)  ; 
Patton,  "The  Natural  Resources  of  the  United 
States"  (App.,  83.00);  Ries,  "Economic  Geology 
of  the  United  States"  (McM.,  S2.00) ;  Shaw, 
"Uncle  Sam  and  His  Children"  (A.  S.  Barnes  Co., 
New  York,  SI. 20) ;  Smith,  "Our  Own  Country" 
(S.B.C.,  S0.50);  Smith,  "The  Story  of  Iron  and 
Steel"  (App.,  S0.75)  ;  Stevenson,  "Across  the 
Plains"  (Scrib.,  $1.25);  Stoddard,  "Beautiful 
Scenes  of  America "  (Saalfield  Pub.  Co.,  Akron, 
O.,  80.75);  Tarr,  "Economic  Geology  of  the 
United  States"  (McM.,  83.50);  "The "Story  of 
Paper  Making"  (Butler  Paper  Co.,  Chicago,  SL2.5) ; 
Whitney,  "The  United  States"  (Little,  Brown  & 
Co.,  Boston,  82.00):  Young,  "The  Cotton  In- 
dustry" (Scrib.,  80.75);  Adams,  "The  United 
States:  Land  and  Water"  {N.G.M.,  May,  '03: 
171);  Austin,  "The  United  States:  Her  Indus- 
tries" {N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '03:  301) :  Kirchhoff,  "The 
United  States:  Her  Mineral  Resources"  (N.G.M., 
Sept.,  '03:  331);  Price,  "The  Influence  of  For- 
estry upon  the  Lumber  Industry  of  the  LTnited 
States"  {N.G.M.,  Oct.,  '03:  3S1);  "The  Growth 
of  the  United  States"  (N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '9S :  377) : 
Wilev,  "The  United  States:  Its  Soils  and  Their 
Products"  (X.G.M.,  July,  '03:  261);  Brown, 
"Seaports  in  the  United  States"  (J.G.,  Oct.,  '05: 
337);  Emerson,  "A  Glimpse  of  Steel  Manufac- 
ture" (J.G.,  April,  '03:  169). 

New  England.  —  Bacon,  "  Historic  Pilgrimages 
in  New  England"  (S.B.C.,  81.50) ;  Davis.  "Physi- 
cal Geography  of  Southern  New  England  "  (A. B.C., 
80.20) :  Drake,  "Nooks  and  Corners  of  the  New 
England  Coast"  (H.B..  82.50);  Emerson,  "New 
England  States"  (McM.,  80.30):  Johnson,  "New 
England  and  its  Neighbors"  (McM.,  82.00) ;  Kim- 
ball, "Vermont  for  Young  Yermonters"  (App., 
$1.00);  Kipling,  "Captains  Courageous"  (Cent., 
$1.50);  Thoreau,  "Maine  Woods"  (H.M.C., 
$1.50) ;  Barton,  "General  Geographic  Features  in 
and  around  Boston"  (J.G.,  June,  '03:  277); 
Dodge,  "Approaching  Boston"  (J.G.,  June,  '03: 
271) ;  Emerson,  "Boston,  A  Center  of  Industry" 
(J.G.,  June,  '03:  315);  Gulliver,  "Geographical 
Development  of  Boston"  (J.G.,  June,  '03:  323) ; 
"Geographical  Notes  on  Boston"  (J.G.,  June,  '03: 
330)  ;  Bibliography  of  Boston  and  Vicinity  (J.G., 
2e 


June,  '03  :  333) ;  King,  "  Excursions  in  and  around 
Boston"  {.J.G.,  June,  '03:  2S6) ;  Shurtleff,  "Bos- 
ton Parks"  (J.G.,  June,  '03:  302). 

Middle  Atlantic  States.  — Brigham,  "From 
Trail  to  Railway  through  the  Appalachians" 
(Ginn,  SO. 50) ;  Chandler  &  Foushee,  "Virginia" 
(McM.,  80.30);  Gilbert,  "Niagara  Falls  and  their 
History"  (A. B.C.,  80.20);  Rupert,  "Pennsyl- 
vania "  (McM.,  80.30)  ;  Southworth,  "  Story  of  the 
Empire  State"  (App.,  80.75) ;  Twitchell,  "Mary- 
land" (McM.,  80.30);  Whitbeck,  "New  Jersey" 
(McM.,  80.30);  Whitbeck,  "New  York"  (McM., 
SO. 30)  ;  Brigham,  "The  Eastern  Gateway  of  the 
United  States"  (J.S.G.,  April,  '00:  127)";  Dietz, 
"The  Fall  Line"  (J.G.,  June,  '05:  244). 

Southern  States.  —  Barrett,  "Tennessee" 
(McM.,  S0.30);  Brook,  "Cotton:  Its  Uses,  Cul- 
ture, etc."  (Spon  &  Chamberlain,  New  York,  83.00) ; 
Burkett,  "Cotton"  (Doub.,  82.00) ;  Earle,  "South- 
ern Agriculture"  (McM.,  SI. 2.5)  ;  Faust  and 
Allen,  "North  Carolina"  (McM.,  80.30);  Hayes, 
"The  Southern  Appalachians"  (A. B.C.,  80.20); 
Hitchcock,  "Louisiana  Purchase"  (Ginn,  81.25); 
Hohn,  "Cotton  Mills  in  South  Carolina  "  (A.  Kohn, 
Charleston,  S.C.,  81.00);  Littlejohn,  "Texas" 
(McM.,  80.3.5);  Mitchell,  "Georgia  Land  and 
People"  (F.  L.  Mitchell,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  81.25); 
Ralph,  "Dixie,  or  Southern  Scenes  and  Sketches" 
(H.B.,  82.50);  Smith,  "Water  Resources  of 
Alabama"  (E.  A.  Smith,  University  of  Alabama, 
Gratis) ;  Taylor  and  Stephen,  "  Louisiana  "  (McM., 
80.25);  Thompson,  "From  Cotton  Field  to  the 
Cotton  Mill"  (McM..  81.50)  ;  Willoughby,  "Across 
the  Everglades"  (Lipp.,  81.50);  Harrison,  "Cul- 
tivation of  Rice  in  the  United  States"  (J.G., 
Sept.,  '03:  369);  Llovd,  "The  Delta  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi" (J.G.,  May,  '04:  204):  Phillips,  "How 
the  Mangrove  Tree  adds  New  Land  to  Florida  " 
(J.G.,  Jan.,  '03 :  10)  ;  Series  of  papers  on  the 
Geographv  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  (J.G.,  June, 
'04:  243-27,8);  "The  Mississippi  River"  (J.G., 
Oct.,  '02:  374). 

Central  States.  —  Bender,  "Iowa"  (MeM., 
S0.20);  Barnard,  "Missouri  "'  (McM.,  S0.30) ; 
Condra,  "Geographv  of  Nebraska"  (University 
Pub.  Co.,  Lincoln,  Neb.,  80.90) ;  Coolev,  "Michi- 
gan" (H.M.C.,  SI. 10) ;  Darling,  "Illinois"  (McM., 
80.30);  Dryer,  "Studies  in  Indiana  Geography" 
(Inland  Pub.  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  80.50) ; 
Fox,  "  Out  Doors  in  Old  Kentucky  "  (Scrib.,  81 .75) ; 
Grinnell,  "Jack,  the  Young  Explorer"  (F.  A. 
Stokes,  New  York,  81.25):  Hall,  "Geography  of 
Minnesota"  (H.  W.  Nelson  Co.,  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  81.20):  Hovey,  "Celebrated  American 
Caverns"  (B.  Clarke  Co.,  Cincinnati,  O.,  S2.00) ; 
Stanchfield,  "Lumbering  in  Minnesota"  (D. 
Stanchfield.  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  81.00) ;  Thwaites, 
"Down  Historic  Waterways,"  "On  the  Storied 
Ohio"  (McClurg,  Chicago,  '81. 20  each);  Willard, 
"Storv  of  the  Prairies"  (R.McN.,  81.75) ;  Wilson, 
"  Ohio  "  (McM.,  80.30) ;  Winans,  "  Kansas  "  (McM., 
S0.30) ;  Hall,  "Minnesota,  a  Sketch"  (J.G.,  June, 


418 


APPENDIX 


'02 :  241) ;  Hall,  "  Minneapolis  and  its   Environs  " 
(/.(?.,  June,  '02:  249). 

Western  States.  —  Austin,  "The  Land  of 
Little  Rain"  (H.M.C.,  $2.00);  Brooks,  "First 
across  the  Continent"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Brown, 
"The  Glory  Seekers"  (McClurg,  Chicago,  $1.50); 
Clark,  "Indians  of  the  Yosemite  Valley  and  Vicin- 
ity" (G.  Clark,  Yosemite  Valley,  Cal.,  $1.00); 
Cody,  "True  Tales  of  the  Plains"  (Cupples  & 
Leon,  New  York,  $1.00) ;  Fairbanks,  "California" 
(McM.,  $0.30);  Fultz,  "Out  of  Door  Studies  in 
Geography"  (Public  Schools  Pub.  Co.,  Blooming- 
ton,  111.,  $0.60) ;  Grohman,  "Camps  in  the  Rock- 
ies" (Scrib.,  $1.25);  Hewitt,  "Across  the  Plain 
and  over  the  Divide  "  (Broadway  Pub.  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.50);  Irish,  "Arizona"  (McM.,  $0.20); 
Jones,  "Utah"  (McM.,  $0.40);  Jordon,  "Cali- 
fornia and  the  Califorrians  "  (A.  H.  Robertson, 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  $0.75);  Muir,  "Our  National 
Parks"  (H.M.C.,  $1.75);  Munk,  "Arizona 
Sketches"  (Grafton  Press,  New  York,  $2.00); 
Paine,  "Greater  America"  (Outing,  New  York, 
$1.50);  Parkman,  "The  Oregon  Trail"  (Little, 
Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  $2.00)  ;  Prudden,  "On  the 
Great  American  Plateau"  (Put,,  $1.50);  Ralph, 
"Our  Great  West"  (H.B.,  $2.50);  "The  Pacific 
Coast  Guide  Book"  (R.McN.,  $1.00);  Tonge, 
"Handbook  of  Colorado  Resources"  (T.  Tonge, 
Denver,  Col.,  $0.50);  Van  Dvke,  "The  Desert" 
(Scrib.,  $1.25);  "Washington"  (McM.,  $0.20); 
Barrows,  "The  Colorado  Desert"  (N.G.M.,  '00: 
337)  ;  Blanchard,  "  Home  Making  by  the  Govern- 
ment" {N.G.M.,  April,  '08:  250);  Blanchard, 
"  Millions  for  Moisture  "  (N.G.M.,  April,  '07 :  217) ; 
Chapman,  "Deserts  of  Nevada  and  the  Death 
Valley"  .(N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '06:  483);  Chapman, 
"Our  Northern  Rockies"  (N.G.M.,  Oct.,  '02: 
361) ;  McGee,  "The  Yuma  Trail"  (N.G.M.,  April, 
'01:  103);  Newell,  "The  Reclamation  of  the 
West"  (N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '04:  15);  Ransome,  "The 
San  Francisco  Earthquake"  (N.G.M.,  May,  '06: 
2S0) ;  Rody,  "  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  "  (N.G.M., 
'06:  101);"  "The  Redwood  Forest  of  the  Pacific 
Coast"  (N.G.M:,  May,  '99:  145);  Dodge,  "Life 
on  the  Colorado  Plateaus"  (J.S.G.,  Feb.,  '00:  45) ; 
Dodge,  "The  Big  Trees  of  California"  (J.8.G., 
Jan.,  '01 :  16) ;  Russell,  "Climate,  Vegetation,  and 
Drainage  of  Cascade  Mountains "  (J.S.G.,  Oct., 
'01:  280);  Lee,  "Canyons  of  Southeastern  Colo- 
rado" (J.G.,  Oct.,  '02:  357);  Newell,  "Irrigation 
on  the  Great  Plains"  ('96  Year  Book,  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  p.  197). 

Alaska.  —  Burroughs,  "  Far  and  Near " 
(H.M.C.,  $1.10);  De'Windt,  "Through  the  Gold 
Fields  of  Alaska  to  Bering  Strait"  (H.B.,  $2.50) ; 
Edwards,  "Into  the  Yukon"  (R.  Clarke  Co.,  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  $1.50);  Greeley,  "Alaska"  (Scrib., 
$2.00);  Higginson,  "Alaska,  the  Great  Country" 
(McM.,  $2.50);  MacDonald,  "The  White  Trail" 
(H.  M.  Caldwell,  Boston,  $1.25);  Scidmoro, 
"Guidebook  to  Alaska"  (App.,  $1.25) ;  Stoddard, 
"Over  Rocky  Mountains  to  Alaska"  (B.  Herder, 


St.  Louis,  $0.75) ;  Swineford,  "Alaska"  (R,McN., 
$1.00);  Thompson,  "Gold  Seeking  in  the  Dalton 
Trail"  (Little,  Brown  Co.,  Boston,  $1.50); 
"Alaska"  (N.G.M. ,  April,  '98:  105,  twelve 
articles) ;  "  An  Expedition  through  the  Yukon 
District"  (N.G.M.,  Vol.  2,  '92:  117);  Brooks, 
"Geography  of  Alaska  "  (N.G.M.,  May,  '04 :  213) ; 
Gannett,  "The  General  Geography  of  Alaska" 
(N.G.M.,  May,  '01:  180);  Georgeson,  "The 
Possibilities  of  Alaska"  (N.G.M.,  March,  '02:  81) ; 
Grosvenor,  "Reindeer  in  Alaska"  (N.G.M.,  April, 
'03:  127);  "Life  on  a  Yukon  Trail"  (N.G.M., 
Oct., '99:  377  and  457);  "The  Alaskan  Boundary  " 
(N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '99:  425);  Bayley,  "The  Yukon 
and  its  Basin"  (J.G.,  Oct.,  '08 :  25) ;  Brooks,  "An 
Exploration  to  Mt.  McKinley"  (J.G.,  Nov.,  '03: 
441) ;  Davidson,  "Glaciers  of  Alaska"  (Geograph- 
ical Society  of  the  Pacific,  San  Francisco,  Cal.) ; 
Brooks,  "Geography  of  Alaska"  (United  States 
Geological  Survey,  Washington). 

The  Polar  Regions.  —  Baker,  "Out  of  the 
Northland"  (McM.,  $0.25) ;  Hayes,  "The  Land  of 
Desolation"  (H.B.,  $1.75) ;  Horton,  "The  Frozen 
North"  (D.  C.  Heath,  Boston,  $0.40);  Long, 
" Northern  Trails "  (Ginn,  $1.50);  Nansen,  "First 
Crossing  of  Greenland"  (L.G.,  $1.25) ;  Mrs.  Peary, 
"The  Snow  Baby"  (F.  A.  Stokes,  New  York, 
$1.30);  Mrs.  Peary,  "Children  of  the  Arctic" 
(F.  A.  Stokes,  $1.20);  Mrs.  Peary,  "My  Arctic 
Journal"  (Contemporary  Pub.  Co.,  New  York, 
$2.00) ;  Schwatka,  "Children  of  the  Cold  "  (E.P.C., 
$1.25) ;  Scott,  "  From  Franklin  to  Nansen  "  (Lipp., 
$1.25);  Scott,  "Romance  of  Polar  Exploration" 
(Lipp.,  $1.50) ;  Smith,  "  Eskimo  Stories"  (R.McN., 
$1.00);  "An  Ice-wrapped  Continent,  Antarc- 
tica" (N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '07:  95);  Harris,  "Some 
Indications  of  Land  in  the  Vicinity  of  the  North 
Pole"  (N.G.M.,  June,  '04:  255);'  Peary,  "The 
Value  of  Arctic  Exploration"  (N.G.M.,  Dec,  '03: 
429);  "Climatic  Control  in  Greenland"  (J.S.G., 
Oct.,  '00:   281). 

West  Indies  and  Bermuda.  —  Arthur,  "Ten 
Thousand  Miles  in  a  Yacht"  (Dutt.,  $2.00); 
"Handbooks  on  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo" 
(B.  Amer.  R.,  $0.35  each) ;  Hill,  "Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico"  (Cent.,  $3.00);  Kennan,  "Tragedy  of 
Pelee"  (McM.,  $1.00);  Kingslev,  "At  Last:  A 
Christmas  in  the  West  Indies"  (McM.,  $1.25); 
Nicholas,  "Around  the  Caribbean  and  across 
Panama"  (H.  M.  Caldwell,  Boston,  $2.00) ;  Ober, 
"Guide  to  the  West  Indies  and  Bermudas" 
(Dodd,  Mead  Co.,  New  York,  $2.25) ;  Ober,  "Our 
West  Indian  Neighbors"  (James  Pott  &  Co., 
$2.50);  Prichard,  "Where  Black  rules  White" 
(Scrib.,  $3.00);  Rodway,  "The  West  Indies  and 
the  Spanish  Main"  (Put.,  $1.75);  Stoddard, 
"Cruising  among  the  Caribbees"  (Scrib.,  $1.50); 
"The  Foreign  Commerce  of  our  Possessions,"  etc. 
(Treasury  Department,  Washington);  "The 
United  States  and  Porto  Rico"  (L.G.,  $1.30); 
Chester,  "Haiti,  a  Degenerating  Island"  (N.G.M., 
March,  '08:  200);   "Cuba"  (N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '98: 


REFERENCES   TO  BOOKS  AXD  ARTICLES 


419 


193) ;  "Cuba,  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles"  (N.G.M., 
Oct.,  '00:  533)  ;  Hill,  "Cuba  and  Porto  Rico" 
(Cent.,  $3.00);  Hill  and  Russell,  "Volcanic  Dis- 
turbances in  the  West  Indies  "  (N.G.M.,  July,  '02  : 
223);  "Porto  Rico"  (N.G.M.,  March,  '99:  93); 
Russell,  "Volcanic  Eruptions  on  Martinique  and 
St.  Vincent"  (N.G.M.,  Dec,  '02:  415);  Wilcox, 
"  Among  the  Mahogany  Forests  of  Cuba  "  {N.G.M., 
July,  '08  :  485)  ;  Cline",  "The  Island  of  Porto  Rico  " 
(J.S.G.,  Dec,  '01 :  362)  ;  Heilprin,  "The  Bermuda 
Islands"  (A.  Heilprin,  Philadelphia,  $3.50). 

Hawaiian  and  Shall  Islands.  —  Alexander, 
"  A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People  "  (A. B.C., 
SI. 50);  Baldwin,  "Geography  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands"  (A.B.C.,  80.60);  Dole,  "Hiwa:  Tale  of 
Ancient  Hawaii"  (H.B.,  81.00);  "Greatest 
America;  the  Latest  Acquired  Possessions" 
(Perry  Mason  Co.,  Boston,  80.50)  ;  "  Report  of  the 
Hawaiian  Commission  "  (State  Department,  Wash- 
ington) ;  Young,  "The  Real  Hawaii"  (Doubledav, 
New  York,  81.50);  Wallace,  "Island  Life"  (McM., 
81.75);  Whitney,  "Hawaiian  America"  (H.B., 
82.50) ;  articles  on  "Samoa"  (N.G.M.,  June,  '99: 
207). 

Philippine  Islands.  —  Conger,  "An  Ohio 
Woman  in  the  Philippines"  (Mrs.  E.  B.  Conger, 
Akron,  ().,  82.00);  Coulter,  "Nature  Study 
Reader  for  the  Philippine  Islands"  (App.,  80.60)  ; 
Coursey,  "History  and  Geography  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands "  (Educator  School  Supply  Co., 
Mitchell,  S.D.,  80.50);  Jernegan,  "Philippine  Ge- 
ography" (D.  C.  Heath,  Boston,  80.60);  Knapp, 
"Story  of  the  Philippines"  (S.B.C.,  80.60) ;  Son- 
nichsen,  "Ten  Months  a  Captiye  among  Filipinos  " 
(Jennings  &  Graham.  Cincinnati,  81.75) ;  Worces- 
ter, "The  Philippine  Islands  and  their  People" 
(McM.,  82.50)  ;  Younghusband,  "The  Philippines 
and  Round  About"  (McM.,  82.50);  "Report  of 
the  Philippine  Commission"  (State  Department, 
Washington) ;  Articles  on  the  Philippines  (N.G.M., 
June,  '98:  257-304;  Oct.,  '99:  33-72;  Nov., 
'00:  1);  Barrett,  "The  Philippine  Islands  and 
their  Environment "  (N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '00 :  1) ; 
Gannett,  "The  Philippine  Islands  and  their 
People"  {N.G.M.,  March,  '04:  71);  Papers  on 
Philippines  (X.G.M.,  May,  '03) ;  Sanger  and 
others,  "A  Revelation  of  the  Filipinos"  (X.G.M., 
April,  '05:  139)  ;  "The  Climate  of  the  Philippine 
Islands"  (J.S.G.,  Dec,  '99:  361). 

Canada.  —  Aner,  "The  North  Country"  (R. 
Clarke  Co.,  Cincinnati,  82.00);  Baedeker,  "The 
Dominion  of  Canada"  (Scrib.,  81.50);  Butler, 
"Wild  Northland,  a  Winter  with  a  Dog"  (A.  S. 
Barnes  &  Co.,  New  York,  81.00)  ;  "  Canadian  Guide 
Book"  (App.,  81.00)  :  Coe,  "Our  American  Neigh- 
bors" (S.B.C.,  80.60);  Hatton  and  Haryey, 
"Newfoundland"  (Doyle  &  Whipple,  Boston, 
S2.50)  ;  Howe,  "  Fourteen  Thousand  Miles,  a 
Carriage,  and  Two  Women"  (F.  S.  Howe,  Leom- 
inster, Mass.,  81.50):  Morely,  "Down  North  and 
Up  Along  "  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York,  81.50)  ; 
Parkin,  "The  Great  Dominion"   (McM.,  SI. 75) ; 


Pauli,  "  Record  of  a  Trip  through  Canada's  Wilder- 
ness" (J.  A.  Pauli  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Plum- 
mer,  "  Roy  and  Ray  in  Canada  "  (Henry  Holt  & 
Co.,  New  York,  $1.75);  Ralph,  "On  Canada's 
Frontier"  (H.B.,  $2.50);  Statistical  Year  Book 
(each  year  by  Department  of  Agriculture,  Ottawa)  ; 
"The  Relation  of  the  United  States  and  Canada" 
(Senate  Reports,  No.  1530,  Washington)  ;  Wal- 
lace, "Long  Labrador  Trail"  (Outing,  New  York, 
81.50);  Willcox,  "Exploration  in  the  Canadian 
Rockies  "  (N.G.M.,  May,  '02 :  151 ;  June,  '02 :  1S5). 

Mexico.  —  Baedeker,  "The  United  States" 
(with  an  excursion  into  Mexico ;  Scrib.,  $3.60) ; 
Bancroft,  "  Resources  and  Development  of  Mex- 
ico "  (The  Bancroft  Co.,  San  Francisco,  84.50) ; 
Edwards,  "On  the  Mexican  Highlands"  (Jennings 
&  Graham,  Cincinnati,  81.50) ;  Fitzgerrell,  "Guide 
to  Tropical  Mexico"  (J.  J.  Fitzgerrell,  Mexico 
City,  S0.50);  "Guide  to  Mexico"  (App.,  $1.50); 
Griffin,  "Mexico  of  To-day"  (H.B.,  $1.50) ;  Horn- 
aday,  "Camp  Fires  on  Desert  and  Lava" 
(Scrib.,  $3.00);  Lummis,  "The  Awakening  of  a 
Nation"  (H.B.,  $2.50);  McGary,  "An  American 
Girl  in  Mexico"  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York, 
81.00);  Noll,  "Short  History  of  Mexico"  (Mc- 
Clurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  $0.7.5)  ;  Plummer,  "Roy  and 
Ray  in  Mexico"  (Henry  Holt  Co.,  New  York, 
81.75);  Prescott,  "Conquest  of  Mexico"  (A.  L. 
Burt  &  Co.,  New  York,  81.25) ;  Romero,  "Coffee 
and  India  Rubber  Culture  in  Mexico"  (Put., 
83.00);  Romero,  "Geographical  and  Statistical 
Notes  on  Mexico"  (Put.,  $2.00);  Schwatka,  "In 
the  Land  of  Caye  and  Cliff  Dwellers"  (E.P.C., 
$1.25);  Smith,  "White  Umbrella  in  Mexico" 
(H.M.C.,  $1.50);  Darton,  "Mexico,  the  Treasure 
House  of  the  World"  (N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '07:  493); 
Foster,  "The  New  Mexico"  (N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '02  :  1)  ; 
Nelson,  "A  Winter  Expedition  in  Southwestern 
Mexico"  (X.G.M.,  Sept.,  '04:  341). 

Central  America  and  Panama  Canal  Zone. 
—  Belt,  "Naturalist  in  Nicaragua"  (Scrib.  and 
Welford,  New  York,  $3.00)  ;  Calvo,  "The  Republic 
of  Costa  Rica"  (R.McN.,  $2.00) ;  Charles,  "Hon- 
duras" (R.McN.,  81.50);  Davis,  "Three  Gringos 
in  Venezuela  and  Central  America  "  (H.B.,  $1.50) ; 
Hcrbertson,  "Descriptive  Geography,  Central  and 
South  America"  (McM.,  $0.70)  :  Sheldon,  "Notes 
on  the  Nicaragua  Canal"  (McClurg,  Chicago, 
$1.25);  Stevens,  "A  Trip  to  Panama"  (Lesan- 
Gould  Co.,  St.  Louis,  gratis)  ;  Handbooks  (B. 
Amer.  R.)  on  Costa  Rica,  Honduras,  Salvador, 
and  Nicaragua  (each  $0.35,  Guatemala,  $0.25) ; 
Monthly  Bulletins  of  the  same  Bureau  (each, 
$0.25),  also  contain  information  about  American 
Republics;  "Across  Nicaragua"  (N.G.M.,  Vol.  1, 
'89:  315);  Articles  on  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
(N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '99:  297);  Burr,  "The  Republic 
of  Panama"  (N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '04:  57);  "Notes  on 
Panama  and  Colombia  "  (.V.G.J/.,  Dec,  '03  :  458) ; 
Chester,  "The  Panama  Canal"  (N.G.M.,  Oct., 
'05  :  445  and  467)  ;  Thompson,  "  Henequen  — 
the  Yucatan  Fibre"  (N.G.M.,  April,  '03:   150). 


420 


APPENDIX 


Physiography.  —  Davis,  "Elementary  Physical 
Geography"  (Ginn,  $1.40);  Davis,  "Physical 
Geography"  (Ginn,  $1.25);  Dodge,  "Reader  in 
Physical  Geography "  (L.G.,  $0.70) ;  Geikie, 
"Elementary  Lessons  in  Physical  Geography" 
(McM.,  $1.10);  Gilbert  and  Brigham,  "Intro- 
duction to  Physical  Geography"  (App.,  $1.25); 
Hutchinson,  "Story  of  the  Hills"  (McM.,  $0.50)  ; 
Huxley,  "Physiography,  An  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Nature"  (App.,  $2.50);  "National 
Geographic  Monographs"  (A. B.C.,  $2.50);  Salis- 
bury, "Physiography  for  High  Schools"  (Henry 
Holt,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Shaler,  "Aspects  of  the 
Earth"  (Put.,  $2.00);  Shaler,  "Outlines  of  the 
Earth's  History"  (App.,  $1.75);  Shaler,  "The 
Story  of  our  Continent "  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Singleton, 
"Great  Rivers  of  the  World"  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co., 
New  York,  $1.60)  ;  Tarr,  "Elementary  Geology" 
(McM.,  $1.40);  Tarr,  "Elementary  Physical 
Geography"  (McM.,  $1.40;  contains  references  to 
works  on  Physiography)  ;  Tarr,  "  New  Physical 
Geography"  (McM.,  $1.00);  Emerson,  "Flood- 
plains  in  their  Relation  to  Life  "  (J.G.,  Jan.,  '07 : 
16). 

Ocean,  Climate,  etc. — Darwin,  "Tides'* 
(H.M.C.,  $2.00);  Guyot,  "The  Earth  and  Man" 
(Scrib.,  $1.75)  ;  Harrington,  "  About  the  AVeather  " 
(App.,  $0.65)  ;  Henry,  "Climatology  of  the  United 
States"  (Government  Printing  Office);  Ingersoll, 
"Book  of  the  Ocean"  (Cent.,  $1.50);  Jackson, 
"Astronomical  Geography"  (D.  C.  Heath,  Boston, 
$0.40) ;  Pillsbury,  ''The  Gulf  Stream  "  (U.S.  Coast 
Survey,  Washington);  Shaler,  "Sea  and  Land" 
(Scrib.,  $2.50);  Smith,  "The  Organization  of 
Ocean  Commerce"  (Ginn,  $1.25);  Ward,  "Cli- 
mate" (Put.,  $2.00);  "The  Arid  Regions  of  the 
United  States"  (N.G.M.,  March,  '94:  167). 

Animals,  Plants,  etc.  —  Bailey,  "The  Nature 
Study  Idea"  (McM.,  $1.00);  Bu'ckham,  "Afield 
with  the  Seasons"  (Crowell  Pub.  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.25);  Burroughs,  "Afoot  and  Afloat" 
(H.M.C.,  $0.25);  Burroughs,  "Ways  of  Nature" 
(H.M.C.,  $1.10);  Cook,  "Along  Four-footed 
Trails"  (James  Pott  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50); 
Du  Chaillu,  "In  African  Forest  and  Jungle" 
(Scrib.,  $1.50);  Foster,  "In  the  Forest"  (Doub., 
$1.50) ;  Heilprin,  "The  Geographical  and  Geolog- 
ical Distribution  of  Animals "  (App.,  $2.00) ; 
Hulburt,  "Forest  Neighbors"  (McClure,  Phillips 
&  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50);  Hyrst,  "Ad- 
ventures among  Wild  Beasts"  (Lipp.,  $1.50); 
Ingersoll,  "Wild  Neighbors"  (McM.,  $1.50); 
Ingersoll,  "Wild  Life  of  Orchard  and  Field  "  (H.B., 
$1.40);  Ingersoll,  "Wit  of  the  Wild"  (Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.20)  ;  Johnson,  "Home, 
Haunts,  and  Habits  of  Wild  Animals"  (J.  C.  Win- 
ston Co.,  Philadelphia,  $1.50);  Lucas,  "Animals 
before  Man  in  America"  (App.,  $1.25);  Mill, 
"Realm  of  Nature"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Roosevelt, 
"Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman"  (Put,,  $3.00); 
Scharf,  "European  Animals"  (Dutt,,  $2.50); 
Shaler,  "  Domesticated  Animals  "  (Scrib.,  $2.50) ; 


Shaler,  "Man  and  the  Earth"  (R.  K.  Fox,  New 
York,  $1.50) ;  Shaler,  "Nature  and  Man  in  Amer- 
ica" (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Stoneman,  "Plants  and 
their  Ways  in  South  Africa"  (L.G.,  $1.10); 
Walsh,  "Coffee,  its  History,  Classification,  and 
Description";  "Tea,  its  History  and  Industry" 
(Coates  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  $2.00  each) ;  Whit- 
ney, "On  Snow  Shoes  to  the  Barren  Grounds" 
(H.B.,  $3.50) ;  Wright,  "Four-footed  Americans" 
(McM.,  $1.50);  Fairchild,  "Our  Plant  Immi- 
grants" (N.G.M.,  April,  '06:  179);  Henshaw, 
"The  Policemen  of  the  Air"  (N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '08: 
79) ;  Shires,  "  One  Season's  Game  Bag  with  the 
Camera"  (N.G.M.,  June,  '08:  387) ;  Smith,  "Our 
Fish  Immigrants " ;  other  articles  on  Fish  and 
Turtles  {N.G.M.,  June,  '07:  385,  400,  413); 
Warren,  "Animal  Wealth  of  the  United  States" 
(N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '06:  511);  Holdsworth,  "Animal 
Industries"  (J.S.G.,  March,  '00:  105;  April,  '00: 
146). 

South  America.  —  There  is  a  handbook  for  > 
each  of  the  republics,  issued  by  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  Washington,  D.C.,  price 
from  $0.30  to  $0.50  each.  Andrews,  "Brazil, 
its  Conditions  and  Prospects"  (App.,  $1.50); 
Ballou,  "Equatorial  America"  (H.M.C.,  $1.50); 
Bates,  "A  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon'' 
(Humbolt  Library,  New  York,  $1.00);  Butter- 
worth,  "South  America  and  Panama"  (Doub., 
$1.00);  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Reader,  South 
America"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60);  Carpenter,  "South 
America,  Social,  Industrial,  and  Political"  (Saal- 
field  Pub.  Co.,  Akron,  O.,  $3.00) ;  Childs,  "South 
American  Republics"  (H.B.,  $3.50);  Clairmont, 
"A  Guide  to  Modern  Peru"  (A.  de  Clairmont, 
Toledo,  O.);  Conway,  "The  Bolivian  Andes" 
(H.B.,  $3.00);  Coe,  "Our  American  Neighbors" 
(S.B.C.,  $0.60) ;  Curtis,  "  Between  the  Andes  and 
the  Ocean".  (H.  S.  Stone,  Chicago,  $2.50) ;  Curtis, 
"Capitols  of  Spanish  America"  (H.B.,  $3.50); 
Curtis,  "Venezuela"  (H.B.,  $1.25);  Elliott, 
"Chili "  (Scrib.,  $3.00) ;  Ford,  " Tropical  America  " 
(Scrib.,  $2.00);  Hale,  "The  South  Americans" 
(Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  Indianapolis,  $2.50);  Her- 
bertson,  "Descriptive  Geographv,  Central  and 
South  America"  (McM.,  $0.70) ;  Pepper,  "Panama 
to  Patagonia  "  (McClurg,  Chicago,  $2.50) ;  Perez 
Triana,  "  Down  the  Orinoco  in  a  Canoe  "  (Crowell 
&  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25);  Pratt,  "Pizarro:  Con- 
quest of  Peru"  (E.P.C.,  $0.30);  Revnolds,  "The 
Americas"  (McM.,  $0.75);  Rodwav,  "In  the 
Guiana  Wilds"  (L.  C.  Page  &  Co.,  Boston,  $1.25) ; 
Ruhl,  "  Other  Americans  "  (Scrib.,  $2.00) ;  Scruggs, 
"Columbian  and  Venezuelan  Republics"  (Little, 
Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  $2.50) ;  Smith,  "Temperate 
Chili"  (McM.,  $3.50) ;  Whvmer,  "  Travels  amongst 
the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator"  (Scrib.,  $2.50); 
Adams,  "Cuzco:  America's  Ancient  Mecca" 
(N.G.M.,  Oct.,  '08:  669);  "A  Journey  in  Ecua- 
dor "  (N.G.M.,  Julv,  '96  :  238) ;  "A  Winter  Vovage 
through  the  Straits  of  Magellan "  (N.G.M.,  May, 
'97 :    129) ;   Calderon,  "  Peru,  its  Resources,  De- 


REFERENCES   TO   BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES 


421 


velopment,  and  Future"  (7V.ff.7lf.,  Aug.,  '04: 
311);  Curtis,  "The  Road  to  Bolivia"  (2V.ff.ilf., 
June,  '00:  209;  July,  '00:  264)  ;  Hatcher,  "Some 
Geographic  Features  of  Southern  Patagonia" 
fJV.ff.Af.,  Feb.,  '00:  41);  Lee,  "Beautiful  Ecua- 
dor" (2V.ff.Af.,  Feb.,  '07:  81);  Pepper,  "South 
America  Fifty  Years  Hence,"  and  other  articles 
on  South  America  {N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '0*3 :  427,  432, 
449,  4,53,  456)  ;  "Patagonia"  (2V.ff.2lf.,  Nov.,  '97: 
305);  Root,  "An  Awakened  Continent  to  the 
South  of  Us"  (N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '07:  61) ;  President 
Hubbard's  Annual  Address,  "South  America" 
(N.G.M.,  March,  '91:  1);  "  Venezuela,  her  Gov- 
ernment," etc.  (2V.ff.2lf.,  Feb.,  '96:  49);  "A  Dav 
in  the  Falkland  Islands"  (J.S.G.,  Feb.,  '98:  49)'; 
"Climatic  Notes  made  during  a  Vovage  around 
South  America  "  (.7.8.6'.,  Sept.  and  Oct.,  '98  :  241 
and  297);  "From  Paros  to  Manaos"  (J.S.G., 
April,  '01:  121);  Johnson,  "Trade  and  Indus- 
tries of  Western  South  America"  (J.G.,  Jan.,  '02: 
25;  Feb.,  '02:  51;  March,  '02:  109);  "The 
Climatic  Control  of  Occupation  in  Chile"  (J.S.G., 
Dec,  '97:  2S9) ;  "The  Valley  of  the  Amazon  and 
its  Development"  (J.S.G.,  Sept.,  '97:  193). 

Europe.  —  Amicis,  "  Holland  and  its  People  " 
(Put.,  S2.00)  ;  Bailey,  "First  Impressions  of 
Europe"  (Grafton  Press,  New  York,  $1.25); 
Beckman,  "Backsheesh;  Travels  in  Europe,  Asia 
Minor,  etc."  (Whitaker  &  Ray,  San  Francisco, 
$1.50) ;  Belloe,  "Hills  and  the  Sea"  (Scrib.,  $1.50)  ; 
Brochner,  "Danish  Life  in  Town  and  Country" 
(Put.,  $1.20);  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Reader 
of  Europe"  (A. B.C.,  80.75);  Coe,  "Modern 
Europe"  (S.B.C.,  80.60);  Coolidge,  "The  Alps 
in  Nature  and  Historv"  (Dutt.,  82.50);  Corbin, 
"Schoolboy  Life  in 'England"  (H.B.,  81.25); 
Davis,  "About  Paris"  (H.B.,  81.25) ;  Davis,  "  Our 
English  Cousins"  (H.B.,  81.25);  Davis,  "The 
Rulers  of  the  Mediterranean"  (H.B.,  81.25); 
Dillon,  "Motor  Days  in  England"  (Put.,  83.00) ; 
Du  Chaillu,  "Land  of  the  Long  Night"  (Scrib., 
$2.00);  Edwards,  "Through  Scandinavia  to 
Moscow"  (R.  Clarke  Co.,  Cincinnati,  81.50); 
Emerson,  "European  Glimpses  and  Glances" 
(Cassell  &  Co.,  New  York,  81.00) ;  Finck,  "Spain 
and  Morocco"  (Scrib.,  81.25);  Geikie,  "The 
Scenery  in  Scotland"  (McM.,  83.50);  Green,  "A 
Short  "Geography  of  the  British  Isles"  (McM., 
$0.90);  Green,  '"Army  Life  in  Russia"  (Scrib., 
$1.25);  Hapgood,  "Russian  Rambles"  (H.M.C., 
$1.50);  Herbertson,  "Descriptive  Geographies" 
("Europe,"  80.90;  "The  British  Empire,"  80.75, 
McM.);  King,  "Northern  Europe"  (Lee  &  Shep- 
ard,  Boston,  80.60):  Knight,  "Over-sea  Britain" 
(Dutt.,  82.00);  Loring,  "A  Year  in  Portugal" 
(Put.,  $1.50):  Lubbock,  "The  Scenery  of  Swit- 
zerland" (McM.,  81.50) ;  Lvde,  "A  Geography  of 
the  British  Isles  "  (McM.,  80.60) ;  Lvde,  "  A  Geog- 
raphy of  Europe"  (McM.,  $0.50);  MacDonald, 
"Pains  of  the  Parisians"  (Lipp.,  81.50);  Mac- 
kinder,  "Britain  and  the  British  Isles"  (App., 
$2.00) ;     Maxwell,    "  A    Cruise    across    Europe " 


(J.  Lane  Co.,  New  York,  83.00)  ;  Moncrieff, 
"The  Peak  Country"  (McM.,  $2.50);  Monroe, 
"  Norway,  its  People,  its  Fjords,  and  its  Fjelds " 
(L.  C.  Page,  Boston,  $3.00) ;  Nixon-Roulet, 
"  Our  Little  Grecian  Cousin "  (L.  C.  Page, 
Boston,  $0.60);  Partsch,  "Central  Europe" 
(App.,  82.00)  ;  Paton,  "  Picturesque  Sicily  "  (H.B., 
82.50);  Pratt,  "Legends  of  Norseland ''  (E.P.C., 
80.40);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  England''  (E.PG., 
80.40);  Pratt,  "Stories  from  Old  Germany" 
(E.P.C.,  80.40);  Rushing,  "European  Days  and 
Ways"  (Jennings  &  Graham,  Cincinnati,  $1.50); 
Sime,  "Geography  of  Europe"  (McM.,  $0.80); 
Stephens,  "Portugal"  (Put.,  $1.50):  Stepniak, 
"The  Russian  Peasantry"  (H.B.,  $1.25);  Step- 
niak, "Russia  under  the  Tzars"  (Scrib.,  81.50); 
Stevenson,  "An  Inland  Voyage"  (Scrib.,  $1.25); 
Stevenson,  "Travels  with  a  Donkey  in  the  Ce- 
vennes"  (McM.,  80.25);  Stoddard,  "Spanish 
Cities"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Sullivan,  "Lands  of 
Summer"  (H.M.C.,  $1.50);  Thomas,  "Sweden 
and  the  Swedes  "  (R.McN.,  83.75) ;  Tozer,  "  Islands 
of  the  iEgean"  (Oxford  Pub.  Co.,  New  York, 
$2.25) ;  Tvndall,  "Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps" 
(App.,  $2.00)  ;  Van  Norman,  "  Poland,  the  Knight 
among  Nations"  (F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York, 
81.50);  Wendell,  "The  France  of  To-day" 
(Scrib.,  81.50) ;  Series:  French,  German,  Russian, 
Dutch,  and  Swiss,  "Life  in  Town  and  Country" 
(Put.,  $1.20  each);  Bosson,  "Sicily,  the  Battle- 
field of  Nations  and  of  Nature"  (7V.ff.2lf.,  Jan., 
'09  :  97) ;  Bracq,  "Colonial  Expansion  of  France" 
(N.G.M.,  June,  '00:  225) ;  "Bulgaria,  the  Peasant 
State"  (N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '08:  760) ;  Coffin,  "Where 
East  meets  West"  (N.G.M.,  May,  'OS:  309); 
Curtis,  "The  Great  Turk  and  his  Lost  Provinces" 
(N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '03:  45);  Gore,  "As  seen  from 
a  Dutch  Window"  (N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '08:  619); 
Grosvenor,  "The  Growth  of  Russia"  (7V.ff.il/., 
May,  '00:  169) ;  Koch,  "In  Quaint,  Curious  Cro- 
atia "  (7V.ff.il7.,  Dec,  '08  :  809) ;  Koch, "  Gibraltar  " 
(J.G.,  Nov.,  '05:  378);  Koch,  "The  Forbidden 
Balkans"  (J.G.,  Oct.,  '06:  354;  Nov.,  '06:  406; 
Dec,  '06:  451);  Matthes,  "The  Dikes  of  Hol- 
land" (N.G.M.,  June,  '01:  219);  Mead,  "The 
Expansion  of  England"  (N.G.M.,  July,  '00:  249); 
Noyes,  "A  Visit  to  Lonely  Iceland"  (7V.ff.7lf., 
Nov.,  '07:  731);  "Servia  and  Montenegro" 
(7V.ff.2tf.,  Nov.,  '08:  774) ;  Wright,  "The  World's 
Most  Cruel  Earthquake"  (X.G.M.,  April,  '09: 
373);  "Austria"  (J.S.G.,  Dec,  '98:  394);  Bar- 
rett, "Features  of  Norway  and  its  People  "  (J.S.G. 
Sept.,  '01 :  241 ;  Oct.,'  '01  :  294)  ;  Jefferson, 
"Caesar  and  the  Central  Plateau  of  France"  (J.G., 
Nov.,  '07:  113);  Jefferson,  "Man  in  West  Nor- 
way" (J.G.,  Dec,  '08:  86);  Reynolds,  "Mistress 
Europe  Teaching  her  School"  (J.S.G.,  Sept.,  '00: 
241);  "The  Geography  of  Greater  London" 
(J.S.G.,  Feb.,  '01:  41);  "Notes  on  the  Geog- 
raphy of  Scotland"  (J.S.G. ,  May,  '98:  161); 
"The  Temperature  of  the  British  Isles"  {J.S.G., 
Dec, '9  5:  301). 


422 


APPENDIX 


Asia.  —  Bishop,  "  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan  " 
(Put.,  $2.50);  Bramhall,  "Wee  Ones  in  Japan" 
(H.B.,  $1.00);  Brownell,  "The  Heart  of  Japan" 
(McClure,  Phillips  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Car- 
penter, "Geographical  Reader:  Asia"  (A.B.C., 
$0.60);  Colquhoun,  "China  in  Transformation" 
(H.B.,  $3.00);  Colquhoun,  "Overland  to  China" 
(H.B.,  $3.00) ;  Curtis,  "Howadji  in  Syria"  (H.B., 
$1.50)  ;  Douglas,  "The  Land  where  Jesus  Christ 
Lived"  (Thomas  Nelson  &  Son,  New  York,  $1.00)  ; 
Giles,  "China  and  the  Chinese"  (McM.,  $1.50); 
Griffis,  "Korea,  the  Hermit  Nation"  (Scrib., 
$2.50) ;  Hamilton,  "Korea"  (Scrib.,  $1.50) ;  Her- 
bertson,  "Descriptive  Geography,  Asia"  (McM., 
$0.80);  Hogarth,  "The  Nearer  East"  (App., 
$2.00);  Hosie,  "Manchuria:  its  People, 'Re- 
sources and  Recent  History "  (Scrib.,  $2.50)  ; 
Kipling,  "The  Jungle  Books"  (Cent.,  $1.50); 
Knight,  "Where  Three  Empires  Meet"  (L.G., 
$1.25);  Lee,  "When  I  was  a  Boy  in  China" 
(Lothrop  Pub.  Co.,  Boston,  $0".60) ;  Little, 
"Through  the  Yangtse  Gorges"  (Scrib.,  $2.50); 
Lyall,  "The  Rise  of  the  British  Dominion  in  India  " 
(Scrib.,  $1.50);  Lyde,  "A  Geography  of  Asia" 
(McM.,  $0.50) ;  Mathews,  "New  Testament  Times 
in  Palestine"  (McM.,  $0.75);  Norman,  "The 
Real  Japan"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Parker,  "China, 
from  Earliest  Times  to  the  Present  Day"  (Dutt., 
$2.50)  ;  Pratt,  "Stories  of  China"  (E.P.C.,  $0.40) ; 
Pratt,  "Stories  of  India"  (E.P.C.,  $0.40)  ;  Ralph, 
"Alone  in  China"  (H.B.,  $2.00) ;  Scidmore,  "  Jin- 
rikisha  Days  in  Japan"  (H.B.,  $2.00);  Smith, 
"  Blue  Waters  and  Green  and  the  Far  East  To-day  " 
(Crane  &  Co.,  Topeka,  Kan.,  $1.50) ;  Smith,  "Life 
in  Asia"  (S.B.C.,  $0.60);  "The  Crisis  in  China" 
(H.B.,  $1.00) ;  Austin,  "Commercial  Prize  of  the 
Orient"  (N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '05:  399);  Barrett, 
"China,  her  History  and  Development"  (N.G.M., 
June,  '01 :  209 ;  July,  '01 :  266) ;  Cresson,  "  Per- 
sia, the  Awakening  East"  (N.G.M.,  May,  '08: 
356);  Fairchild,  "Travels  in  Arabia  and  along 
the  Persian  Gulf"  (N.G.M.,  April,  '04:  139); 
Grosyenor,  "Siberia"  (N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '01 :  317) ; 
Harris,  "Some  Ruined  Cities  of  Asia  Minor" 
(N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '08:  741;  Dec, '08:  833;  Jan., 
'09:  1);  Hill,  "A  Trip  through  Siberia  "  (N.G.M., 
Feb.,  '02:  37);  Webster,  "Japan  and  China" 
(N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '01 :  70);  Williams,  "The  Link 
Relations  of  Southwestern  Asia"  (N.G.M.,  July, 
'01:  249;  Aug.,  '01:  291);  "Korea  and  the 
Koreans"  {N.G.M.,  Vol.  2,  '90:  231) ;  Fenneman, 
"Geography  of  Manchuria"  (J.G.,  Jan.,  '05:  6); 
Huntington,  "Khirghiz  Nomads  and  their  In- 
fluence on  the  High  Plateaus"  (J.G.,  May,  '08; 
313) ;  "The  Russo-Siberian  Plain"  (J.S.G.,  March, 
'00:  81). 

Africa.  —  Badlam,  "Views  in  Africa"  (S.B.C., 
$0.72);  Bigelow,  "White  Man's  Africa"  (H.B., 
$2.50);  Brvce,  "Impressions  of  South  Africa" 
(Cent.,  $3.50);  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Reader 
of  Africa"  (A. B.C.,  $0.60);  Crosby,  "Abyssinia, 
the  Country  and  People "  (N.G.M.,  March,  '01 : 


89);  Curtis,  "Nile  Notes  of  a  Howadji"  (H.B., 
$1.50) ;  Davis,  "The  Congo  and  Coasts  of  Africa" 
(Scrib.,  $1.50);  Drummond,  "Tropical  Africa" 
(Scrib.,  $1.00);  Du  Chaillu,  "My  Apingi  King- 
dom"; "Wild  Life  Under  the  Equator"  (H.B., 
$1.25  each);  Edwards,  "A  Thousand  Miles  up 
the  Nile"  (Dutt.,  $2.50);  Herbertson,  "Descrip- 
tive Geography,  Africa"  (McM.,  $0.70);  Hillegas, 
"Oom  Paul's  People"  (App.,  $1.50);  Kirkland, 
"Some  African  Highways"  (Dana,  Estes  &  Co., 
Boston,  $1.50) ;  Lyde,  "A  Geography  of  Africa" 
(McM.,  $0.50);  Penfield,  "Present  Day  Egypt" 
(Cent.,  $2.00) ;  Rawlinson,  "The  Story  of  Ancient 
Egypt"  (Put.,  $1.50);  Selous,  "African  Nature 
Note  and  Reminiscences  "  (McM.,  $3.00) ;  Selous, 
"A  Hunter's  Wanderings  in  Africa"  (McM., 
$2.50);  Stanley  and  others,  "Africa:  its  Par- 
tition and  its  Future"  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co., 
New  York,  $1.25);  Stanley,  "My  Dark  Com- 
panions" (Scrib.,  $2.00);  Stanley,  "My  Kalulu" 
(Scrib.,  $1.50) ;  Stanley,  "Through  South  Africa" 
(Scrib.,  $1.00);  Traill,  "From  Cairo  to  the 
London  Frontier"  (John  Lane,  New  York,  $1.50) ; 
Verner,  "  Pioneering  in  Central  Africa "  (Presby- 
tarian  Board  of  Publication,  Philadelphia,  $2.00) ; 
White,  "  A  Little  Story  of  South  Africa  and  up  the 
East  Coast "  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  $0.50) ;  Young- 
husband,  "  South  Africa  of  To-day  "  (McM.,  $2.00) 
"Abyssinia"  (N.G.M.,  March,  '01:  89);  "Africa 
since  1888"  {N.G.M.,  May,  '96:  157);  Annual 
Address  of  President  Hubbard,  "Africa,  its  Past 
and  Future"  (N.G.M.,  Vol.  1,  '89:  99);  Bosson, 
"Biskra,  the  Ziban  Queen"  (N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '08: 
563) ;  Bridgeman,  "The  New  British  Empire  of 
Sudan"  (N.G.M.,  May,  '06:  242);  Hilder,  "Brit- 
ish South  Africa  and  the  Transvaal"  (N.G.M., 
March,  '00:  81);  Landor,  "Across  the  Wildest 
Africa"  (N.G.M.,  Oct.,  'OS:  694);  Perdicaris, 
"Morocco,  the  Land  of  the  Extreme  West" 
(N.G.M.,  March,  '06:  117);  "The  Gold  Coast, 
Ashanti  and  Kumassi"  (N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '97:  1); 
Williams,  "The  Diamond  Mines  of  South  Africa" 
(N.G.M.,  June,  '06:  344) ;  Wollaston,  "Amid  the 
Snow  Peaks  of  the  Equator"  (N.G.M.,  March,  '09: 
256);  Piatt,  "Climatic  Control  in  the  Desert" 
(J.S.G.,  Sept.,  '00:  255);  "The  Egyptian  Sudan 
and  its  History"  (J.S.CT.,  Feb.,  '99:  41). 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific.  — 
Ballou,  "Under  the  Southern  Cross"  (H.M.C., 
$1.50);  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Reader,  Aus- 
tralia and  Islands  of  the  Sea"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60); 
Chalmers,  "  Pioneer  Life  and  Work  in  New  Guinea  " 
(F.  H.  Revell  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Davitt, 
"Life  and  Progress  in  Australasia"  (New  Am- 
sterdam Book  Co.,  New  York,  $2.50) ;  Herbert- 
son,  "Descriptive  Geography:  Australia  and 
Oceanica"  (McM.,  $0.80);  Jose\  "Australia,  and 
New  Zealand"  (McM.,  $0.40) ;  Kellogg,  "Australia 
and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea"  (S.B.C.,  $.06S); 
Loughman,  "New  Zealand  at  Home"  (Scrib., 
$1.75);  Nixon-Roulet,  "Our  Little  Australian 
Cousin"   (L.    C.    Page    &   Co.,    Boston,  $0.60); 


REFERENCES   TO   BOOKS  AND   ARTICLES 


423 


Pratt,  "Stories  of  Australasia"  (E.P.C.,  $0.40); 
Reeves,  "  Brown  Men  and  Women "  (McM., 
S3.50) ;  Shoemaker,  "  Islands  of  the  Southern 
Seas"  (Put.,  S2.2.5) ;  Grimshaw,  "In  the  Savage 
South  Seas"  (Lipp.,  Phila.) ;  Llovd,  "New 
Zealand"    (iV.G.J/.,    Sept.,    '02:    342);   Morgan, 


"The  Samoan  Islands"  (N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '00: 
417);  Safford,  "Guam,  our  Smallest  Possession" 
(N.G.M.,  May,  '05:  229);  "Samoa"  (N.G.M., 
June,  '00:  207) ;  "The  Samoan  Islands"  (N.G.M., 
Nov.,  '00:  417);  Kellogg,  "American  Samoa" 
(J.G.,  Jan.,  '06:  18). 


APPENDIX   I 

TABLES  OF  AREA,  POPULATION,  ETC. 

Note.  —  The  figures,  1910,  etc.,  refer  to  the  year  in  which  the  Census  was  taken  or  the  estimate  was  made. 
Most  of  the  recent  figures  are  obtained  from  the  United  States  Census  Reports  of  1910  or  from  "  The  Statesman's 
Year  Book,"  1912. 


SIZE    OF   EARTH 


Length  of  Earth's  Diameter  at  the  Equator  (miles) . 
Length  of  Equator  (miles) 


7,926 
.24,902 


The  Earth's  Surface  (square  miles) 196,940,000 

Total  Area  of  Ocean  (square  miles) 141,486,000 


CONTINENTS  AND   PRINCIPAL   COUNTRIES,   COLONIES,   ETC. 


Area  in 
Square  Mile: 

North  America 8,500,000 

Alaska,  1910 590,884 

A  n  tigua,  19  i  1 170 

Bahama  Islands,  1911 5,450 

Bermuda  Islands,  1911  20 

British  Honduras,  1911 8,598 

Canada,  1911 8,603,910 

Costa  Rica,  1910 13,400 

Cuba,  1910 44.000 

Greenland,  1901 46,740 

Guatemala,  1910 48,290 

Haiti  (Island) ,  1909 10,204 

Honduras,  1910 ' 46,250 

Jamaica,  1910 4,200 

Mexico,  1910 767,005 

Newfoundland,  1910 42,734 

Labrador,  1910 120,000 

Nicaragua,  1910 49,200 

Panama,  1909  31,500 

St.  Croix,  1901 S4 

St.  Thomas,  1901 82 

Salvador,  1910 7,225 

United  States,  see  p.  425 

Sooth  America 7,400,000 

Argentina,  1910 1,135,840 

Bolivia,  1910 708,195 

Brazil,  190S 3,218,991 

Chile,  1910 292,580 

Colombia,  1908 438,436 

Ecuador,  1910  /  116  000 

Galapagos  Islands,  1910   \ ' 

Falkland  Islands,  1911 5,500 

Guiana,  British,  1911 90,277 

Guiana,  Dutch,  1910 46,060 

Guiana,  French,  1911 30,500 

Paraguay,  1910 171,204 

Peru,  1910 095,733 

South  Georgia  Islands 1 ,000 

Tobago,  1911 114  I 

Trinidad  Island,  1911 1,754  f 

Uruguay,  1910 72.210 

Venezuela,  1911 398,976 

Europe 3,796,000 

Albania,  1913 10,900 

Andorra, 175 

Austria,  1910 115,903 

Austria-Hungary,  1910 261,100 

Balearic  Isles,  1910 1.935 

Belgium,  1910 11 ,378 


Population 

125.000,000 
64,356 
38,899 
55,944 
18,994 

40,458 

7,192,338 

379,533 

2,150,112 

11,893 

1,992,000 

2,029,700 

553,446 

862.422 

15,063,207 

237,531 

4,076 

600,000 

419,029 

18,401 

11,269 
1  070,555 


49,000,000 
7,091,822 
2,267,935 
21,461,100 
3,329,030 

4,308,000 

1,500,000 

2,272 
296,000 

85,094 

49.009 

752,000 

4,000,000 

uninhabited 


830. 

1.112 

2,713. 

311-2,216 

900, 

5. 

28,667, 

61,323, 

825, 

7,516 


074 

000 
708 
000 

000 
,231 
89S 
,921 
,703 
,780 


Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

British  Empire,  1910 11,454,862  897,261,509 

British  Isles,  1910 121,390  46,469,564 

Bulgaria,  1913 43,360  4,800,000 

Corsica,  1906 3,367  291 , 1 60 

Crete,  1900 3,365  310,185 

Denmark,  1906 15,592  2,605,268 

England,  1901 .-50.S74  31.071,708 

England  and  Wales,  1909 58,324  85,756,615 

Faroe  Islands,  1901 540  16,349 

France,  1906 207,054  39,252,245 

German  Empire,  1905 208,780  60,641,278 

Great  Britain,  1909 88.729  40,634,263 

Greece,  1913 46,600  4,600,000 

Hebrides   Islands 3,000  100,000 

Hungary,  1900 125,430  19,254,559 

Iceland,  1901 39,756  78.470 

Ireland,  1909 32,360  4,874  158 

Italy,  1909 110,659  84,269.746 

Liechtenstein,  1906 65  9,650 

Luxemburg,  1900 1,706  219,210 

Malta,  1909 95  212.SS8 

Monaco,  1909 8  19,121 

Montenegro,  1913 5,600  500,000 

Netherlands,  1908 12,648  5,825.198 

Norway,  1908 124,130  2,852,786 

Orkney  Islands,  1901 876  2S.699 

Portugal,  1900 85,490  5,428,182 

Prussia,  1905 184,616  87,298.324 

Roumania,  1918 54,800  7,400,000 

Russia,  1908 1,862,524    ■  118,841,000 

Russian  Empire,  1908 8,647,657  165,488.800 

San  Marino,  1909 88  10,810 

Sardinia,  1909 9,806  861.249 

Scotland,  1909 80,405  4,877,648 

Servia,  1913 88,600  4,800,000 

Shetland  Islands,  1901 551  28.166 

Sicily,  1909 9,985  8,574.424 

Spain.  1908 194,788  19.712.685 

Sweden.  1908 172.S76  5,429.600 

Switzerland,  1908 15,976  8,559,849 

Turkey,  1918 9.700  1,600,000 

Turkish  Empire,  1918 1,509,350  80.S69.SO0 

Wales,  1911 7,450  2,082,198 

Asia  with  East  Indies 21,000,000  900.000.000 

Aden,  1911 75  46,165 

Afghanistan,  1911 250,000  5.900,000 

Arabia                                        1,200,000  4,S25,000 

llnluchis'tan.wii 134,689  829,712 

Bhutan,  1909 20,000  250,000 


424 


APPENDIX 


425 


Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

Bokhara,  1909 83,000  1,250,000 

Burma,  1911  28f,788  12,115,217 

Ceylon,  1911 25,332  3,592,397 

China  (proper),  1906 1,532,420  407,258,080 

Republic  of  China,  1910 4,277,170  488,425,000 

Chinese  Turkestan,  190(1 550,340  1,200,000 

Cyprus,  1910 3,584  201,587 

Formosa,  1910 18,458  3,123,471 

French  India,  1909 196  277,000 

French  Indn-Chhm,  1900 256,000  16,315,003 

India,  1911 1 ,789,154  315, 132,537 

Japan,  1910 147,055  50,751,919 

Khiva,  1909 24,000  800,000 

Korea,  1911 80,000  13,125,027 

Manchuria,  1909 303,010  16,000,000 

Mongolia,  1906 1,307,000  2,11011,000 

Nepal,  1909 54,000  5,000,000 

Oman,  1909 82,000  500,000 

Palestine,  1905 10,000  700,000 

Persia,  1909 628,000  9,500.000 

Portuguese  Indies,  1901 7.330  3(10,000 

Kussia  in  Asia,  1910 6,207,602  '  24,889,000 

Slam,  1909 195,000  6,686,486 

Siberia,  1910 4,780,730  8,220,100 

Straits  Settlements,  1911 1.472  714,1109 

Sungaria,  1901 147,950  600,000 

Tibet,  1909 463,200  6,500,(100 

Turkey  in  Asia,  1909 693,610  17,683,500 

Africa 11,000,000  125,000,000 

Ahvssinin,  1910 482,482  5,000,000 

Algeria  ( Fr.),  1911 343,500  5,563,828 

A  nglo- Egyptian  Sudan,  1909 950,000  2,868,000 

Angola,  1909 484,800  4,119,0110 

Belgian  Congo,  1909 909,650  20,000,000 

British  Somaliland.  1910 68,000  848.000 

Canary  Islands  (Sp.),  1910 2.807  419,809 

Capo  of  Good   Hope,  191" 270,995  2,510,000 

Cape  Verde  Islands  (Port.),  1909 1,480  147,424 

Egypt,  1907 400,000  11,139,978 

Eritrea  (Italy),  1906    45.800  450,000 

French  Congo.  1907 669,280  5,1 ,000 

French  Somaliland,  1907 5,790  180,000 

Gambia  (lir.),  1910 3,619  100,000 

German  East  Africa,  1909 884,180  10,000,000 

German  Southwest  Africa,  1909 322,450  120,000 

Gold  Coast  and  Protectorate,  1910 119.200  1, 5110.(100 

Italian  Somaliland.  1909 139,480  400.000 

Kamerun  (Ger.),  1909 191,130  3,000,1100 

Liberia,  1909 40,000  {MjjMjjg- 


Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

Madagascar,  1911 228,000  8,054,658 

Madeira  Islands,  1900 314  150,574 

Mauritius  (Br.),  1910 885  379,184 

Morocco,  1909 219,000  i  468o'ooo" 

Natal,  1911 85,371  1,191,958 

Nigeria,  Northern,  1911 256,400  9.269,000 

Nigeria,  Southern,  1911 77,260  7,S5S,689 

Orange  Free  State,  1910 50,392  478,816 

Portuguese  East  Africa.1901  298,400  3,120,000 

Portuguese  Guinea,  1901 13,940  820,000 

Reunion  Island  (Fr.).  19117 910  201,000 

St.  Helena  (Br.),  1911 47  3,520 

Sierra  Leone  and  Protectorate  (  Br.),  1910 30,000  1,100,000 

Spanish  A  fries,  1910 85,814  235,844 

Togo,  1910 33,700  1,000,000 

Transvaal,  1910 110.426  1 ,400,000 

Tripoli   (Turk.).  190(5 398,900  1,000,000 

Tunis  I  Fr.),  1910 45.779  1,923,217 

Uganda  Protectorate,  1910 223,500  3,500,000 

Zanzibar  (Br.),  1910 1,020  200,000 

Australia,  Commonwealth  of 3,000,000  1,400,000 

New  South  Wales,  1910 310,372  1,621,677 

Northern  Territory,  1910 523,020  3,239 

Queensland,  1910 0711,500  572,654 

South  Australia,  1910 380,070  412,608 

Tasmania,  1910 20,215  186,860 

Victoria,  1911 87,834  1,315,000 

Western  Australia,  191 1 975,920  283,980 

East  Indies  and  larger  islands  of  the  Pacific 1,200,000  47,000,000 

Borneo,  1905 29S.843  1,944,655 

Celebes,  1905 71.470  851,905 

Fiji  Islands,  1910 7,740  133,831 

Hawaiian  Islands,  1910 6,449  191,909 

Java  and  Madura,  1905 50,554  30,098,008 

Molucca  Islands,  1905 43,864  407.906 

New  Caledonia,  1911 7,650  55,000 

New  Guinea 

British  Guinea,  1910 151,789  200,000 

Dutch  Guinea,  1905 90,540  351,603 

German  Guinea,  1910 95,160  366,000 

New  Zealand,  1910 104,751  1,048,347 

Philippine  Islands,  1910 115,026  8,276,802 

Samoa  Islands,  1910 1,079  41.140 

Solomon  Islands  (Br.),  1910 12,000  150,310 

Solomon  Islands  (Ger.) 4,200 

Sumatra,  1905 161,612  4,029(603 

Total  area  of  Continents. . . . .' 56.000,000 

Total  Population 1,700,000,000 


STATES    AND   TERRITORIES   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Alabama   51,998 

Alaska 590,884 

Arizona 1 13,956 

Arkansas 58,885 

California 158,297 

Colorado 103.94S 

Connecticut 4.965 

Delaware 2.370 

District  of  Columbia 70 

Florida 58,666 

Georgia 59,265 

Guam 210 

Hawaiian  Islands 0,449 

Idaho ." 84,313 

Illinois 50,665 

Indiana 36,354 

Iowa 56,147 

Kansas 82,158 

Kentucky 40,598 

Louisiana 48  506 


Population 

Population 

1900 

1910 

1,828,697 

2,138,093 

68,592 

64,856 

122.931 

204,3:4 

1,811,664 

1.574,449 

1,485,058 

2,377,549 

589,700 

799,(124 

90s, 420 

1,114.750 

184,785 

202,322 

278,718 

331,009 

528,542 

752,619 

2.210.3:11 

2,609,121 

8,561 

11,973 

154,001 

191.91(9 

101,772 

325.594 

4,821,550 

5,688,591 

2,516,402 

2,700.876 

2,281,858 

2.224,771 

1.470,495 

1.090.949 

2,147,174 

2,289,905 

1,381,625 

1,656,388 

Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Maine 33,040 

Maryland 12,327 

Massachusetts 8.206 

.  Michigan 57,980 

Minnesota 84,682 

Mississippi 46.865 

Missouri 69,420     ■ 

Montana 140,572 

Nebraska 77.520 

Nevada 110,690 

New  Hampshire 9.341 

New  Jersey 8,224 

New  Mexico 122,634 

New  York 49,204 

North  Carolina 52,426 

North  Dakota 70,637 

/Ohio 41,040 

( Iklahoma 70,057 

( Iregon 96,699 

Pennsylvania  45,126 


Population 

1900 

Population 
1910 

694,466 
1,188.044 
2,805,846 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 

742.371 
1,295,346 
3,366,416 
2,810,173 

2,075,708 

1,551,270 

3,106,605 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 

1,797.114 

3,293,835 

870,053 

1,192,214 

81,875 

411,568 
1,883,669 

195,310 
7,268,894 
1,893,S10 

430.572 
2,537.167 

327.301 
9,113.014 
2,206,287 

319,146 
4,157,645 

790.391 

413,536 

6,802,115 

557.050 
4,707.121 
1.057,155 

672,765 
7,665,111 

426 


AREA,  POPULATION,   ETC. 


Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Philippine  Islands 127, S53 

Porto  Eico 3,61)6 

Rhode  Island 1,248 

South  Carolina 30,989 

South  Dakota 77,615 

Tennessee 42,022 

Texas 265,896 

Tutuila 77 

Utah 84.990 

Vermont 9,564 


Population 
1900 

Population 
1910 

7,360,551 
962,019 
428,556 

1,340,316 
401,570 

8,276,802 

1,113,012 

542,610 

1,515,400 

5S3.88S 

2,020,616 

3,048,710 

3,800 

276,749 

343,641 

2,184,7S9 

3,896,542 

6,730 

373,351 

355,956 

Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Virginia 42,627 

Washington » 69,127 

West  Virginia 24,170 

Wisconsin 56,066 

Wyoming 97,914 

United  States,  total 3,621,122 

United    States    (without    Alaska, 
Philippine  Islands,  etc.) 3,026,789 


Population 

1900 

1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069.042 

92,531 

77,256,630 


75,994,575 


Population 
1910 

2,061.612 
1.111.990 
i,221,U9 
2,383.860 
145,965 

93,402,151 


1,972,266 


TWENTY-FIVE   OF   THE  LARGEST   CITIES    IN   THE    WORLD 


11. 
12. 


Population 

London,  England,  1910 4,872,702 

Greater  London,  1910 7,537,196 

New  York,  U.S.,  1910 4,766,833 

Paris,  France,  1911  2,846,986 

Tokyo,  Japan,  1909 2,168,069 

Chicago,  U.S.,  1910   2,185,283 

Berlin,  Germany,  1910 2,070,695 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1911 2,004,291 

Petrograd,  Russia,  1910 1,907,703 

Canton,  China 1,600,000 

Philadelphia,  U.S.,  1910 1,519,003 

Moscow,  Russia,  1907 1,359,254 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1911 1,326,994 


Population 

13.  Calcutta,  India,  1910 • 1,216.514 

14.  Constantinople.  Turkey  I,125,0u0 

15.  Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,117,151 

16.  Shanghai,  China  1,000,000 

17.  Tientsin,  China,  1910 1.000,000 

18.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1909 1,000,000 

19.  Bombay,  India,  1910 972,892 

20.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1910 936,000 

21.  Liverpool,  England,  1910 767.606 

22.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1909 872,021 

23.  Warsaw,  Russia,  1901  756,426 

24.  Budapest,  Austria-Hungary,  1901 732,822 

25.  Barcelona,  Spain,  1911 .....' 700,000 


TWENTY-FIVE   LARGEST  CITIES   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES 


Population  Population 

1900  1910 

1.  New  York,  N.  Y 3,437,202  4,766,883 

2.  Chicago,  111 1,698,575  2,185,233 

8.     Philadelphia,  Pa 1,293,697  1,549,003 

4.  St.  Louis,  Mo 575,233  687,029 

5.  Boston,  Mass 560,892  670,585 

6.  v  Cleveland,  Ohio 381,768  560,663 

7.  Baltimore,  Md 508,957  553,485 

8.  Pittsburgh.  Pa 321,616  533,905 

9.  Detroit,  Mich 285,704  465,766 

10.  .^Buffalo,  N.Y 352,387  423,715 

11.  San  Francisco,  Cal 342,782  416,912 

12.  Milwaukee,  Wis 285,315  373,857 

13.  Cincinnati,  Ohio 325,902  364,463 


Population      Population 

1900  1910 

14.  Newark,  N.J 246,070  347,469 

15.  New  Orleans,  La 287,104  339,075 

16.  Washington,  D.C 278,718  381.069 

17.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 102,479  319,198 

18.  Minneapolis,  Minn 202,718  801,408 

19.  Jersey  City,  N.J 206,438  267.779 

20.  Kansas  City,  Mo 163,752  248,881 

21.  Seattle.  Wash 80,671  237,194 

22.  Indianapolis.  Ind 169,164  288,650 

23.  Providence,  R.  1 175,597  224,326 

24.  Louisville,  Kv 204,781  228,928 

25.  Rochester,  N".Y 162,608  218,146 


GROWTH   OF  THE   FIFTEEN  LARGEST   CITIES   OF  THE   COUNTRY 


City  1800  1830 

1.  .  New  York.  N.Y 60,489  (1)  197,112  (1) 

2.  Chicago,  111 4,470(1840) 

3.  Philadelphia.  Pa 41,220  (2)  80,462  (3) 

4.  St.  Louis,  Mo 10,049  (1820)  14,125  (7) 

5.  Boston,  Mass 24,937(4)  61,392(4) 

6.  -  Cleveland,  Ohio 606(1820)  1,076(12)  ' 

7.  'Baltimore,  Md 26,514  (3)  80,620(2) 

8.  Pittsburgh,  Pa 1,565(5)  12,568(8) 

9.  Detroit,  Mich 1,422  (1820)  2,222  (11) 

10.  /Buffalo,  N.Y 2,095(1820)  8,668(10) 

11.  San  Francisco,  Cal ■ 

12.  Milwaukee,  Wis 1.172  (1840) 

13.  Cincinnati,  Ohio 2,540  (1810)  24,831  (6) 

14.  Newark.  N.J 8,003  (1S10)  10,953(9) 

15.  New  Orleans,  La 17,242(1810)  29,787(5) 


1S90 


1900 


1910 


2,507.414  (1) 

3,487,202  (1) 

4,766,SS8 

1,099.850  (2) 

1,698,575  (2) 

2.185.2S3 

1,046,964  (3) 

1,293,697  (3) 

1,549.008 

451,770  (4) 
448,477  (5) 

575.238  (4) 

6S7.029 

560.892  (5) 

670,585 

261,858  (9) 

3S1.76S  (7) 

560.668 

434,439  (6) 

508.957  (6) 

558.485 

238,617  (12) 

321,616  (11) 

533.905 

205.S76  (13) 

265,704  (18) 

465.766 

255,664  (10) 

352,3S7  (8) 

428,715 

298,997  (7) 

842.782  (9) 

416.912 

204.40S  (14) 

285.815  (14) 

873,857 

296.908  (8) 

825,902  (10) 

364.463 

1S1.830  (15) 

246,070  (15) 

347.469 

242,039  (11) 

287,104  (12) 

889.075 

CITIES  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES   WITH  25,000  OR  MORE  INHABITANTS   IN  1910  ;    AND  A    FEW    OTHERS,  MOSTLY 

MENTIONED   IN  THE   BOOK 


Population,  1900      Population,  1910 

Akron,  Ohio 42,728  69,067 

Albany,  N.Y 94,151  100,253 

Albuquerque,  N.M 6,288  11,020 

Allentown.  Pa 35,416  51,913 

Altoona,  Pa 88,978  52,127 

Amsterdam,  N.Y 20,929  81,267 

Anaconda,  Mont 9,453  10,184 

Annapolis,  Md 8,575  8,609 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 14,509  14,817 

Ashevllle,  N.C 14,694  18,762 


Population,  1900      Population,  1910 

Ashland,  Wis 18,074  11,594 

Astoria.  Ore 8,881  9,599 

Atchison,  Kan 15,722  16,429 

Atlanta,  Ga S9.S72  154.S39 

Atlantic  City,  N.J 27,838  46,150 

Auburn,  Me 12,951  15.064 

Auburn.  N.Y 80,845  84.668 

Augusta,  Ga 89,441  41,040 

Augusta,  Me 11.688  13,211 

Aurora,  111 24,147  29,807 


APPENDIX 


421 


Population,  19U0 

Austin,  Tex 22,258 

Baltimore,  Md 609,957 

Bangor,  Me 21,850 

Barre,  Vt 8,448 

Both,  Me 10,477 

Baton  Rouge,  La 11,269 

Battle  Creek,  Mich 13,563 

Bay  City,  Mich 40,747 

Bavonne,  N.J 82,722 

Bcllingham,  Wash 11,062 

Berkeley,  Cal 18,214 

Biddefo'rd,  Me 16,145 

Billings,  Mont 3,221 

Binghamton,  N.Y »9,647 

Birmingham,  Ala 88,415 

Bisbec,  Ariz 7,000 

Bismarck,  N.D 8,819 

Bloomington,  111 23,286 

Boise,  Idaho 5,957 

Boston,  Mass 560,892 

Bradford,  Pa 15,029 

Bridgeport,  Conn 70,996 

Brockton,  Mass 40,068 

Brookline,  Mass 19,935 

Brunswick,  Ga 9,081 

Buffalo,  N.Y 352,887 

Burlington,  Vt 18.640 

Butte,  Mont 30,470 

Cambridge,  Mass 91,886 

Camden,  N.J 75,935 

Canton,  Ohio 30,667 

Carson  City,  Nev 2.100 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 25.656 

Champaign,  111 9,098 

Charleston,  S.C 55,807 

Charleston,  W.  Ya 11,099 

Charlotte,  N.C 18,091 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 30,154 

Chelsea,  Mass 34,072 

Chester,  Pa 33,988 

Cheyenne.  Wvo 14.0S7 

Chicago,  111 1,698,575 

Chicopee,  Mass 19,167 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 325,902 

Clarksville,  Tenn 9,431 

^Cleveland,  Ohio 3S1.768 

Clinton.  Iowa 22,698 

Colorado  Springs.  Colo 21,085 

Columbia.  S.C 21,108 

Columbus,  Ga 17,614 

Columbus,  Ohio 125,560 

Concord,  N.H 19,632 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa 25,802 

Covington,  Kv 42.938 

Cripple  Creek,  Colo lu,147 

Dallas.  Tex 42,638 

Danville,  III. 16,351 

Danville.  Va 16,520 

Davenport,  Iowa 35,254 

Dayton,  Ohio 85,333 

Decatur,  111 20,754 

Denver.  Colo 133,859 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 62,139 

Detroit,  Mich 285,704 

Douglas,  Ariz 

Dover,  Del 3,329 

Dover,  N.H 13,207 

Dubuque,  Iowa 36,297 

Duluth,  Minn 52,969 

Durham,  N.C 6,679 

Easton.  Pa. 25,238 

East  Orange,   N.J 21,506 

Eastport,  Me 5,311 

East  St.  Louis,  III 29,655 

Elgin,  111 22,433 

Elizabeth,  N..1 52,180 

Elniira,  N.Y 35,672 

El  Paso,  Tex 15.906 

Erie,  Pa 52,783 

Evaoston,  HI .' 19,259 


'opulation,  1910 

29,860 

658,485 

24,808 

111,734 

9,396 

14,897 
25, 267 
45,166 
55,545 
24,296 

40,434 
17,079 
10,031 
4S.443 
132,685 

9,019 

5,443 
25,768 
17,358 
670,585 

14.544 
102,054 
56,S73 
27,792 
10,182 

423,715 
20,468 

39,165 
104,839 
94,538 

50,217 
2,466 
32,811 
12,421 
58,833 

22,996 
34,014 
44,604 
32.452 
38,537 

11,320 

2,185,288 

25,401 

364.463 

8.54S 

560,663 
25,577 
29.07S 
26,319 
20,554 

181,548 

21,497 

29,292 

53,270 

6,206 

92,104 
27,871 
19.020 
43.0-28 
116,577 

31,140 
213,381 

86,368 

465,766 

6,437 

8,720 
13.247 
88,494 
78,466 
18,241 

28,523 
34,371 
4,961 
58,547 
25,976 

73,409 
37,176 
39,'.'79 
66.525 
24,978 


Population,  1900        Population, 

Evansville,  Ind 59,007  69,647 

Everett,  Mass 24,336  83,484 

Fall  River,  Mass 104,863  119,295 

Fargo,  N.D 9.5S9  14,331 

Findlay,  Ohio 17,613  14,858 

Fitchburg,  Mass 31,531  37,826 

Flint,  Mich 13,103  38,551) 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 45,1 15  63,933 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 20,688  73,312 

Frankfort,  Ky 9,487  10,465 

Fresno,  Cal 12,470  24,892 

Galveston,  Tex 87,789  36,981 

Gloucester,  Mass 26,121  24,398 

Goldtield,  Nev 4,833 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich S7.565  112,571 

Greeley,  Colo 3,023  8,179 

Green  Bay,  Wis 13,684  25,236 

Greenville,  S.C 11,860  15,741 

Guthrie,  Ok 10,006  11,654 

Hamilton,  Ohio 23,914  35,279 

Harrisburg,  Pa 50,167  64.1S6 

Hartford,  Conn 79,S50  98,915 

Haverhill,  Mass 37,175  44,115 

Hazelton,  Pa 14,230  25,452 

Helena,  Mont 10,770  12,515 

High  Point,  N.C 4,163  9,525 

Hifo,  Hawaiian  Islands 19,785  6,745 

Hoboken,  N.J 59,364  70,324 

Holyoke,  Mass 46,712  57,730 

Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands 39,306  52,183 

Hot  Springs.  Ark 9,978  14,434 

Houghton,  Mich 3,595  5,113 

Houston,  Tex 44,633  78,800 

Huntington.  W.  Va 11.923  81,161 

Huntsville,  Ala 8,068  7,611 

Indianapolis,  Ind 169,164  283,650 

Ishpeming,  Mich 13,255  12,448 

Ithaca,  N.Y 13,136  14,802 

^Jackson,  Mich 25,180  31.433 

Jackson,  Miss 7,S16  21,262 

Jacksonville,  Fla 28,429  57,699 

Jamestown.  N.Y 22.S92  31,297 

Jefferson  City,  Mo 9,664  11,850 

Jersey  City,  N.J 206,433  267,779 

Johnstown,  Pa 35,936  55,432 

Joliet,  111 29,368  34,670 

Joplin,  Mo 26,023  32,073 

Juneau,  Alaska 1.S64  1.644 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 24,404  39,437 

Kansas  City,  Kan 51,418  82,331 

Kansas  City,  Mo 163,752  24S.3S1 

Key  West,  Fla 17,114  19,945 

Kingston,  N.Y 24.535  25,908 

Knoxville,  Tenn 32,637  36,346 

La  Crosse,  Wis 28,895  30,417 

Lancaster,  Pa 41,459  47,227 

Lansing,  Mich 16.485  81,229 

Laramie,  Wvo 8,207  8,237 

Lawrence,  Mass 62.559  85,892 

Leadville,  Colo 12,455  7,503 

Lewiston,  Idaho 2,425  6,043 

Lewiston,  Me 23,761  26,'247 

Lexington,  Ky 26,369  35.099 

Lima.  Ohio. . .' 21,723  30.508 

Lincoln,  Neb 40,169  43,973 

Little  Rock,  Ark 38,807  45,941 

Lockport.  N.Y 16,581  17,970 

Lorain,  Ohio 16,028  28,333 

Los  Angeles,  Cal ...127,927  319,198 

Louisville,  Ky 204,731  223,928 

Lowell,  Mass 94,969  106,294 

Lynchburg,  Va 18,891  29,494 

Lvnn,  Mass 68,513  89,336 

Macon,  Ga 23.272  40.665 

Madison,  Wis 19,164  25,581 

Maiden,  Mass 83,661  44,404 

Manchester,  N.H 56,937  70,003 

Manila,  Philippines,  1908 219,923  

Marquette,  Mich 10.053  11.503 

McKeesport,  Pa 34,227  42,694 


428 


AJiEA,  POPULATION,  ETC. 


Population,  1900 

Memphis,  Tenn 102,320 

Meriden,  Conn 24.296 

Miami,  Fla 1,6S1 

Milwaukee,  Wis 285,315 

Miuneapolis,  Minn 202,718 

Mobile,  Ala 38,469 

Montgomery,  Ala 30,346 

Montpelier,  Vt 6,266 

Mount  Vernon,  N.Y 21,228 

Muskogee,  Okla 4,254 

Nashua,  N.H 23,898 

Nashville,  Tenn 80,865 

Natchez,  Miss 12,210 

Newark,  N.J 246,070 

Newark,  Ohio 18,157 

New  Bedford,  Mass 62,442 

New  Britain,  Conn 25,998 

Newburgh,  N.Y 24.943 

Newcastle,  Pa.  ..  .<,....:.: 28,339 

New  Haven,  Conn 108,027 

New  Orleans,  La 287,104 

Newport,  Ky 28,801 

Newport,  E.I 22,441 

Newport  News,  Va 19,635 

New  Eochelle,  N.Y 14,720 

Newton,  Mass 33,587 

New  York,  N.Y 3,437,202 

^Niagara  Kails,  N.Y 19,457 

Nome  City,  Alaska 12,486 

Norfolk,  Va 46,624 

Norristown,  Pa 22,265 

North  Yakima,  Wash 3,154 

Oakland,  Cal 66,960 

Ogden,  ITtah 16,313 

Oil  City,  Pa 13,264 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla 10,037 

Olean,  N.Y 9,462 

Olympia,  Wash 4,032 

Omaha,  Neb 102,555 

Orange,  N.J 24,141 

Oshkosh,  Wis 28,2S4 

Oswego,  N.Y 22,199 

Tasadena,  Cal 9,117 

Passaic,  N.J 27,777 

Paterson,  N.J 105,171 

Pawtucket,  E.I 39.231 

Pensacola,  Fla 1 7,747 

Peoria,  111 56,100 

Perth  Amboy,  N.J 17,690 

Petersburg,  Va 21,810 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1,293,697 

Phienix,  Ariz 5,544 

Pierre.  S.D 2.306 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 321,616 

Pittsfield,  Mass 21,766 

Plymouth,  Mass 9,562 

Pomona,  Cal 5,526 

Ponce,  Porto  Eico,  1899 27,952 

Portland,  Me 60,145 

Portland,  Ore 90,426 

Portsmouth,  N.H 10,637 

Portsmouth,  Ya 17,427 

Poughkeepsie.  N.Y 24,029 

Prescott,   Ariz 3,559 

Providence,  E.I 175,597 

Provincetown,  Mass.,  1805 4,555 

Pueblo,  Colo 28, 157 

Qoincv,  111 86,252 

Quincy,  Mass 23.899 

Racine,  Wis 29,102 

Raleigh,  N.C 13.643 

Reading,  Pa 7S.961 

Eedlands,  Cal 4,797 

Richmond.  Va 85,050 

Eiverside,  Cal 7,973 

Roanoke,  Va 21,495 

Rochester,  N.Yr 162.608 

Rockford.  Ill 31,051 

Rome,  Oa 7,291 

Rutland,  Vt 11,499 


Population,  1910 

131,105 

27,265 

5,471 

873,857 

301,408 

51,521 

38,136 

7,856 

30,919 

25,278 

26,005 
110,364 

11,791 
347,469 

25,404 

96,652 
43,916 
27.805 
36,280 
133,605 

839,075 
30,309 
27,149 
20,205 
28,867 

39,806 

4,766,883 

30,445 

2,600 

67,452 

27.S75 
14.082 
150,174 
25.580 
1.5,657 

64,205 

14,743 

6,996 

124,096 

29,630 

33,062 
23.368 
80,291 
54,778 
125,600 

51,622 
22.9S2 
66,950 
82,121 
24,147 

1,549,008 

11,134 

3,656 

533,905 

32,121 

12,141 
10,207 
85.027 
58,571 
207,214 

11,269 
33,190 
27,936 
5,092 
224,826 

4,869 
44,395 
86,587 
32,642 
88,002 

19,218 
96,071 
10,449 
127.628 
15,212 

84,874 
218,149 
45,401 
12.099 
18,546 


Population,  1900 

Sacramento,  Cal 29,2S2 

Saginaw,  Mich 42,345 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 4,272 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 102,979 

St.  Louis,  Mo 575,238 

St.  Paul,  Minn 168,065 

Salem,  Mass 35,956 

Salem.  Ore 4,258 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  58,531 

San  Antonio,  Tex 53,821 

San  Bernardino,  Cal 6,150 

San  Diego,  Cal 17,700 

San  Francisco,  Cal 342,782 

San  Jose,  Cal 21,500 

San  Juan,  Porto  Eico,  1899 32,048 

Santa  Fe,  N.M 5,603 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich 10,538 

Savannah,  Ga 54,244 

Schenectady,  N.Y 31,682 

Scranton,  Pa 102,026 

Seattle,  Wash 80,671 

Shawnee.  Okla 3,464 

Sheboygan,  Wis 22,962 

Shenandoah,  Pa 20,321 

Shreveport,  La 16,013 

Sioux  Citv,  Iowa 33,111 

Sioux  Fafls,  S.D 10,266 

Sitka,  Alaska 1,396 

Skagwav,  Alaska 3,117 

Somerville,  Mass 61,648 

South  Bend,  Ind 35,999 

South  Omaha,  Neb 26,001 

Spartanburg,  S.C 11.895 

Spokane,  Wash 86,848 

Springfield,  111 84,159 

Springfield,  Mass 62,059 

Springfield,  Mo 23,267 

Springfield,  Ohio 38,253 

Stamford,  Conn 15,997 

Stockton,  Cal 17,506 

Superior.  Wis 81,091 

Syracuse.  N.Y 10S.374 

T'acoma,  Wash 87,714 

Tallahassee,  Fla 2.9S1 

Tampa,  Fla 15.S39 

Taunton,  Mass 31.036 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 86,673 

t-Toledo,  Ohio 181,822 

Tonopah.  Nev 

Topeka,  Kan 88,608 

Trenton,  N.J 73;307 

Troy,  N.Y 60,651 

Tucson,  Ariz 7,521 

Utica,  N.Y 56,388 

Yicksburg,  Miss 14.S34 

Virginia  Citv,  Nev 2,695 

Waco,  Tex. .' 20.6S6 

Walla  Walla.  Wash 10,049 

Waltham,  Mass 23,481 

Warwick,  E.I 21,316 

Washington,  DC 278.718 

Waterburv.  Conn 45,859 

Waterloo,'  Iowa 12.5S0 

Watertown,  N.Y 21,696 

Waterville,  Me 9,477 

WestHoboken,  N.J 23,094 

Wheeling.  W.  Va 3S.878 

Wichita,  Kan 24,671 

Wilkes  Barre.  Pa 51.721 

Williamsport,  Pa 28,757 

Wilmington,  Del 76.508 

Wilmington.  N.C 20.976 

Winona,  Minn 19,714 

Woonsocket.  R.  1 2S.204 

Worcester,  Mass 11S.421 

Yonkers,  N.Y 47.981 

York,  Pa 33.708 

Youngstown.  Ohio 44.SS5 

Zanesville,  Ohio 28,588 


Population,  1910 

44,696 

50,510 

5,494 

77,403 

687,029 

214,744 
43.697 
14,094 
92.777 
96,614 

12,779 
89,578 
416,912 
2S.946 
48,716 

5,072 

12,615 

65,064 

72,826 

129,867 

287,194 

12,474 
26,898 
25,774 
28,015 

47,828 

14,094 

1,039 

872 

77,236 

53,684 
26,259 
17,519 
104,402 
51,678 

88.926 
35,201 
46,921 
25,138 
23,258 

40.3S4 
187,249 
88.748 
5.018 
87,782 

34,259 

5S.157 

168.497 

3,900 

48.6S4 

96,815' 
76,818 
18,193 
74,419 
20,814 

2.244 
26.425 
19.863 
27,884 
26,629 

831,069 
73,141 
26,698 
26,780 
11,458 

85.408 
41,641 
52.450 
67,105 
81,860 

87,411 
25.748 
18.588 
88.125 
145.9S6 

79,808 
44.750 
79,066 
28,026 


APPENDIX 


429 


FOREIGN  CITIES   MOST  OF  WHICH 

Population 

Aachen,  Germany.  1910 156,044 

Abeokuta,  X  iger'Territorv 150,000 

Aberdeen,  Scotland,  191 1 163.0S4 

Acapulco.  Mexico 5,000 

Adelaide,  A  ustralia,  1910 192,000 

Adis  Ababa.  Abyssinia 30,000-35.000 

Alexandria,  Egypt.  1907 332,246 

Algiers.  A Igeria,  1906 135,240 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  1910 573,9-3 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  1910 320,640 

Archangel,  Russia.  1911 35,000 

An-quips,  Peru,  1908 35,000-40.000 

Asuncion.  Paraguay,  1910 84,000 

Athens,  Greece,  1907 167.479 

Auckland,  Sew  Zealand.  1911 102,676 

Bagdad,  Turkey  in  Asia 75,000 

Bshis.  Brazil,  1909 280,000 

Bsku,  Russia.  1904 177.777 

llallarat,  Australia,  1910  44,000 

Bangkok,  Siam,  1909 628,675 

Barcelona,  Spain.  1911 700,000 

Barmen,  Germany,  1910 169.201 

Basel.  Switzerland,  1910 131,914 

Batayia,  Java,  1905 188,551 

Belfast,  Ireland,  1910 391,167 

Belgrade,  Servia.  1910 84,235 

Benares,  India.  1911 203,804 

Bcndigo.  Australia.  1911 42.000 

Berbera,  Br.  Somaliland 30,000 

Bergen,  Norway,  1910 76,917 

Berlin,  Germany.  1910 2.070.695 

Berne,  Switzerland,  1910 85.264 

Bilbso.  Spain.  1910 92.514 

Birmingham,  England,  1910 570,113 

Bloemfontein,  South  Africa,  1911 14,760 

Bogota,  Colombia.  191o 290.000 

Bologna,  Italy,  1911 173,639 

Bombay.  India,  1910 972,892 

Bordeaux.  France,  1911 261.678 

Bradford,  England.  1910 295.S65 

Bremen,  Germany,  1910 246,827 

Breslau.  Germany.  1910 511.891 

Brindisi.  Italy,  1907 22,021 

Brisbane.  Australia,  1909 143.077 

Bristol,  England,  1910 382,550 

Brussels,  Belgium,  1910 665,806 

Bucharest,  Roumania,  1908 300,000 

Budapest,  Austria- Hungary.  1910 8S0.371 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina.  1911 1,326,994 

Cadiz,  Spsin,  1910 67,174 

Cairo,  Egypt,  19o7 654.476 

Cslcutta.  India.  1911 1.216,514 

Calgary,  Canada.  1911 44,000 

Callao,"  Peru,  1908 .81,000 

Cambridge,  England,  1905 35,760 

Csnton,  China 1,600,000 

Cape  Town,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1911 67,000 

Caracas,  Venezuela 72  429 

Cardiff,  Wsles.  1910 199.189 

Csrtagena,  Colombia,  1910 27,000 

Cartagena,  Spain,  1910 96,983 

Catania,  Italy.  1911 211.699 

Cayenne.  French  Guiana.  1910 12,426 

Cettinje.  Montenegro,  1906 4,500 

Chemnitz,  Germany,  1910 2S7|SG7 

Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  1911 80,193 

Christiants,  Norwsy,  1910 \ "  .248,801 

Cologne,  Germany.'  1910 !.  .516,167 

Colon,  Panama.  191o 19,300 

Constantinople.  Turkey : 1,125,000 

Copenhagen,  Denmark.  1911 ..462,161 

Cordoba,  Argentina.  1911 70,830 

Cordoba.  Spain.  1910 65.160 

Cork.  Ireland,  1911 76,632 


ARE  MENTIONED   IN  THE  TEXT 

Population 

Cuzco,  Peru,  1908 10,000-15,000 

Damascus,  Turkey  in  Asia 250,000 

Danzig,  Germany.'  1910 170.347 

Dawson,  Canada,  1901 9,142 

Delhi,  India,  1911 232,837 

Dover,  England,  1905 43.734 

Dresden,  Germany,  1910 540.— 2 

Dublin,  Ireland,  1910. .402.92S 

Dundee,  Scotland,  1911 165,006 

Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  1911 64,237 

Durban,  Natal,  1911 31,696 

Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1911 320.315 

Elberfeld.  Germany,  1910 170,118 

Essen,  Germany,  1910 294,629 

Fez,  Morocco,  1910 140,000 

Fiume,  Austria-Hungary,  1910 49,806 

Florence,  Italy,  1911 999,405 

Frankfort,  Germany,  1910 414,593 

Fredericton,  Canada,  1901 7,1 17 

Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  1910 37,682 

Fuchau,  China.  1909 .' 624.000 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  1910 125,520 

Genoa,  Italy,  1911 272,077 

Georgetown.  British  Guiana,  1908 53,176 

Ghent,  Belgium,  1910 164,659 

Gibraltar,  Spanish  Pen.,  1909 25,915 

Glasgow,  Scotland,  1910 784,455 

Gothenburg,  Sweden,  1910 167,813 

Granada,  Spain,  1910 74.2-3 

Grimsby,  England,  1919 74,283 

Guatemala,  Guatemala.  1910 90,000 

Guayaquil,  Ecuador.  1910 80.000 

Hague,  The,  Netherlands,  1910 280,515 

Halifax.  Canada.  1911 46,000 

Halle,  Germany,  1910 160,551 

Hamburg,  Germany,  1910 936.000 

Hamilton,  Bermuda,  1907 2.246 

Hamilton,  Canada,  1911 62,000 

Hammerfest,  Norway 2.239 

Hangchau,  China,  19ij9 350,000 

Hankau.  China,  1909 820,000 

Hanover,  Germany.  1910 302.384 

Havana,  Cuba,  19i0 319.884 

Havre,  France.  1911 136,159 

Hebron,  Holy  Land 18,000-19,000 

Helsingfors,  Russia,  1905 137,346 

Hobart,  Tasmania,  191 1 27,719 

Hongkong,  China,  1908 329,650 

Hue,  French  Ind.  China,  1910 50,000 

Hull,  England,  1909 275,552 

Hyderabad,  India,  1911 500,623 

Iq'uique,  Chile.  1907 40,171 

Irkutsk.  Siberia,  1906 10S.060 

Jaffa,  Holy  Land 45,000 

Jerusalem,  Holy  Land,  1910 70,000 

Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  1910 158,580 

Kabul,  Afghanistan 60.000 

Khartum.  Egyptian  Sudan,  1909 20,956 

Khelat.  Baluchistan 14,000 

Kiev,  Russia,  1909 468,712 

Kimberley,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1911 13,656 

Kingston,  Canada 17,961 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  1911 57,379 

Kioto,  Japan,  1908 442.462 

Konigsberg,  Germany,  1910 245,853 

Krefeld.  Germany.  1910 129.412 

Knmassi,  Asbanti,  1910 7,000 

La  Guaira.  Venezuela 6,000 

La  Paz,  Bolivia,  1909 76.856 

La  Plata.  Argentina,  1911 100,608 

Lasja  Tibet  15,000-20,000 

Leeds,  England,  1910 490,985 

Leghurn.  Italy.  1908 10-. 0011 

Leicester.  England,  1910 248,874 

Leipzig,  Germany,  1910 557,635 


430 


AREA,   POPULATION,   ETC. 


Population 

Lelth,  Scotland,  1911 80,4S9 

Libreville,  French  Congo 3,000 

Liege,  Belgium,  1910  174,768 

Lille,  France,  1911 217,S07 

Lima,  Peru,  1908 140,884 

Limoges,  France,  1911 92.1S1 

Lisbon,  Portugal,  1900 386,009 

Liverpool,  England,  1910 767,606 

Luanda,  Port.  W.  Africa 14,000 

Lodz,  Russia,  1908 393,526 

London,  Canada,  1911 46,000 

London,  England,  1910 4,872,702 

London,  Greater,  1910 7,537,196 

Lourenco  Marquez,  Port.  E.  Africa,  1908 9,849 

Lucerne,  Switzerland,  1910 39,152 

Lucknow,  India,  1911 259,798 

Lvon,  France,  191 1 523,796 

Madras,  India,  1!>11 518,660 

Madrid,  Spain,  1910 571,539 

Magdeburg,  Germany,  1910 279,685 

Malaga,  Spain.  1910 133,045 

Manaos,  Brazil,  1909 50,000 

Manchester.  England,  1910 716,354 

Mandalay,  Burma,  1910 13S.299 

Marseille,  France,  1911 550,619 

Maskat,  Oman,  1907 25,000 

Mecca,  Turkey 80,000 

Melbourne,  Australia,  1910 591,830 

Messina,  Italy,  1911 126,172 

Metz,  Germany,  1910 68,667 

Mexico  City,  Mexico,  1910 470.659 

Milan,  Italy,  1911 599,200 

Mocha,  Turkey  in  Asia 5,000 

Mombasa,  Br.'E.  Africa,  1910 30,000 

Monrovia,  Liberia,  190S 8,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay,  1909 291,465 

Montreal,  Canada,  1911 466,000 

Morocco,  Morocco 50,000 

Moscow,  Russia,  1909 1,4S1,200 

Munich,  Germany,  1910 595,053 

Nogoya,  Japan,  1908 378,281 

Naples,  Italy,  1911 723,208 

Nassau,  Bahama,  1910 12,534 

Nazareth,  Holy  Land 11,000 

Newcastle,  England,  1911 266,671 

Nice,  France,  1911 142,940 

Nizhni  Novgorod,  Russia,  1904 92,273 

Nottingham,  England,  1910 266,471 

Nuremberg,  Germany,  1910 332,651 

Odessa,  Russia,  1909 478,900 

Oporto.  Portugal,  1900 167,955 

Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,226,590 

Ottawa,  Canada,  1911 86,000 

Oxford,  England,  1910 53,220 

Palermo,  Italy,  1911 314,656 

Panama,  Panama,  1909 40,801 

Para,  Brazil 65,000 

Paramaribo,  Dutch  Guiana,  1909 84,795 

Paris,  France,  1911 2,846,986 

Peking,  China 1,600,000 

Pernambuco,  Brazil,  1906 150,000 

Perth,  West  Australia,  190S 54,354 

Peterborough,  Canada,  1901 11,239 

Petrograd    Russia,  1910 1,907,708 

Pietermaritzburg,  Natal,  1911 30,539 

Pirjeus,  Greece,  1907 73,579 

Pisa,  Italy,  1911 65J215 

Port  Arthur,  Canada,  1901 8,214 

Port  Arthur,  China 

Port  au  Prince,  Haiti,  1908 100,000 

Port  Said,  Egypt,  1907 49,884 

Portsmouth,   England,  1910 217,989 

Posen,  Germany,  1910 156,096 

Potsdam,  Germany,  1910 02,224 

Prague,  Austria-Hungary,  1910 223,741 

Pretoria,  Transvaal,  1910 48.609 

Puebla,  Mexico,  1910 101,214 

Quebec,  Canada,  1910 78,000 

Queenstown,  Ireland 9,082 

Quito,  Ecuador,  1909 70,000 


Population 

Rangoon,  Burma,  1911 289,432 

Rheims,  France,  1911 115,178 

Riga,  Russia,  190S 81S,400 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1909 1,000,000 

Rome,  Italy,  1911 538,684 

Rosario,  Argentina,  1909 176,076 

Rotterdam,  Netherlands,  1909 417,780 

Roubaix,  France,  1906 121,017 

Rouen.  France,  1906 118,459 

St.  Etienne,  France,  1906 146.7S8 

St.  John,  Canada,  1911 42.000 

St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  1911 31,501 

Samarkand,  Russian  Turkestan,  1905 66,166 

San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  1910 82,946 

San  Salvador,  Salvador,  1906 59,540 

Santiago,  Chile,  1907 332,724 

Santo  Domingo,  Santo  Domingo,  1909 18,626 

Santos,  Brazil,  1909 35,000 

SSo  Panlo.  Brazil.  1909 400.000 

Seoul,  Korea,  1911 278,958 

Seville,  Spain,  1910 155,866 

Sevres,  France 6,902 

Shanghai,  China 1,000,000 

Sheffield,  England,  1910 478,763 

Siangtan,  China,  1908 1,000,000 

Singanfu,  China,  1908 1,000,000 

Singapore,  Straits  Settlements,  1911 311,985 

Smyrna,  Turkev,  1910 350,000 

Sofia,  Bulgaria,  1910 102,769 

Southampton,  England,  1910 127,157 

Stettin,  Germany,  1910 236,145 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  1910 341.9S6 

Strassburg,  Germany,  1910 178,290 

Stuttgart,  Germany,  1910 285,589 

Suchau,  China,  190S 500,000 

Sucre,  Bolivia,  1909 23,416 

Suez,  Egypt,  1910 1S.S47 

Swansea,'  Wales,  1910 98,817 

Sydney,  Australia,  1910 621,100 

Tampico,  Mexico 9,885 

Tananarivo,  Madagascar,  1909 94.810 

Tangier,  Morocco,  1901 35,008 

Tashkend,  Russian  Turkestan,  1904 164.740 

Teheran,  Persia,  1905 2S0.009 

Tiberias,  Holy  Land,  1905 5,000 

Tientsin,  China.  1910 1.000.000 

Titiis,  Russia,  1904 196,985 

Timbuktu,  Sudan 20,000 

Tokyo,  Japan,  1908 2.186.079 

Toronto,  Canada,  1911 ' 376,000 

Trebizond,  Turkey  in  Asia 51,000 

Trieste,  Austria-Hungary,  1910 229,475 

Tripoli,  Tripoli,  1909 80,000 

Trondhjem,  Norway,  1910 45,228 

Tunis,  Tunis,  1906 227,519 

Turin,  Italy,  1911 427,733 

Upernivik,  Greenland 700 

Valencia,  Spain,  1910 2.33,348 

Valparaiso,  Chile,  1907 162,447 

Vancouver,  Canada,  191 1 100,000 

Venice,  Italy,  1911 160,711 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  1910 29,164 

Versailles,  France.  1911 60.45S 

Victoria,  Canada.  1911 32.000 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1911 2,004,291 

Vladivostok,  Siberia,  1909 90,162 

Warsaw,  Russia,  1909 781.179 

Wellington,  New  Zealand,  1911 70,729 

West  Ham,  England.  1910 .- 82S,5S5:> 

Windsor,  Canada,  1901 : 12,158 

Winnipeg,  Canada,  1911> 135.000 

Wuchang,  China 800,001 

Yakoba.  Niger  Terr 50,000 

Yarmouth,  Canada,  1901 6,411 

Yokohama,  Japan,  1908 894,801 

Zanzibar  (British),  1910 35.262 

Zurich,  Switzerland,  1910 189,088 


APPENDIX 


431 


ELEVATION   OF   SOME    PLATEAUS    AND    MOUNTAIN    PEAKS 


Feet 

Abyssinian  Plateau 5-7,000 

Aconcagua,  Andes,  Argentina  (highest  in  South  America) 22, B60 

Apo,  Mindanao,  Philippines 10,312 

Ararat,  Turkey  in  Asia 17,325 

Mt.  Blanc,  Alps,  France  (highest  in  Alps) 15,731 

Bolivian  Plateau 10-13,000 

Brazilian  Plateau 2-8,500 

Chimborazo,  Amies,  Ecuador '.'0,195 

Cotopaxi,  Andes,  Ecuador 19,613 

Elbruz,  Caucasus,  Kussia 18,200 

Etna,  Sicily 10,835 

Everest,  Himalayas,  Nepal  (highest  known  in  the  world) 29,002 

Fremont  Peak,  kooky  Mountains,  Wyo 13,790 

Fujiyama,  Japan 12,305 

He'cia,  Iceland 5,110 

Kunchiniunga 28,156 

Kenia,  Africa 13,620 

Kilimanjaro,  Africa  (highest  known  ill  Africa) 19,780 

Kosciusko,  Australia  (highest  in  Australia) 7,336 

Loiran,  Coast  Ranges,  Canada  (highest  known  in  Canada) 19,539 

McKinley,  Alaska  (highest  known  in  North  America) 20,464 

Mauua  Kea,  Hawaiian  Islands 13,805 


Feet 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaiian  Islands 13,675 

Mayor),  Luzon  Island,  Philippines 8,900 

Mexican  Plateau 5—6,000 

Mitchell,  Appalachian  Sits.,  N.C.  (highest  in  Eastern  U.S.) 6,711 

Mt.  Maroy,  New  York 5,344 

Mt.  Tina,  Haiti 10,300 

Orizaba,  Mexico  (highest  in  Mexico) 18,314 

Pico  del  Turquino,  Cuba s|6l)0 

Pike's  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Colorado 14,111 

Popocatepetl,  Mexico 17,798 

Rainier,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington 14,363 

St.  Elias,  Alaska 13,025 

San  Francisco  Mountain,  Arizona 12,794 

Shasta,  Cascade  Mountains,  California 14,3SO 

Tibet  Plateau 10-15,000 

United  States,  "Western  Plateau 5-6,000 

Vesuvius,  Italy 4,200 

"Washington,    White   Mountains,    N.H.   (highest  in   North- 
eastern U.S.) 6,279 

Whitney,  Sierra  Nevada,  California  (highest  in  Western  U.S.). 14, 502 
Y'unque,  Porto  Rico 3,609 


SOME  OF  THE   LARGEST  RIVERS   OF  THE   WORLD 


Length  in 
Miles 
Sortli  America 

Arkansas 2,170 

Colorado '-  000 

Columbia 1.400 

Mackenzie 2.000 

Missouri 3,000 

Missouri-Mississippi 4.300 

Nelson 1,732 

1-Ohio 975 

Rio  Grande 1,800 

St.  Lawrence 2,200 


Basin  Area 

Sq.  Miles 

Ocean 

lS5.fiTl 

Atlantic 

225,049 

Pacific 

216.537 

Pacific 

590,000 

Arctic 

5-27,loo 

Atlantic 

l,257,0i>0 

Atlantic 

432,000 

Atlantic 

201,720 

Atlantic 

240,000 

Atlantic 

530,000 

Atlantic 

Yukon. 


.2,000 


440,000 


South  America 

Amazon 3,300 

Orinoco 1 ,350 

Plata 2,580 

SSo  Francisco 1,800 

Europe 

Danube 1,770 

Dneiper '. 1 ,201) 

Dwina 1.000 

Elbe 725 

Po 400 

Rhine S00 

Khoue 5oO 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 

Aral  Sea 26,900 

Baikal 12,500 

Balkash 7.SO0 

Caspian 169,000 

Chad,  variable  with  season  . . .  .10.000 
and  often  more 

Dead  Sea 370  - 

,~Erieb 9.990 

Great  Bear  Lake 11,200 

Great  Salt  Lake 2.360 

Great  Slave  Lake in,  100 

1  Below  sea  level. 


2,500.0(10 

366,000 

1,200,000 

200,000 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 

300,000 
242,000 
140,000 
55,000 
27,000 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Arctic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

75,000 
38,000 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 

)ME  OF  THE 

LARGE 

Elevation 
in  Feet 

Greatest 
Depth 
in  Feet 

160 

1.312 
7S0 
—  B5  1 
100-900 

225 
4,550 

70 
2,400 

12 

Length  in 
Miles 


2'2S 
2,400 


Europe 

Seine 

Thames 

Volga 

Asia 

Amur 2,800 

Brahmaputra 1,800 

Ganges 1 ,500 

Hoang-ho 2,700 

Indus 1,800 

Irawadi 1.500 

Lena 2,800 

Mekong 2.S00 

Ob 3,200 

Yangtse-kiang 3,200 


Yenisei  , 


1,000 


573 
200 

4.21> 


1,880 


30-50 
over  650 


Africa 

Congo 2,900 

Niger 2,600 

Nile 3,400 

Zambezi 1,500 

Australia 

Darling 1,100 

Murray 1,000 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 

Huron 22,322 

Ladoga 7,000 

Manitoba 1.850 

Michigan 21,729 

Nicaragua 3,600 

Nvassa 14.000 

1  ihtario 7,104 

Superior 30.829 

Tanganyika 12,650 

Titicaca 3,300 

Victoria  Nvanza 30.000 

Winnipeg 9,400 


Basin  Area 
Sq.  Miles 

30,300 

6,100 

563,300 


520.000 

425.  Oik) 
44(1,000 
570.000 
372,700 

153.000 
950,000 
2S0.000 
1,1100.000 
548,000 

1,500,000 


1.200,000 
563.300 

1,273.000 
600,000 


Elevation 
in  Feet 
582 
60 
810 
5S2 
110 

1,500 

247 

602 
2.SO0 
12,875 

4,000 
710 


Ocean 

Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Caspian 


Pacific 
Indian 
Indian 
Pacific 
Indian 

Indian 
Arctic 
Pacific 
Arctic 
Pacific 

Arctic 


Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Atlantic 
Indian 


Indian 
Indian 


Greatest 
Depth 

in  Feet 
750 
730 

870 


600-1- 

733 
1,008 
2,100 

700 

590  + 
70 


Hoagolians 

China 380.000.000 

Japan  and  Korea 55,000,000 

Indo-China 85.000,000 

Malaysia 3il.liii0.iin0 

Other  Mongolians 40,000,000 


DISTRIBUTION  OF   MANKIND 
5(11.000,000       Caucasians . 


770.090,000 

Europe 355,000,000 

A  sia 2SO.000.000 

America 115.000,000 

Africa 15.000.000 

Australasia 5,000,000 


432 


AREA,   POPULATION,   ETC. 
DISTRIBUTION  OF  MANKIND 


Ethiopians 173,000,000 


Africa  and  Madagascar 

North  and  South  America 


.153,000,000 
.  .20,000,000 


American  Indians 22,170,000 

Mexico 8,765,000 


Brazil 4,200,000 

Colombia 3,150,000 

Peru 2,700,000 

Bolivia,  Guatemala,  and  Venezuela 4,225,000 

United  States 250,000 

Canada 100,000 


RELIGIONS   OF  MANKIND 


Buddhists  and  Brahmins 650,000,000 

Christians 440,000,000 

Jews 8,000,000 


Mohammedans 180,000,000 

Pagans  and  others 250,000,000 


PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES   FROM   WHICH  THE   FOREIGN-BORN   POPULATION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES   HAS  COME 


Country  of  Birth  Number  in  1910 

Austria-HuDgary 258,737 

Italy 215,537 

Russian  Empire 1S6,792 

British  North  America 56,555 

England 46,706 


Country  of  Birth  Number  in  1910 

German  Empire 31,283 

Ireland 29.855 

Greece 25.888 

Sweden 23.745 

Scotland 20,115 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  NEGROES   IN  THE   FIFTEEN  STATES  WHERE  THEY  ARE  MOST  NUMEROUS 


States 


Number  of  Negroes 
in  1900 


Georgia 1,084,818 

Mississippi 907,630 

Alabama 827,307 

South  Carolina 782,321 

Virginia 660,722 


Louisiana 

North  Carolina  . 
Texas 


.650,804 
. 624,469 
.620,722 


Percentage  of  Negroes 
to  Total 
Population,  1900 
40.69 
5S.50 
45.24 
58.36 
35.63 

47.10 
32.97 
20.36 


States  Number  of  Negroes    Percentage  of  Negroes 

in  1900  to  Total 

Population,  1900 
9.   Tennessee 4S0.243  23.77 

10.  Arkansas 366,856  27.97 

11.  Kentucky 284,706  .     13.25 

12.  Maryland 2*5,064  19.75 

18.   Florida 230.730  4=3.65 

14.  Missouri 161,234  5.18 

15.  Pennsylvania 156,845  2.48 

Total  number  of  Negroes  In  1900,  8,840,789. 


INDEX   AND    PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 

KEY  TO   PRONUNCIATION 
(Webster's  International  Dictionary) 

a,  as  in  ale  ;  S,  as  in  sen'&te  ;  a.  as  in  care  ;  a,  as  in  3m  ;  a,  as  in  arm  ;  a,  as  in  ask  ;  a,  as  in  fi'nol ;  a,  as  in  all ; 
e,  as  in  eve  ;  e,  as  in  e"-vent' ;  e,  as  in  end  ;  e,  as  in  fern  ;  e,  as  in  re'cent ;  i,  as  in  ice ;  i,  as  in  i-de'a ;  i,  as  in  III ; 
o,  as  in  old  ;  6,  as  in  6-bey' ;  6,  as  in  6rb ;  o,  as  in  odd  ;  u,  as  in  use  ;  u,  as  in  u-nite' ;  u,  as  in  rude ;  u,  as  in  full  ; 
u,  as  in  up  ;  u,  as  in  urn  ;  y,  as  in  pit'y  ;  6o,  as  in  food ;  66,  as  in  foot ;  ou,  as  in  out ;  oi,  as  in  oil ;  n,  representing 
simply  the  nasal  tone  of  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  ensemble  (aN'sas'b'l),  '  (for  voice  glide)  as  in  pardon  (parM'ti); 
g  (hard),  as  in  go ;  s  (sharp),  as  in  so;  z  (like  s  sonant),  as  in  zone ;  ch  (=  tsh),  as  in  chair ;  sh,  for  ch,  as  in 
machine  ;  zh  (=  sh  made  sonant),  for  z,  as  in  azure ;  j  (=  dzh),  for  g,  as  in  gem  ;  k,  for  ch,  as  in  chorus ;  kw, 
for  qu,  as  in  queen  ;  ks  (surd),  for  x,  as  in  vex;  gz  (sonant),  for  x,  as  in  exist ;  f,  for  ph,  as  in  philosophy  ;  hw, 
for  wh,  as  in  what;  t,  for  ed,  as  in  baked;  ng,  as  in  long;  n  (like  ng)  for  n  before  the  sound  of  k  or  hard  g,  as 
in  bank ;  n  (ordinary  souna),  as  in  no  ;  trr  (sonant),  for  th,  as  in  then ;  th  (surd),  as  in  thin. 

The  primary  accent  is  indicated  by  a  short,  heavy  mark  ( '  ),  the  secondary  by  a  lighter  mark  ( ' ). 

The  numbers  refer  to  pages.  Where  several  references  are  given,  the  pages  on  which  the  principal  description 
is  to  be  found  are  indicated  by  heavier  type. 


Aachen  (a'Ken),  312,  317. 

Aberdeen  (ab'er-den),  267,  274. 

Abyssinia  (aVis-sinl-a),  388. 

Abyssinian  Mountains.  379. 

Acapulco  (a'ka-pool'ko),  177. 

Aconcagua.  Mt.  (-a'k6n-ka'gwa),236. 

Adams.  Mt.  i-id'amz),  120. 

Adelaide  (ad'e-lad),  396. 

Aden  (a'den  or  a'den).  351. 

Adirondack  Mountains  (ad'i-ron'- 
dak-),  61,  52. 

Adriatic  Sea  (al're-at'ik-  or  a'dri-), 
329,  334. 

iEgean  Sea  (e-je'an-),  334. 

Afghanistan  (af-ganls-tan'),  352. 

Africa  (af'ri-ka),"  373-389  ;  animals, 
375,  376 ;  caravans  on  deserts, 
377-378;  Central,  386-389  (see 
Central  Africa)  ;  climate,  374 ; 
coast  line,  373 ;  exploration  and 
settlement,  376-377  ;  forests,  374  ; 
inhabitants,  376 ;  islands  near, 
389;  lakes,  374;  mountains,  373; 
Northern,  377-384  (see  Barbary 
States,  Egypt,  and  Sahara)  ;  rail- 
ways, 381,  386,  388,  389;  rivers, 
373  ;  Southern,  384-386  (see  South 
Africa)  ;  surface  features,  373 ; 
west  coast,  388.  See  also  under 
various  countries  of  Africa. 

Agave  plant  (a-ga've-),  173. 

Agriculture.  29,  183-184.  See  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Aix  la  Chapelle  (aks-la-sha'pel'  or 
as-),  317. 

Alabama  (al'a-ba'ma),  49.  79,  80. 

Alabaster  (al'a-bas'tSr),  382. 

Alameda  (Cal.)  (a'la-ma'da),  138.. 

Alaska  |  a-laVka),  127,  141,  149-152  ; 
climate,  149 ;  fishing,  149-151  ; 
mining,  151  ;  surface  features,  149  ; 
towns,  152. 

Albany  (X.  Y)  (al*ba-nl),  59,  61,  62. 


Alberta  (al-beVta),  162.  163. 

Albuquerque  (N.  Mex.)  (al'boo-kaiJ- 
ki),  142. 

Alderney  (-al'der-m),  Isle  of,  265. 

Aleutian  Islands  (a-hVshan-),  149. 

Alexandria  (al'egz-an'drl-a),  382. 

Alfalfa  (al-faTfa),  in  Argentina,  246  ; 
Colorado,  130. 

Algeria  (al-je'ri-a) ,  290,  377,  382. 

Algiers  (al-jerz') ,  384. 

Allegheny  Plateau  (al'e"-ga'nl-),  49. 

Allegheny  (Pa.).  59,  67. 

Allegheny  River,  67. 

Almonds,  in  California,  131.  See 
also  Fruits. 

Alpaca  (51'pak'a),  241,  242,  251. 

Alps  Mountains  (alps-),  257,  283, 
284,  319,  324,  331. 

Alsace-Lorraine  (al'saV  16'ran'),  308. 

Altoona  (Pa.)  (al-too'na),  59. 

Amazon  (am'a-zon),  236,  243,  248. 

Amsterdam  (am'ster-dSm'),  280. 

Anaconda  (Mont.)  (an'a-kon'da), 
137. 

Andes  Mountains  (an'dez-),  236,  238, 
251,  252. 

Andorra  (an-dov'ra),  284,  291. 

Androscoggin  (an'dros-kog'gin),  40. 

Animals,  in  Africa,  376 ;  Alaska, 
152  ;  Arctic  regions,  14-16,  226  ; 
Asia,  343—345 ;  Australia,  231, 
392,  393  ;  Belgium,  281  ;  British 
Isles,  265 ;  Central  States, 
97-98;  Denmark.  299;  deserts, 
229-230  ;  Egypt,  380  ;  France,  285; 
frigid  zone,  226  ;  India.  356  ;  Ire- 
land, 270  ;  Mexico,  174  ;  The  Neth- 
erlands, 278  ;  Persia,  351 ;  Philip- 
pine Islands,  159  ;  Russia  in  Asia, 
352 ;  South  America,  239-241  ; 
Spain,  292  ;  the  steppes,  231  ;  tern- 
perate  zone,  17-19,  230  ;  torrid 
zone,  21-22,  227-228. 

Annapolis  (Md.)  (an-nap'u-lis),  67. 

Ann  Arbor  (Mich.),  112. 
433 


Antilles  (an-tillez  or  ax-tel'),  178- 
179. 

Anti-trade  winds  (an'ti-trad'-),  207- 
208. 

Antwerp  (ant'werp).  282,  283,  286. 

Apennines  (ap'en-ninz),  324,  326, 
328. 

Apia  (a-pe'a  or  a'pe-ii),  157. 

Appalachian  Mountains  (ap'pa-la7- 
chl-an-  or  -lach'i-an-),  4,  7  ;  in 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  48-49 ; 
mining  in  the,  29  ;  in  New  Eng- 
land, 32  ;  passageways  across,  49- 
50  ;  in  Southern  States,  71-72. 

Apples,  in  Central  States,  97  ;  Mex- 
ico, 173;  Michigan  peninsula,  97; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  53;  New 
York  State,  53  ;  Nova  Scotia.  166  ; 
Southern  States,  77;  Western 
States,  128. 

Apricots  (a'pri-kots),  131,  132. 

Arabia  (a-ra'bl-a),  350-351;  agricul- 
ture, 351 ;  animals,  351  ;  cities,  351 
climate,    350 ;    government,    351 
population,    351  ;    products,    351 
rainfall,  350  ;  surface  features,  350. 

Aral  Sea  (ar'nl-),  303. 

Ararat.  Mt.  (-ar'a-rat),  347. 

Archangel  (aik-an'jel),  302. 

Arctic  Circle  (ark't'ik-),  199. 

Arctic  Ocean.  297. 

Arequipa  (a'ra-ke'pa),  252. 

Argentina  (ar'gen-te'na),  236, 
242,  245-247;  agriculture, 
cities,  247;  climate,  2J5;  com- 
merce, 247  ;  dairying.  247  ;  farm- 
ing, 246  ;  lumbering  and  mining, 
246-247  ;  manufacturing,  247  ; 
ranch  ins,  246. 

Arizona  (ar'i-zo'na),  120,  121,  124, 
125,  142. 

Arkansas  (aVkan-sa'),  79. 

Artesian  wells  (ar-te'zhan-;.  99. 

Ascension  Island  (as-sfn'shun-),  389. 

Ashland  (Wis.)  (ash'l<7nd),  104. 


239. 
216; 


434 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Asheville  (N.C.)  fSsh'vll),  73. 

Asia  (a'shi-a),  341-372;  animals, 
343-31");  area,  342;  climate,  343; 
geographical  position,  342 ;  immi- 
grants from,  in  United  States,  27- 
28  ;  mountains,  342  ;  people,  345 ; 
plants,  343 ;  races  and  religions, 
345-346;  rivers,  342-343;  surface 
features,  3 12  ;  see  also  under  coun- 
tries of  Asia. 

Asia  Minor  (-mi'ner),  317-348. 

Asphaltum  (iis-f ill' turn),  255. 

Astoria  (Ore.)  (is-to'ri-a),  126,  127, 
140. 

Asuncion  (a-soon'se-on'),  248. 

Atacama,  Desert  of  (-a'ta-ka'ma), 
239,  255. 

Athens  (ath'enz),  339. 

Atlanta  (Ga.)  (at-lan'ta),  81,  82, 
86-87. 

Atlas  Mountains  (at'las-),  382. 

Attar  of  roses,  336.  351. 

Auburn  (Me.)  (a'burn),  42. 

Auburn  (N.  Y.),  59. 

Auckland  (ak'land),  396. 

Augusta  (Ga.)  (a-gus'ta),  82. 

Augusta  (Me.),  40,  42. 

Austin  (Tex.)  (as'tin),  88. 

Australia  (as-tra'li-a),  390-396;  agri- 
culture, 394  ;  animals,  392,  393  ; 
area,  390  ;  cities,  395-396  ;  climate, 
390;  coast  line,  390 ;  dairying,  394  ; 
domestic  animals,  394;  fishing,  394; 
government,  392;  history,  392,  394; 
manufacturing,  395;  mining,  394- 
395 ;  native  inhabitants,  392 ; 
plants,  391-392  ;  rivers,  391 ;  sheep 
raising,  394;  surface  features,  390; 
vegetation,  391.  See  also  under 
various  countries  of  Australia. 

Austria  (as'tri-a),  308. 

Austria-Hungary  (-hun'ga-ri),  330- 
334  ;  agriculture,  332  ;  cities,  333- 
334 ;  climate,  331 ;  government, 
332  ;  lack  of  transportation  facili- 
ties, 333  ;  lumbering,  332  ;  manu- 
facturing, 333  ;  mining,  332-333  ; 
people,  331 ;  rainfall,  331 ;  surface 
features,  331 ;  variety  of  races  and 
customs,  331-332. 

Axis,  rotation  of  earth  on  its,  198-199. 

Azores  Islands  (a-zorz'-),  295. 

B 

Babylon  rbab'i-lun),  350. 

Bagdad  (bag-dad'  or  bag'dad),  350. 

Bahamas  (ba-ha'mas),  179. 

Bahia  (ba-e'a),  245. 

Baikal,  Lake  f-bl-kal'),  353. 

Baker  Island  (bii'kSr-),  158. 

Baker,  Mt,  120. 

Baku  (ba-koo'),  305. 

Balearic  Isles  (bal'u-ar'Ik-),  295. 

Balkan  Mountains  (biil-kan'-  or  bal'- 

kan-),  334,  336. 
Balkan  Peninsula,  334-340. 
Ballarat  (bal'la-ratf),  396. 
Baltic  Sea  (bal'tik-),  259,  296,  300, 

302,  310. 


Baltimore  (Md.)  (bal'ti-mor),  51,  53, 
59,  60,  67,  189. 

Baluchistan  (ba-loo'chis-tan'),  354. 

Bamboo,  China,  365 ;  India,  356  ; 
Philippine  Islands,  100. 

Bananas,  Central  America,  178 <• 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  153 ;  Guiana, 
248  ;  Haiti,  179  ;  Jamaica,  178  ; 
Mexico,  174  ;  Pacific  islands,  398  ; 
Philippine  Islands,  159 ;  South 
Africa,  385 ;  tropical  Andean  coun- 
tries, 249. 

Bangkok  (ban'kok'),  361. 

Bangor  (Me.)  (ban'gor),  40,  41. 

Barbary  States  (bar'ba-ri-),  377, 
383-384  ;  agriculture,  382  ;  pities, 
384 ;  climate,  382 ;  inhabitants, 
382-384  ;  products,  382  ;  surface 
features,  382. 

Barcelona  (bar'se-lo'na),  294. 

Bar  Harbor  (Me.),  46. 

Barley,  in  Austria-Hungary,  332 ; 
British  Isles,  265  ;  Central  States, 
98 ;  Chile,  255  ;  Ecuador,  251  ; 
Egypt,  380;  Germany,  311;  Ire- 
land, 270  ;  The.  Netherlands,  278  ; 
Northwestern  States,  127  ;  Ontario, 
166 ;  Persia,  351  ;  Russia,  304  ; 
Spain,  292  ;  Sweden,  298  ;  Vene- 
zuela, 248. 

Barmen  (bar'men),  317. 

Barre  (Vt.)  (bar're),  36. 

Barrens,  14.     See  Tundras. 

Basel  (ba'zel),  322. 

Basin  Ranges,  120. 

Batavia  (ba-ta'vl-a),  397. 

Bath  (Me.),  41. 

Baton  Rouge  (La.)  (bat'uii  roozh'), 
88. 

Bauxite  (boks'it),  80. 

Bavaria  (ba-va'ri-a),  316. 

Bay  City  (Mich.),  106. 

Beans,  in  British  Isles,  265;  The 
Netherlands,  278  ;  Venezuela,  248. 

Belfast  (bel-fasf  or  bel'fast),  270, 
274. 

Belgium  (bt-1'ji-um),  280-283;  agri- 
culture, 281 ;  cities,  282,  283;  col- 
onies, 282,  388-389;  commerce, 
282  ;  government,  281 ;  manufac- 
turing, 282,  283  ;  mining,  281-282  ; 
population,  280-281 ;  surface  fea- 
tures, 280. 

Belgrade  (bel'grad'),  335-336. 

Belize  (be-lez'),  177. 

Bellingham  (Wash.)  (bel'ing-am), 
126,  127,  141. 

Belt  of  calms,  209,  212. 

Benares  (ben-a'rez),  359-360. 

Bendigo  (bfn'di-go),  390. 

Ben  Nevis  (-ne'vis),  264- 

Benue  River  (ben'we-),  386. 

Bergen  (baVgen),  298. 

Bering  Sea  (be'ring-),  149,  15  >. 

Bering  Strait,  342. 

Berkeley  (Cal.)  (berk'li),  138. 

Berkshire  Hills  (berk'shir-),  32,  46. 

Berlin  (ber-lfn'),  314-315. 

Bermudas  (ber-mii'das),  180. 

Berne  (bern),  322. 


Bethlehem  (beth'le-hem  or  -le'-em), 
349. 

Bhutan  (boo-tan'),  354. 

Biddeford  (Me.)  (bid'de-fSrd),  42. 

Billings  (Mont.)  (bil'llngz),  133, 134. 

Binghamton  (N.  Y.)  (blng'am-tun), 
59,  00. 

Birmingham  (Ala.)  (ber'mlng-am  or 
-ham),  79,  82. 

Birmingham  (Eng.)  (ber'ming-om), 
267,  269,  271. 

Bisbee  (Ariz.)  (biz'bee),  124,  142. 

Black  Forest,  311,  313. 

Black  Hills,  106. 

Black  Sea,  302,  307,  333,  337. 

Blanc,  Mont  (toon'  bias'),  284,  354. 

Bogota  (bo'go-tii'),  250. 

Boise  (Idaho)  (boi'za),  138. 

Bokhara,  city  of  (-bo-Ka'ra),  354. 

Bokhara,  province,  352,  353. 

Bolivia  (b6-liv'i-a),  241,  247,  248, 
252-254. 

Bombay  (bom-ba'),  360. 

Boot  and  shoe  making,  42-43,  60, 
113,  168. 

Bordeaux  (bor'do'),  289. 

Borneo  (bor'ne-o),  397. 

Bosporus  (bos'po-riis),  335,  337. 

Boston  (Mass.)  (bSs'tun)  37,  44-45, 
189. 

Boulogne  (boo-lon'),  289. 

Bradford  (Eng.)  (brad'ferd),  268, 
271. 

Bradford  (Pa.),  56. 

Brahmaputra  (bra'ma-poo'tra),  354. 

Brazil  (bra-zil'),  236,  242,  243-245; 
area,  243,  400  ;  cities,  245  ;  climate, 
243 ;  drainage,  243 ;  forests,  243- 
244 ;  mining  and  manufacturing, 
245;  products,  244-245;  rivers,  243. 

Bremen  (brem'en),  308,  316. 

Breslau  (bres'lou),  312,  316. 

Brick  making,  59,  107. 

Bridgeport  (Conn.)  (brij'port),  43. 

Brindisi  (breii'de-ze),  323. 

Bristol  (bris'tiil),  271,  273. 

British  Africa  (brlttsh  af'ri-ka),  377, 
385. 

British  Columbia  (-ko-lum'bl-a),  127, 
162,  163,  166. 

British  Empire  (-fm'pir),  273.  355. 

British  Guiana  (-ge-a'na),  248. 

British  Honduras  (-hon-du'riis),  177. 

British  Isles,  263-276;  agriculture. 
265-266  ;  animals,  265  ;  area,  263. 
400;  cities,  271-276;  climate,  264; 
coast  line,  264  ;  colonies,  275  ;  farm 
products,  265 ;  fishing,  266-267  ; 
foreign  commerce,  275';  govern- 
ment, 276  ;  grazing,  26.3  ;  inhab- 
itants, 263 ;  manufacturing,  267- 
270;  mining,  267;  mountains,  264; 
navy,  275  ;  population,  265,  400; 
position,  263  ;  ships  and  shipping, 
275-276  ;  surface  features,  264. 

British  Straits  Settlements,  360, 361. 

Brockton  (Mass.)  (brok'tun),  42. 

Brooklyn  (N.  Y.)  (brook'lin),  62,  63. 

Brunswick  (Ga.)  (brunz'wik),  73. 

Brussels  (brus'selz),  283. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


435 


Bucharest  (boo'ka-resf  or  bu'-),  336. 
Budapest  (boo'da-pest),  333,  334. 
Buddhism  (buod'dlz'ni),  233. 
Buenos  Aires  (bo'nus  a'riz).  247. 
Buffalo  (N.  Y.)  (buf'fa-15),  59,  61,  62, 

64-65,  105. 
Building  stones,  4;  in  Belgium,  282; 

British  Isles,   267  ;    Canada,   166  ; 

Central  States,  106  ;    France,  285  ; 

Ireland,    270;      Middle    Atlantic 

States,  57  ;   New  England,  35-36  ; 

New  York,  57  :  Pennsylvania,  57  ; 

Southern    States,    70 ;      Western 

States,  125. 
Bulgaria  (buol-ga'ri-a),  335,  336. 
Bullfrog  (Nev.),  123. 
Burlington  (Vt.)  (bur'ling-tun),  45. 
Burma  (bur'rna),  354,  360. 
Butte  (Mont.)  (but),  124,  137. 


Cadiz  (kadlz),  204. 

Cairo  (M'rA),  378,  370,  381. 

Calais  (ka'la').  280. 

Calcutta  (kal-kiit'ta),  350. 

Calgary  (kal'ga-ri),  165. 

California  (kSll-forVi-a),  56,  119, 
120.  124,  125,  128,  120,  131-132, 
138-140. 

Callao  (kal-la'o  or  kal-yii'o),  2-52. 

Calumet  (Mich.)  (kal'u-met),  106. 

Cambridge  (Eng.)  (kam'bilj),  273. 

Cambridge  (Mass.),  45. 

Camden  (N.  J.)  (kam'den),  50,  66, 
351. 

Camels.  351  ;  Arabia,  351  ;  Bokhara 
and  Turkestan,  352  ;  Egypt,  380. 

Camphor,  307. 

Campos  (kaVpoosh),  2.38. 

Canada  (kan'a-da),  152,  161-170; 
agriculture,  164-166 ;  cities,  167- 
170 ;  climate,  162-163 ;  fishing, 
163-164  ;  forests,  163 ;  govern- 
ment, 162  ;  history,  161-162  ;  lum- 
bering, 163  ;  mining,  166  ;  popu- 
lation, 182  ;  surface  features,  162  ; 
transportation,  167. 

Canals,  in  China,  363 ;  drainage 
canal,  Chicago.  Ill  ;  Erie,  60,  61, 
64,  65,  167  ;  Germany,  314,  315 ; 
Kaiser  Wilhelni.  317  ;  Manchester- 
Liverpool  ship  canal,  274  ;  Middle 
Atlantic  States,  61  ;  Panama,  88, 
154-155,  381  ;  Soo  Canal,  108 ; 
Suez,  342,  381 ;   United  Kingdom, 

Canary  Islands.  205,  389. 

Cancer,  Tropic  of,  200. 

Cantabrian    Mountains    (kan-ta'bri- 

an-),  201,  2H2. 
Canton  (kan-ton'),  366. 
Cape    Breton    Island    (-brit'un-    or 

-brit'un-),  166. 
Cape  Colony.  377,  384. 
Cape  May  (X.  J.),  51. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  377. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Colony  of,  385, 

886. 
Cape  Town,  384,  386. 


Cape  Verde  Islands  (-verd-),  295, 
389. 

Capricorn,  Tropic  of,  200. 

Caracas  (ka-ra'kas),  248. 

Cardiff  (karMif),  274. 

Caribbean  Sea  (kar'ib-be'an-),  178. 

Carpathian  Mountains  (kar-pa'thi- 
an-),  331. 

Carpet  manufacturing,  60,  66,  268, 
283. 

Carrara  marble  (kar-ra'ra-),  325. 

Cascade  Ranges,  30,  120. 

Caspian  Sea  (kaVpI-an-),  303. 

Catskills  (kiits'kils),  52. 

Cattle  raising,  in  Alaska,  152  ;  Ara- 
bia, 351  ;  Argentina,  246  ;  Austra- 
lia, 304  ;  Austria-Hungary,  332  ; 
Balkan  Peninsula,  335,  336  ;  Brazil, 
245  ;  British  Isles,  265 ;  Canada, 
165;  Central  States,  97-98  ;  Chan- 
nel Islands,  265  ;  Chile,  255  ;  Co- 
lombia, 250;  Ecuador,  251;  Egypt. 
380  ;  France,  285  ;  Germany,  312; 
Great  Plains,  100-101 ;  Ireland, 
270  ;  Madagascar,  380 ;  Mexico, 
174;  The  Netherlands,  278;  Para- 
guay, 248 ;  Peru,  251  ;  Russia, 
304  ;  Russia  in  Asia,  352  ;  South 
Africa,  385;  Southern  States,  78; 
Spain,  292 ;  Turkey  in  Europe, 
336-337;  United  States,  187  ;  Ura- 
guay,  247  ;  world  distribution  of 
industry,  404,  405. 

Caucasian  race  (ka-ka'shan-),  232- 
233. 

Caucasus  Mountains  (ka'ka-sus-), 
257,  302,  303. 

Cayuga,  Lake  (-ka-yoo'ga),  65. 

Celebes  (sel'e-bez),  397. 

Cement,  production  of,  60,  79,  106, 
107. 

Central  Africa.  386-389  ;  divisions, 
387-389  ;  native  inhabitants,  387  ; 
the  Sudan,  387  ;  value  of  rivers 
for  transportation,  386-387  ;  west 
coast  countries,  388. 

Central  America,  177-178,  182. 

Central  States.  91-116  ;  agriculture. 
93-101;  cities,  108-116;  climate, 
92-93  ;  dairying,  97,  98,  106  ;  farm- 
ing, 93-96  ;  fishing,  102  ;  level  land 
and  mountains,  91-92 ;  lumber- 
ing, 102;  manufacturing,  106-107; 
mining,  102-106;  rainfall,  93; 
ranching.  99-101  ;  surface  features, 
91-93 ;  transportation  of  goods, 
107-108. 

Cettinje  (tse'teii-va),  335. 

Ceylon  (se-lon'),  360. 

Chad,  Lake  (-chad).  374,  388. 

Champaign  (111.)  (sham-pan').  111. 

Channel  Islands,  265. 

Charleston  (S.  C.)  (charlz'tun),  73, 
77,  80.  87. 

Charlotte  (N.  C.)  (shaVlSt),  82. 

Chattanooga  (Tenn.)  (chat'ta-noc/- 
ga),  79.  81,  82,  87. 

Chehalis  River  (che-haTis-),  142. 

Chelan,  Lake  (-ctas'lan'),  145. 

Chelsea  (Mass.)  (chel'se),  45. 


Chemnitz  (kem'nits),  316. 

Chesapeake  Bay  (ches'a-pek-)  50,  51, 
60,  68. 

Chester  (Pa.)  (ches'ter),  66. 

Cheyenne  (Wyo.)  (shi'en'),  130. 

Chicago  (111.)  (sbi-ka'go),  105,  106, 
108-111. 

Chicago  River.  108. 

Chile  (che'la),  238,  239,  242,  254- 
255  ;  agriculture,  255  ;  cities,  255 ; 
climate,  254  ;  manufacturing,  255  ; 
milling,  254  ;  progress,  255 ;  surface 
features,  254. 

Chimborazo,  Mt.  (-chim'bo-ra'zo), 
251. 

China  Sea  (chi'na-),  362. 

China,  Republic  of  (-chi'na),  353, 
361-367;  agriculture,  364;  area, 
361,  400;  backwardness,  363- 
364 ;  Boxer  rebellion,  364 ;  ca- 
nals, 363 ;  character  of  people, 
362-364;  cities,  366-367;  fish- 
ing, 364;  floods,  361-362;  gov- 
ernment, 364 ;  Grand  Canal,  363, 
367  ;  Great  Wall,  362  ;  manufac- 
turing, 365-366;  minerals,  305; 
population,  361,  400;  products, 
365;  religion,  363 ;  transportation, 
363. 

Christiania  _(kris-te-a'ne-ii),  297-208. 

Cinchona  (sin-ko'na),  251. 

Cincinnati  (O.)  (sln'sln-na'ti),  98, 
107,  115. 

Clarksville  (Tenn.),  77. 

Cleveland  (O.)  (klevlnnd),  105,  112. 

Coal,  2-3,  29-30,  54-56  ;  anthracite 
and  soft  or  bituminous,  3  ;  Argen- 
tina, 247  ;  Australia,  395  ;  Austria- 
Hungary,  333  ;  Belgium,  281,  282  ; 
Brazil,  "245  ;  British  Isles,  267 ; 
Canada,  166  ;  Central  States,  102- 
103 ;  Chile,  254  ;  China,  365  ; 
Colorado,  125 ;  Europe,  250 ; 
France,  285  ;  French  Indo-China, 
361  ;  Germany,  312  ;  India,  358  ; 
Japan,  370  ;  Middle  Atlantic  States, 
54  ;  Montana,  123  :  The  Nether- 
lands, 279;  New  Zealand,  306; 
Peru,  251  ;  Russia,  305  ;  South 
Africa,  385  ;  Southern  States,  70  ; 
Spanish  peninsula,  292  ;  Sweden, 
299  ;  United  States,  29,  30  ;  Wales, 
267  ;  Western  States,  122, 124, 125; 
world  distribution  of,  405,  406. 

Coastal  Plains,  48-49,  71,  72. 

Coast  Ranges,  30,  120. 

Cobalt  (ko'balt),  166. 

Coca  (ko'ka)  and  cocaine  (^ko'ka-in), 
251. 

Cocoa  (kti'kS),  in  Belgian  Congo, 
380  ;  Brazil,  245  ;  Central  America, 
178 ;  Colombia,  250 ;  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  153  ;  Ecuador,  251  ; 
Guiana,  248  ;  method  of  produc- 
tion, 251  ;  Pent,  251  ;  Philippine 
Islands,  150 ;  tropical  Andean 
countries,  240  ;  Venezuela,  248  ; 
world  distribution  of  industry, 
404. 

Cocoanut  oil,  150,  398. 


436 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


Cocoanuts,  in  Bahamas,  179  ;  Ceylon, 
300  ;  coral  islands,  398  ;  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  153  ;  Florida,  78 ; 
India,  350 ;  Mexico,  174 ;  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  159,  398  ;  Straits 
Settlements,  301. 

Cod  fishing,  37,  120,  150,  104,  200, 
297. 

Coeur  d'Alene  (Idaho)  (ker  da-lin'), 
124,  137. 

Coffee,  in  Abyssinia,  388  ;  Argentina, 
240;  Brazil,  244-245;  Central 
America,  178;  Ceylon,  300;  Co- 
lombia, 250 ;  Costa  Rica,  178 ; 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  153  ;  East 
Indies,  397;  Ecuador,  251;  Guiana, 

248  ;  Haiti,  179  ;  Hawaiian  Islands, 
157  ;  Java,  397  ;  Madagascar,  389  ; 
Mexico,  174  ;  Mocha,  351  ;  Pacific 
islands,  398 ;  Peru,  251  ;  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  159  ;  South  Africa, 
385 ;    tropical    Andean  countries, 

249  ;  Venezuela,  248  ;  world  dis- 
tribution of  industry,  403,  404. 

Coke,  57,  103,  282. 

Colima,  Mt.  (-ko-le'ma),  172. 

Cologne  (ko-lon'),  309,  312,  317. 

Colombia  (ko-lom'be-a),  248, 249-250. 

Colon  (ko-lon'),  154. 

Colorado  (kol'6-ra'do),  123,  125,  129, 
130,  134,  135,  130-1.37,  143,  171. 

Colorado  Canyon  (-kan'yiin),  143, 
145. 

Colorado  Plateau,  120. 

Colorado  River,  121,  145. 

Colorado  Springs  (Colo.),  137. 

Columbia  (S.  O.)  (ko-lum'bi-a),  82. 

Columbia,  District  of,  07. 

Columbia  Plateau,  120. 

Columbia  River,  121,  132,  130. 

Columbus  (O.)  (ko-lum'btis),  112, 
115. 

Commerce,  statistics  of,  of  United 
States,  190-191,  410-412. 

Commonwealth  of  Australia,  394. 
See  Australia. 

Concord  (N.  H.)  (kon'kerd),  30. 

Congo,  Belgian  (-koi/go),  282,  388- 
389 

Congo  River,  .373,  374,  386-387,  388. 

Congo  State,  282,  388-389. 

Connecticut  (kon-net'i-kiit),  43,  45. 

Connecticut  River,  38,  43. 

Constantinople  (kon-stan'tl-nO'p'l) , 
307,  337. 

Copenhagen  (ko'pen-ha'gen),  300. 

Copper,  3  ;  in  Argentina,  247  ;  Ari- 
zona, 124  ;  Australia,  395  ;  Austria- 
Hungary,  332;  Bolivia,  252-253; 
British  Isles,  207  ;  Canada,  100 ; 
Central  States,  105-100  ;  Chile,  254; 
Colorado,  123;  Cuba,  163;  Ger- 
many, 312;  Japan,  370;  Mexico, 
175  ;  Montana,  123,  124  ;  Norway, 
297;  Peru,  251;  Russia,  305;  South 
Africa,  385 ;  Spanish  Peninsula, 
292  ;  Sweden,  299 ;  Tennessee,  80  ; 
United  States,  29,  30,  408  ;  Western 
States,  122,  123,  124. 

Copra  (kd'pra),  159,  398. 


Coral  carving  and  coral  fishing,  Italy, 
325,  320. 

Cordillera,  the  (kor-dil'ler-a),  4,  30. 

Cordoba  (kor'do-va),  247. 

Cork  oak,  292,  382. 

Corn,  in  Australia,  394 ;  Austria- 
Hungary,  332  ;  Brazil,  245;  Central 
States,  94,  95-90  ;  cultivation  and 
harvesting  of,  95  ;  Egypt,  380  ; 
extent  of  production  in  Central 
States,  95  ;  geographic  distribution 
of  world's  production  of,  401  ; 
Italy,  325  ;  Northwestern  States, 
127  ;  Ontario,  100 ;  Peru,  251  ; 
regions  of  production  in  United 
States,  182,  183 ;  Russia,  304 ; 
Russia  in  Asia,  352  ;  Servia,  335  ; 
Southern  States,  78  ;  Spain,  292  ; 
tropical  Andean  countries,  249; 
Turkey  in  Europe,  330 ;  uses  to 
which  put,  95-90. 

Costa  Rica  (kos'ta  rS'ka),  177,  178. 

Cotopaxi,  Mt.  (-ko'to-paks'e),  251. 

Cotton,  in  Brazil,  245  ;  Egypt,  380  ; 
French  Indo-China,  361  ;  Guiana, 
248  ;  India,  345,  357  ;  Korea,  370 ; 
Mexico,  174  ;  Persia,  351 ;  Peru, 
251 ;  Russia  in  Asia,  352  ;  sections 
of  the  world  which  produce,  405  ; 
Southern  Russia,  304  ;  Southern 
States,  74 ;  Spanish  peninsula, 
292  ;  in  Texas,  88  ;  Turkish  Em- 
pire, 348  ;  United  States,  184. 

Cotton  manufacturing,  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 333  ;  Belgium,  282  ;  Brazil, 
245  ;  France,  286  ;  Germany,  313 ; 
Great  Britain,  208-209 ;  India, 
358  ;  Italy,  320  ;  Japan,  370  ;  Mid- 
dle Atlantic  States,  00  ;  New  Eng- 
land, 41-42  ;  Russia,  306  ;  South- 
ern States.  82  ;  Switzerland,  322. 

Cottonseed  oil,  83. 

Council  Bluffs  (Iowa)  (koun'sll-), 
115. 

Covington  (Ky.)  (kuvlng-tun),  115. 

Crater  Lake  (kra'tSr-),  145-146. 

Crete  (kret),  340. 

Cripple  Creek  (Colo.)  (krlp'p'lkrek), 
123. 

Cuba  (ku'ba),  75,  152-154;  agricul- 
ture, 153;  cities,  151;  climate,  152; 
minerals,  153;  size,  152;  timber, 
153 ;  transportation,  15:3-154. 

Currants,  Greece,  339. 

Cuzco  (koos'ko),  242,  249,  252. 

Cyclonic  storms  (si-klon'ik-),  214- 
217,  262. 


Dairying,  statistics  of,  in  United 
States,  187.  See  also  "  dairying  " 
under  names  of  countries. 

Dallas  (Tex.)  (dal'las),  88. 

Damascus  (da-miis'kus) ,  349,  350. 

Danube  River  (dau'iih-),  257,  331, 
333. 

Danville  (Va.)  (dan'vil),  52,  68,  82. 

Dardanelles  (darMu-nelz'),  335. 

Darling  River  (darting-),  391. 


Dates,  in  Africa,  376  ;  Arabia,  351  ; 
Arizona,  133  ;  Barbary  States,  382  ; 
Egypt,  380;  Spanish  peninsula,  292. 

Davenport  (Iowa)  (dav'en-port),  114. 

Dawson  City  (da's&n-),  152,  100. 

Dayton  (O.)  (da'tfin),  115. 

Dead  Sea,  348. 

Delagoa  Bay  (dSl'a-go'a-),  386. 

Delaware  (del'a-war),  53,  59. 

Delaware  Bay,  60. 

Delaware  River,  49. 

Delaware  Water  Gap,  49. 

Delft  ware  (delft-),  279. 

Delhi  (del'hi),  355,  360. 

Delta,  of  the  Mississippi,  6  ;  the  Nile, 
379. 

Denmark  (den'mark),  295,  296,  299- 
300 ;  agriculture,  299 ;  colonies, 
300  ;  commerce,  299,  300 ;  dairy- 
ing, 299  ;  fishing,  299 ;  govern- 
ment, 295 ;  hogs,  299 ;  horses, 
299  ;  manufacturing,  300  ;  people, 
295 ;  reasons  for  independence, 
296  ;  sheep,  299  ;  surface  features, 
296. 

Denver  (Colo.)  (den'vgr),  129,  130, 
135,  136-137. 

Deserts,  229 ';  in  Africa,  374,  376  ; 
in  Arabia,  350 ;  Atacama,  23, 
255;  in  Australia,  390,  391;  Gobi, 
361  ;  in  India  and  Baluchistan, 
354  ;  Libyan,  377  ;  Sahara,  374, 
376,  377-378  ;  in  Turkestan  and 
Bokhara,  352 ;  western  United 
States,  120-121. 

Des  Moines  (Iowa)  (de  moin'),  115. 

Detroit  (Mich.)  (de-troif),  105,  111- 
112. 

Diamonds,  Brazil,  245  ;  South  Africa, 
385-386.    See  also  Precious  stones. 

District  of  Columbia,  67. 

Donkeys,  351,  380. 

Douglas  (Ariz.)  (dug'las),  124. 

Douglas  Island,  151. 

Douro  (do'roo),  295. 

Dover  (N.  H.)  (do'ver),  42. 

Dover,  Strait  of,  289. 

Dresden  (drez'den),  312,  316. 

Dry  farming,  99. 

Dublin  (dub'Iin),  274-275. 

Dubuque  (du-buk'),  114. 

Duluth  (Minn.)  (du-lobth'),  97,  102, 
104,  108. 

Dundee  (dun-de'),  274. 

Durango  (ddo-ran'go),  175. 

Durban  (dfir'bSn  or  dur'ban),  386. 

Durham  (N.  C.)  (dur'arn),  77,  83. 

Dutch  East  Indies,  397. 

Dutch  Guiana,  248. 

Dyewoods,  Brazil,  244 ;  Central 
America,  177  ;  India,  350 ;  Para- 
guay, 248  ;  Venezuela,  248. 

E 

Earth,  animals,  227-231  ;  axis,  198 
circumference,  198  ;  diameter,  198 
gravitation,  198-199;  motions  of 
198;  orbit,  198;  peoples,  231-235 
plants,  227-231  ;  zones,  200-201. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


431 


Earthquakes.  4;  Caracas,  Venezuela, 
24X;  Grecian  Archipelago,  339-340; 
Iceland,  300;  Japan,  387-368; 
South  America,  230  ;  West  Indies, 
178. 

East  Indies  (-in'd^z),  280,  397. 

East  Livermore  (Me.)  (-liv'er-mor), 
41. 

East  Millinocket  (Me.)  (-mil-lin- 
ock'et),  41. 

Eastport  (Me.),  38. 

Ebony,  in  Cuba,  153;  Philippine  Is- 
lands, 158;  Sudan,  388. 

Ebro  River  (i'tofc),  291. 

Ecuador  (ek'wa-dor'  or  ek'-),  241, 
248,  251. 

Edinburgh  (ed'n-bur-6).  271,  274. 

Egypt  (e'jipt),  377,  378-382;  agri- 
culture, 380;  cities,  381-382;  cli- 
mate, 378-370;  government,  381; 
history,  380-381  ;  irrigation,  381 ; 
Nile  River  and  importance  of,  379- 
380;  Suez  Canal,  381. 

Egyptian  Sudan  (e-jip'shan  s0o'- 
dau'),  387. 

Elba  (f-l'ba).  32-".. 

Elberfeld  (el'ber-felt'),  317. 

Elbe  River  (61b-).  315,  316,  334. 

Elbruz,  Mt.  (-el'brOoz'),  302. 

Elizabeth  (N.  J.)  (e-liz'a-beth),  62. 

Elmira  (X.  Y.)  (el-mi'ra),  50. 

El  Paso  (Tex.)  (el  pa'sO),  88. 

Enfield  Falls  (en'feld-),  10. 

England  (in'gland),  25-26,  263,  267, 
268,  269,  271.     See  British  Isles. 

Equator,  202. 

Equatorial  Drift,  220-221. 

Erie  (Pa.)  (e'ri),  59,  67. 

Erie  Canal.  60,  61,  64,  65,  167. 

Erie,  Lake,  07. 

Eritrea  (s're-tri'a),  388. 

Eskimos  (es'ki-mSz),  22,  170,  190, 
227,  230. 

Essen  (es'sen),  317. 

Ethiopian  race  (e'thi-6'pi-an-),  231- 
232. 

Euphrates  River  (u-fra'tez-),  346, 
348,  3-50. 

Eurasia  (i-ri'shi-a),  257. 

Europe  (u'rup),  257-340;  climate, 
260;  coal  beds,  259;  coast  line, 
259-260  ;  countries  of,  262-263 ; 
crops,  260-261;  Ice  Age,  259; 
immigrants  from,  in  United  States, 
27-28 ;  inland  seas,  262  ;  moun- 
tains, 257;  population,  260 ;  rain- 
fall, 261-262 ;  surface  features, 
257-259.  See  also  under  various 
countries  of  Europe. 

Evanston  (111.)  (ev'anz-tun),  111. 

Evansville  (Ind.)  (ev'ans-vll),  116. 

Everest,  Mt.  (-ev'Sr-est),  242. 

Everett  (Wash.)  (ev'er-et),  126,  141. 

F 

Falkland  Islands  (fakHand-),  255. 
Fall  Line,  49,  66,  71. 
Fall  River  (Mass.),  42,  43. 
Fargo  (N.  D.)  (faVgo)^. 


Faroe  Islands  (fii'ro-),  300. 

Fez,  384. 

Fiber  products,  Mexico,  173,  175. 

Figs,    in     Arizona,     133 ;     Barbary 
States,  382  ;   California,  128,  131 
132 ;    Egypt,    380  ;    southern    Eu- 
rope, 261  ;  Spanish  peninsula,  202  ; 
Turkey,  336  ;  Turkey  in  Asia,  348. 

Fiji  Islands  (fe'je-),  308. 

Findlay  (O.)  (find'la),  103. 

Finland  (fin'land),  307. 

Finland,  Gulf  of,  306. 

Fiords  (fyordz),  298. 

Fisheries^  cod,  37,  120,  150,  164,  266, 
297  ;  haddock,  266 ;  halibut,  37, 
126;  herring,  38,  260;  lobster,  38; 
mackerel,  37 ;  oyster,  38,  51-52, 
73,  120,  206;  salmon,  127,  150, 
164,  266;  shad,  51;  shellfish  in 
New  P2ngland,  38;  sponge,  73,  179, 
325,  339. 

Fitchburg  (Mass.)  (fich'burg),  43. 

Fiume  (fe-oo'ina),  334. 

Flanders  (flan'dSrz),  281. 

Flax,  in  Austria-Hungary,  332  ;  Bel- 
gium, 281;  Central  States,  98; 
Ireland,  270;  Italy,  325;  The 
Netherlands,  278;  Ontario,  166; 
Turkey  in  Europe,  330  ;  use  of,  for 
linen,  and  description  of  method 
of  preparation,  270. 

Flood  plains.  Indo-China  and  Malay 
Peninsula,  360  ;  Mississippi  River, 
72,  85-86;  Nile  River,  379-380; 
Yangtse-Kiang  and  Hoang-ho  riv- 
ers, 361-362. 

Florence  (ffJrVns),  329. 

Florida  (flor'i-da),  71,  72,  73,  78,  80, 
88,  92. 

Flour  Mills,  in  Australia,  395;  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 333  ;  Brazil,  245  ; 
Budapest,  334;  Minneapolis,  113- 
114;  Rochester,  00;  Russia,  306, 
307;  Spokane,  137  ;  Winnipeg,  165. 

Forest  products,  in  Central  America, 
177;  Central  States,  106;  East 
Indies,  397  ;  Germany,  313  ;  India, 
356;  Maine,  40-41;  Mexico,  172- 
173;  New  England,  33;  Norway, 
297  ;  Siam,  360 ;  Southern  States, 
81-82. 

Forests.     See  Trees. 

Forestry,  Germany,  311. 

Formosa  (for-rno'sa),  367,  368. 

Fort  Worth  (Tex.),  88. 

Fossils,  2,  6. 

France  (trans),  283-290  ;  agriculture, 
284-285  ;  area,  400 ;  cities,  286- 
290;  colonies,  290;  geographical 
position,  283;  government,  284; 
manufacturing,  285-286;  mining, 
285 ;  naval  power,  290 ;  popula- 
tion, 283-284,  400  ;  settlements  of, 
in  America,  25  ;  surface  features, 
284. 

Frankfurt  (frank'foort),  317. 

Fredericton  (N.  B.J,  163. 

French  Guiana  (-g£-a'na),  248. 

French  Indo-China,  360,  361. 

Fresno  (Cal.)  (frtz'nS),  128. 


Fruits,  in  Arabia,  351  ;  Argentina, 
246  ;  Arizona,  133  ;  Australia,  394  ; 
Bahamas,  179  ;  Belgium,  281  ; 
Brazil,  244,  245  ;  California,  128- 
129,  131-132;  Central  America, 
178;  Ceylon,  360;  Chile,  255; 
Colombia,  260 ;  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  153  ;  Egypt,  380 ;  Europe, 
261;  France,"  285;  Great  Lake 
region,  97  ;  Greece,  339 ;  Hawaiian 
Islands,  157  ;  Italy,  325,  327  ; 
Jamaica,  178  ;  Mexico,  173,  174  ; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  52-53  ; 
Northwestern  States,  127  ;  Ontario, 
166  ;  Pacific  coast  of  United  States, 
128  ;  Pacific  islands,  398  ;  Philip- 
pine Islands,  159;  principal  regions 
for  production,  in  United  States, 
185 ;  Russia  in  Asia,  352  ;  Servia, 
335  ;  Southern  States,  77-78  ;  trop- 
ical Andean  countries,  249 ;  Uru- 
guay, 247  ;  Venezuela,  248  ;  West- 
ern States,  128;  West  Indies,  178, 
179. 

Fuchau  (foo'chow'),  365. 

Fujiyama,  Mt.  (-foo'je-ya'ma),  Fig. 
458. 

Furs.  304,  352. 

Fustic,  153,  177. 

G 

Galapagos  Islands  (ga-la'pa-gos-), 
255. 

Galilee.  Sea  of  (-gal'i-le),  348. 

Galveston  (Tex.)  (gal'ves-tun),  17, 
89.  189. 

Ganges  (gan'jez),  354,  355,  359,  300. 

Garonne  (ga'ron'),  289. 

Gas,  natural.     See  Natural  gas. 

Geneva  (jc-ne'va),  322. 

Geneva,  Lake,  290,  322. 

Genoa  (jen'6-a),  327,  329. 

Georgia  (jor'ji-a),  73,  74,  75,  79,  80. 

Georgia  pine,  73. 

German  Empire  (jgr'mcni-),  308-319 ; 
advantages  of  location,  308 ;  agri- 
culture, 311-312;  area,  308;  boun- 
dary irregularities,  308-309 ;  cities, 
314-317;  climate, 310-311;  colonies, 
314  ;  defense  measures,  309 ;  drain- 
age,310  ;  education, 314  ;  establish- 
ment of,  308 ;  government,  308, 
314;  live  stock,  312;  lumbering, 
311;  manufacturing,  312-313; 
mining,  312  ;  population,  308,  400; 
progress  and  reasons  for,  314 ; 
rainfall,  311 ;  surface  features,  309- 
310 ;  transportation,  314. 

Geysers,  Iceland,  300  ;  New  Zealand, 
396  ;  Yellowstone  Park,  143,  144. 

Ghent  (g£nt),  283. 

Gibraltar  (ji-bral'ter),  294. 

Gila  River  (hela-),  132. 

Glacier  (gla'shSr  or  gl&sl-gr) ,  Alas- 
kan, 149 ;  in  early  New  England, 
32-33  ;  the  Greenland  Glacier,  7-8  ; 
in  New  Zealand,  396 ;  in  Switzer- 
land, 320.     See  Great  Glacier. 

Glasgow  (glas'ko  or  -g6),  269,  271, 
274. 


438 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Glass  making,  in  Austria-Hungary, 
333  ;  Belgium,  282,  383  ;  Italy,  326  ; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  59. 

Gloucester  (Mass.)  (glos'ter),  36,  37. 

Goats,  in  Arabia,  351 ;  Austria- 
Hungary,  332 ;  Denmark,  299 ; 
Egypt,  380;  Greece,  339;  Italy, 
325 ;  Persia,  351 ;  South  Africa, 
385 ;  Spain,  292  ;  Western  States, 
133 

Gobi,  Desert  of  (go'be'),  361. 

Gold,  4 ;  in  Abyssinia,  388  ;  Alaska, 
151 ;  Argentina,  247  ;  Australia, 
392,  394-395 ;  Austria-Hungary, 
332;  Belgian  Congo,  389;  Black 
Hills,  106;  Bolivia,  252;  Brazil, 
245;  California,  119,  124  ;  Canada, 
166  ;  Central  America.  178  ;  Chile, 
254  ;  China,  365  ;  Colombia,  250  ; 
Colorado,  123 ;  Comstock  Lode, 
Virginia  City,  123 ;  East  Indies, 
397  ;  Ecuador,  251  ;  geographic 
distribution  of,  407 ;  408;  Guiana, 
248  ;  Japan,  370 ;  Mexico,  174,  175; 
Montana,  123,  124  ;  Nevada,  123  ; 
New  Zealand,  396  ;  Peru,  251  ; 
Russia,  305  ;  Siam,  360  ;  Siberia, 
352-353 ;  South  Africa,  385 ; 
Southern  States,  80  ;  tropical  An- 
dean countries,  249 ;  Venezuela, 
248  ;  Western  States,  119,  120,  122, 
123,  124. 

Goldfield  (Nev.),  123. 

Gothenburg  (got'en-burg),  299. 

Granada  (gra-na'da),  293. 

Grand  Canon  (-kau'yun-)  of  the  Colo- 
rado, 143,  145. 

Grand  Rapids  (Mich.),  106. 

Granite,  in  New  England  States,  35- 
36 ;  Scotland,  267 ;  Southern 
States,  79. 

Grape-fruit,  in  Southern  States,  78 ; 
Western  States,  131,  133. 

Grapes,  in  Argentina,  246  ;  Barbary 
States,  382  ;  California,  131,  132  ; 
Central  States,  97  ;  France,  284- 
285  ;  Germany,  312  ;  Greece,  339  ; 
Italy,  325  ;  Malaga,  294  ;  Mexico, 
173 ;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  53 ; 
New  York  State,  53  ;  Ontario,  166; 
Russia,  304  ;  Servia,  335  ;  South 
Africa,  385  ;  Southern  States,  77, 
78 ;  Spain  and  Portugal,  292  ; 
Switzerland,  320 ;  Turkey  in 
Europe,  336  ;  Turkey  in  Asia,  348  ; 
Western  States,  128. 

Graphite,  in  New  York,  57  ;  Russia, 
305. 

Gravitation,  attraction  of,  198-199. 

Gray  Harbor  (Wash.),  142. 

Great  Barrier  Reef,  390. 

Great  Basin,  120,  121. 

Great  Britain  (-brit'n),  263-276. 
See  British  Isles. 

Great  Falls  (Mont.),  137. 

Great  Lakes,  9,  50,  93,  102,  107-108, 
189;  cities  on,  108-112. 

Great  Plains,  99,  119,  231. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  121,  131. 

Great  Valley  of  California,  128,  139. 


Great  Valley  of  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia,  52. 

Greater    Antilles    (-an-til'lez),   178. 

Greece  (gres),  335,  338-340;  chief 
city,  339  ;  climate,  338  ;  early  and 
modern  history,  338  ;  government, 
338  ;  industries  and  products,  339  ; 
mining,  339  ;  rainfall,  338  ;  surface 
features,  338. 

Greeley  (Colo.)  (gre'li),  130. 

Greenland  (gren'land),  7,  170,  300. 

Green  Mountains,  32,  46. 

Greenville  (S.  C.)  (gren'vil),  82. 

Grimsby  (grlmz'bl),  26". 

Guadalquivir  (ga'dal-kwlv'er)  River, 
291. 

Guadeloupe  (ga-da-loop'),  179. 

Guam  (gwiim),  157. 

Guatemala  (ga'te-ma'la),  177,  178. 

Guayaquil  (gwl'a-kel'),  251. 

Guernsey  (gern'zT),  Isle  of,  265. 

Guiana  (ge-ii'na),  248. 

Guiana  highland,  236. 

Guinea,  Gulf  of,  295. 

Gulf  Stream,  33,  50,  221. 

Gums,  Belgian  Congo,  389 ;  East 
Indies,  397  ;  Sudan,  388. 

Gum  trees,  Australia,  391. 

Guthrie  (Okla.)  (guth'rl),  90. 

Gutta  percha,  in  the  Philippines,  158. 

Gypsum,  in  New  York,  57. 


Hague  (hag),  280. 

Haiti  (ha'ti),  178-179. 

Halifax  (hal'1-faks),  169-170. 

Halle  (hal'le),  316. 

Hamburg  (ham'burg),  308,  315,  316. 

Hamilton  (Bermuda)  (ham'il-tun), 
180. 

Hamilton  (Canada),  170. 

Hammerfest  (harn'mer-fest'),  298. 

Hankau  (hiin'kou'),  366. 

Harrisburg  (Pa.)  (har'ris-burg),  59. 

Hartford  (Conn.)  (hart'ferd),  43. 

Havana  (ha-van'a),  153,  154. 

Haverhill  (Mass.)  ( ha'ver-il) ,  42. 

Havre  (ha'ver),  286,  289. 

Hawaiian  Islands  (ha-wi'yan-),  75, 
155-157,  398  ;  climate,  155  ;  geo- 
graphical position,  155;  people, 
156  ;  products,  157  ;  value  to  United 
States,  157. 

Hay,  in  Australia,  394;  Central 
States,  94,  98 ;  Germany,  311;  Or- 
egon and  Washington,  127  ;  Russia, 
304 ;  Southern  States,  78 ;  states 
which  lead  in  production  of,  186. 

Hebron  (he'briin),  348. 

Hekla,  Mt.  (-hek'lii),  300. 

Helena  (Mont.)  (hel'e-na),  123. 

Helsingfors  (hel'sing-fors'),  307. 

Hemp,  in  Austria-Hungary,  332  ;  Bel- 
gium, 281;  Italy,  325;  Philippine 
Islands,  159;  Russia  in  Asia,  352; 
Turkey  in  Europe,  336. 

Heniquen  (he-ne'ken),  173. 

Herculaneum  (her'ku-la'ne-um),  327. 

High  Point  (N.  C),  81-82. 


Hilo  (helo),  157. 

Himalaya  Mountains  (hi-mala-ya-), 
342,  354. 

Hoang-ho  River  (hwang'-ho'-),  361, 
362. 

Hoboken  (N.  J.)  (ho'bo-ken),  59,  62. 

Hogs,  in  Australia,  394;  Denmark, 
299;  Germany,  312;  Iowa,  98; 
The  Netherlands,  278;  Servia, 
335 ;  Southern  States,  78 ;  states 
leading  in  production  of,  186. 

Holland.     Set  Netherlands. 

Holy  Land,  348-350;  area,  348; 
climate,  348-349;  history,  349; 
surface  features,  348. 

Holyoke  (Mass.)(hol'yok),  41. 

Honduras  (hon-doo'ras),  177. 

Hongkong  (hSng'kong'),  366. 

Honolulu  (ho'no-lou'loo),  157. 

Hood,  Mt.,  120. 

Hops,  British  Isles,  265 ;  Central 
States,  98  ;  Germany,  312  ;  West- 
ern States,  128. 

Horse  latitudes,  209,  238. 

Horses,  in  Arabia,  351 ;  Belgium,  281 ; 
British  Isles,  2155  ;  Central  States, 
97,  98  ;  Denmark,  299  ;  Egypt,  380  ; 
Illinois,  98;  Ireland,  270;  Ken- 
tucky, 98  ;  The  Netherlands,  278  ; 
Ontario,  166  ;  Russia,  304  ;  Russia 
in  Asia,  352  ;  Southern  States,  78  ; 
states  which  lead  in  production  of, 
187. 

Houghton  (Mich.)  (ho'tfln),  105. 

Houston  (Tex.)  (hus'tim),  89. 

Howland  Island,  158. 

Hudson  Bay  (hud's'n-),  167. 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  163. 

Hudson  River,  50,  61  ;  comparison  of 
Rhine  and,  317-318. 

Hull,  267,  271,  274. 

Hungarian  plain,  331. 

Hungary  (lmn'ga-ri).  See  Austria- 
Hungary  . 

Huntsville  (Ala.),  83. 

Huron,  Lake  (-hu'run),  97,  108. 

Hurricanes,  216. 


Ice  Age,  in  Europe,  259  ;  in  North 
America,  7-11. 

Icebergs,  8. 

Iceland  (Island),  300. 

Idaho  (I'da-ho),  120,  124,  138. 

Illinois  (il'li-noi'  or  il'li-noiz'),  54, 
111. 

Illinois  River,  108. 

Indiana  (In'di-an'a),  96,  102,  103, 
107,  116. 

Indianapolis  (Tn'di-<m-ap'o-lis),  116. 

Indian  Empire  (in'di-an-  or  ind'- 
yan-),  354-360  ;  agriculture,  357- 
358  ;  cities,  359-361  ;  climate,  354  ; 
divisions,  351 ;  famines  and 
plagues,  358  ;  farm  products,  357  ; 
forest  products,  356  ;  government, 
355-356  ;  irrigation,  357-358;  min- 
erals, 358 ;  people,  races,  and  re- 
ligion, 355  ;  rainfall,  354  ;  surface 
features,  354. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


439 


Indian  Ocean,  373. 

Indians,  in  New  Mexico,  142-143; 
North  America,  22-24,  232  ;  South 
America,  241-242. 

Indian  Territory,  89. 

Indigo,  in  Central  America,  178 ; 
India.  357  ;  Mexico,  173. 

Indo-China  (in'do  chi'na),  290,  360- 
361. 

Indus  River  (In'diis-)  354.  300. 

Iowa  (i'o-wa),  98,  101,  102,  115. 

Iquique  (e-ke'kS).  255. 

Irawadi  River  (ir'a-wii'di-),  300. 

Ireland  (inland),  2G3,  264,  270-271, 
272  ;  agriculture,  270  ;  cities,  274- 
275  ;  manufacturing,  270 ;  mining, 
270  ;  population,  270-271. 

Irkutsk  (ir-kootsk'),  354. 

Iron  manufactures,  in  Belgium,  282  ; 
Great  Britain,  269 ;  Middle  At- 
lantic States,  57-59  ;  Prague,  333  ; 
Russia,  306  ;  Southern  States,  82. 

Iron  ore.  in  Argentina,  247 ;  Aus- 
tralia, 395 ;  Austria-Hungary,  333  ; 
Belgium,  281,  282:  Brazil,  245; 
British  Isles,  267  ;  Central  States, 
103-105 ;  China,  365 ;  Colorado, 
123  ;  Cuba,  153  ;  deposits  of,  3  ; 
different  kinds  of,  58  ;  France,  285 ; 
Germany,  312  ;  Greece.  339 ;  India. 
358 ;  Japan,  370  ;  Mexico,  175 ; 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  56-57 ; 
The  Netherlands,  279  ;  Russia,  305 ; 
South  Africa,  385;  Southern  States, 
79 ;  Spanish  peninsula,  292  ;  Swe- 
den, 299;  United  States,  29,  30, 
186-187  ;  Western  States,  123 ; 
world  distribution  of,  407,  408. 

Iron-wood,  301. 

Irrigation  in  United  States,  99,  120, 
121.  128,  129.  130,  131,  132,  133, 
142,  184,  186.  See  subdivision 
under  names  of  countries. 

Ishpeming  (Mich.)  (ish'pe'-ming), 
103. 

Isothermal  lines  (I'sO-theVinal-),  225. 

Italian  Somaliland  (-so-ma'le-land), 
388. 

Italy  (it'a-li),  323-330;  agriculture, 
324-325;  area,  323;  cities,  320- 
330;  climate,  324;  fishing,  325; 
government,  323-324 ;  irrigation, 
324-325  ;  lakes,  324  ;  manufactur- 
ing, 325-326  ;  mining,  325  ;  people, 
323;  rainfall,  324;  rivers,  324; 
surface  features,  324  ;  temperature, 
324. 

Ithaca  (N.  Y.)  (ith'a-ka),  65. 

Ivory,  elephant,  378, 388, 389 ;  walrus, 
170. 

J 

Jacksonville  (Fla.)  (jak'sun-vil),  73, 

80. 
Jaffa  (y&fS),  350. 
Jamaica  (ja-ma'ka).  178-179. 
James  River  (jamz-).  49,  68. 
Jamestown  (X.  Y.)  (jamz'toun),  60. 
Japanese    Current     (jap'a-nez'-     or 

nes'-),  222,  223. 


Japanese  Empire,  353,  367-370 ;  agri- 
culture, 309  ;  area,  367  ;  cities, 
370  ;  fishing,  370  ;  government, 
308  ;  lumbering,  309  ;  manufactur- 
ing, 370  ;  mining,  370  ;  parts  of 
empire,  367  ;  people,  368  ;  popula- 
tion, 367  ;  recent  progress,  308- 
369  ;  surface  features,  367-368. 

Java  (ja'va),  280,  397. 

Jefferson  City  (Mo.)  (jef'fer-sun-), 
115. 

Jersey  City  (N.J.)  (jer'zi),  59,  62, 
63. 

Jerusalem  (je-ru'sa-lem),  349,  350. 

Jersey,  Isle  of,  (-jer'zi),  265. 

Johannesburg  (yo-han'nes-burg), 
385,  386. 

Joplin  (Mo.)  (jop'lln),  106. 

Jordan  River  (jor'dan-),  348. 

Juan  Fernandez,  Island  of  (-hoo-an' 
fer-nan'deth),  255. 

Juneau  (j&'no'),  151,  152,  163. 

Jungles,  Africa,  374,  376 ;  Amazon 
River.  243-244  ;  India.  356. 

Jura  Mountains  (ju'ra-),  319. 

Jute,  357. 

Jutland  (jut'lnnd),  297. 


Kabul  (ka'bul),  352. 

Kansas  (kan'zas),  54,  93,  95,  96,  99, 

101,  102,  103.  106. 
Kansas  City  (Kan.),  114. 
Kansas  City  (Mo.),  114. 
Katahdin,  Mt.   (-ka-ta'din),  32,  33, 

35. 
Kennebec  River  (ken'ne-bek'-),  40. 
Kentucky  (ken-tukl),  77,  91,  92,  97, 

98,  102,  115. 
Kerosene  Oil,  56. 
Key  West  (Fla^,  83. 
Khartum  fkar'toom'),  381. 
Khiva  (Ke'va).  352. 
Kilimanjaro.  Mt.  (-kIl'e"-man-ja'ro), 

373. 
Kimberley  (kim'b5r-li),  385,  386. 
Kingston  (Canada)  (kingz'tun),  170. 
Kingston  (Jamaica),  178. 
Kirghiz  steppes  (kir'gez'-),  352. 
Klondike  (klSn'dik),  151,  106. 
Knoxville  (Tenn.)  (noks'vil),  79-80, 

82,  87. 
Konigsberg  (ke'nios-berG),  309. 
Korea  (ko-re'a),  353,  370. 
Krefeld  (kra'felt),  317. 
Kurile  Islands  (koo'ril-),  367. 
Kyoto  (kyo'to),  370. 


Labrador  (lab'ra-tlor'),  162. 
Labrador  Current.  33,  50,  163,  167, 

222. 
Lace  making,  in  Belgium,  283  ;  Italy, 

326. 
Lachine  Rapids  (la-shgn'-),  167-108. 
La  Crosse  (Wis.)  (la  kios'),  114. 
Ladrones  (la-dronz'),  157. 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  166. 


La  Paz  (la  paz'  or  pas'),  254. 

Lapland  (lSplond),  296. 

La  Plata  (lapla'ta),  247. 

Laramie  (Wyo. )  (lar'a-me"),  130. 

Lassa  flas'sa),  304. 

Latitude  and  longitude,  201-204. 

Lava,  4. 

Lawrence  (Mass.)  (larVns),  42. 

Lead,  in  Austria-Hungary,  332 ; 
Belgium,  281  ;  British  Is'les,  267  ; 
Canada,  106 ;  Central  States,  106  ; 
China,  365  ;  Colorado,  123  ;  Ger- 
many, 312  ;  Greece,  339  ;  Idaho, 
124;  Mexico,  175;  Montana,  123; 
Spanish  peninsula,  292 ;  Utah, 
124;  Western  States,  122,  123, 
124. 

Leadville  (Col.)  (led'vil),  123,  135 

Leather  manufacturing,  42-43. 

Leeds  (ledz),  208,  271. 

Leicester  (les'ter).  268. 

Leipzig  flip'sik),  315-316. 

Leith  (leth),  274. 

Lemons,  in  Arizona.  133  ;  California, 
128,  131  ;  Egypt*  380  ,  India,  345  ; 
Italy,  325  ;  Southern  Europe,  261  ; 
Southern  States,  78  ;  Spanish 
peninsula,  292. 

Lena  River  (le'na-l,  343. 

Leopoldville  (le'6-pold-vil),373.  387. 

Lesser  Antilles  (les'er  an-til'lez), 
1*8,  179. 

Levees,  86. 

Lewiston  (Idaho)  (luls-tun),  128. 

Lewiston  (Me.),  42. 

Liberia  (Ii-bS'rJ-a),  388. 

Libyan  (lir/I-on-)  desert,  377. 

Liechtenstein  (leK'ten-stin),  334. 

Liege  (le-azh'),  283. 

Lignite,  3,  79,  259. 

Lille  (lei),  285. 

Lima  (le'ma),  252. 

Limestone,  57,  267.  See  also  Build- 
ing stones. 

Limoges  (le'mozh').  288. 

Lincoln  (Neb.)  (lln'kun),  112,  115. 

Linen  manufacture,  in  Belgium,  282; 
Ireland,  270 ;  Russia,  306. 

Linseed  oil,  98,  270. 

Lisbon  (llz'bun),  295. 

Little  Rock  (Ark.),  81,  88. 

Liverpool  (llv'er-pool),  271,  273,  274. 

Llama  (la'ma),  241,  242,  251,  253. 

Llanos  (la'noz),  228,  238,  248,  250. 

Lockport  (N.Y.),  65. 

Lodz  (16dz),  307. 

Lofoden  Islands  (16-fo'ten-),  297. 

Logwood,  Central  America,  177; 
Mexico,  173. 

Loire  River  (lwar-),  287. 

London  (Canada)  (lun'dvin),  170. 

London  (Eng.),  267,  271,  272-273. 

Los  Angeles  (^Cal.)  (16s  an'gel-es  or 
16s  an'jel-es),  119.  132,  140. 

Louisiana  (loo'e'-ze-a'na  or  -iin'a),  56, 
75,  77,  79,  80. 

Louisville  (Ky.)  ( loo'is-vil  or  Ux/i- 
vil).  96,  97,  115-1161 

Lourenco  Marquez  (lo-ren'so  mar'- 
kes),  386. 


440 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Low  Countries,  The,  259.     See  The 

Netherlands. 
Lowell  (Mass.)  (lo'el),  42,  43. 
Lower  California,  372. 
Lowlands  of  Scotland,  264,  274. 
Lucerne  (loo-sEni'),  322. 
Lucerne,  Lake,  322. 
Lucknow  (luk'nou'),  359. 
Lumbering,  33-35,  185.    See  "  Forest 

products"  and  subdivision  under 

names  of  countries,  etc. 
Luxemburg  (luks'em-bfirg),  283. 
Luzon  (lob-zon'),  158,  160. 
Lynchburg   (Va.)    (lmch'burg),   52, 

08. 
Lynn  (Mass.)  (lin),  42. 
Lyon  (le-'ou'),  286,  289. 


Mackerel  fishing,  37. 

Macon  (Ua.)  (ma'kun),  81. 

Madagascar  (mad'a-gas'kar),  290, 
389. 

Madeira  Islands  (ma-de'ra-),  295, 
389. 

Madison  (Wis.)  (mad'i-sun),  112. 

Madras  (ma-dras'),  360. 

Madrid  (ma-drid'),  249,  293. 

Magdeburg  (mac/de-boorr;'),  316. 

Magellen,  Straits  of  (-rna-jel'lcm), 
240. 

Maguey  (mag'wa),  173. 

Mahogany,  in  Central  America,  177 ; 
Cuba,  153  ;  Mexico,  173. 

Main  River  (man-  or  min-),  317. 

Maine,  32,  33,  30,  40,  41,  45,  46. 

Malaga  (mal'a-ga),  294. 

Malay  Peninsula  (ma-la'-),  360-361. 

Malay  States,  360,  361. 

Maiden  (Mass.)  (mal'dun),  45. 

Malta  (mal'ta),  330. 

Manaos  (rna-na'oosh),  243. 

Manchester  (Eng.)  (rnan'ches-ter), 
269,  271,  274. 

Manchester  (N.  H.),  42,  45. 

Mandalay  (man'da-la),  360. 

Mandioca  (mati'de-o'ka),  244. 

Manhattan  Island  (man-hat't<m-),  03. 

Manila  (ma-nil'a),  158,  159,  160,  397. 

Manitoba  (man'i-to'ba),  102,  105. 

Manufacturing,  statistics  of,  188- 
189,  191, 408-410.  See  also  "manu- 
facturing" under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Maps,  scale  of,  30. 

Maracaibo,  Lake  (-rna'ra-ki'bo),  248. 

Marble,  in  Algeria,  382  ;  Belgium, 
282  ;  Carrara,  325  ;  New  England 
States,  35,  36  ;  Southern  States, 
79  ;  Vermont,  36. 

Marcus  Island  (mar'kus-),  158. 

Marquette  (Mich.)  (miir-kef),  104. 

Marseille  (mar-sal'  oj-  mar'sa'y'), 
289. 

Martha's  Vineyard  (Mass.),  40. 

Martinique  (mar'ti-nek'),  179. 

Maryland  (mer'I-land  or  ma'rT- 
land),  53,  54,  59,  07,  100,  147. 

Maskat  (mas-kSt'),  351. 


Massachusetts  (m5s'sa-chu'sgts) , 
32,  30,  41,  42,  43,  44,  45. 

Matanzas  (ma-tan'zas),  154. 

Mauna  Loa  (mou'na  16'a),  155. 

Mauritius  (ma-rish'I-us),  389. 

McKinley,  Mt.  (-ma-khiTi),  149. 

Mecca  (niek'ka),  351. 

Mediterranean  (med'i-ter-ra'ne-an), 
260,  262,  285,  323,  324,  327,  338. 

Melbourne  (mel'burn),  395. 

Memphis  (Tenn.)  (mem'fis),  73,  81, 
86. 

Merced  River  (mer-sed'-),  145. 

Mercury,  292,  332. 

Meriden  (Conn.)  (mer'i-den),  43. 

Merrimac  River  (mer'n-mak-),  42. 

Mescal  (mas-kal'),  173. 

Mesopotamia  (mes'6-po-ta'ml-a), 
348,  350. 

Metz  (metz),  308,  309. 

Mexico  (meks'I-ko),  171-177  ;  agri- 
culture, 173-174;  cities,  175-177; 
climate,  172  ;  forest  products,  172- 
173 ;  government,  171  ;  history, 
171;  manufacturing,  175;  mining, 
174  ;  population,  182  ;  surface 
features,  171. 

Mexico  City,  171,  176-177. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  72,  79,  178. 

Michigan  (mish'I-gan),  91,  07,  103, 
104,  105,  100,  107,  111,  112. 

Michigan,  Lake,  97,  111. 

Middle  Atlantic  States,  47-70  ;  agri- 
culture, 52-53  ;  cities,  62-08  ;  com- 
merce, 00-02  ;  dairying,  52  ;  farm- 
ing, 52-53  ;  fishing,  51-52  ;  fruits 
and  vegetables,  52-53  ;  lumbering, 
51  ;  manufacturing,  57-00  ;  min- 
ing, 53-57. 

Midway  Island  (mid'wii'-),  158. 

Milan  (nril'an  or  mi-lan'),  324,  329. 

Milford  (Mass.),  36. 

Millet,  in  Egypt,  380  ;  French  Indo- 
China,  301 ;  India,  357  ;  Siam,  360. 

Millinocket  (Me.),  (mil-lln-ock'et) 
41. 

Milwaukee  (Wis.)  (mil-wa'ke),  98, 
110,  111. 

Mindanao  (men'da-na'6),  158. 

Minerals  and  mining,  3-4,  29-30, 
122-123,  185-188,  405-408.  See 
subdivisions  under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Minneapolis  (Minn.)  (mIn'ne-a.p'-6- 
lis),  97,  102,  113-114. 

Minnesota  (min'ne-so'ta),  92,  93,  96, 
102,  104,  106,  113. 

Miquelon  (me'k'loN),  162. 

Mississippi  River  (mts'is-sip'pi-), 
5-6,  84,  85,  102,  108;  cities  on, 
112-114. 

Mississippi  Valley,  5-0,  29. 

Missouri  (mis-soo'ri  or  miz-zoo'rl), 
91,  97,  101,  103,  100.  107. 

Missouri  River.  108,  132;  cities  on, 
114-115. 

Mitchell,  Mt.  71. 

Mobile  (Ala.)  (mo-bel'),  73,  81,  87- 
88. 

Mocha  (mo'ka),  351, 


Mohawk  River  (mo'hak-) ,  49. 
Molasses,  76,  248. 
Monaco  (mon'a-ko),  284. 
Monadnock,  Mt.  (-mo-nad'nok),  32. 
Mongolia  (m5n-go'li-a),  361. 
Mongolian  race  (mon-go'li-an-),  232. 
Monongahela     River     (m6-non'ga- 

he'ia-),  07. 
Monrovia  (m5n-ro'vT-a),  388. 
Monsoons,  217-218,  354. 
Montana  (mon-ta'na),  123,  124,  133. 
Montenegro  (mon'ta-na'gro),  335. 
Montevideo  (mon'ta-ve-da'o),  247. 
Montgomery  (Ala.)  (mont-gum'er-i), 

81. 
Montreal    (m5nt're-al'),    101,    103, 

167-168. 
Moraines,  9. 
Morocco  (mo-rok'ko),  295,  377,  382, 

383,  384. 
Mosaic  work,  329. 
Moscow  (mos'ko),  303,  306. 
Mount  Desert  Island,  46. 
Muir  Glacier  (mur'-) ,  149. 
Mulberry  trees,  in  Austria-Hungary, 

332  ;  France,  285,  280 ;  Roumania, 

and  Bulgaria,  330. 
Mules,  in  Kentucky,  98 ;    Southern 

States,  78  ;  Spain,  292. 
Munich  (mu'nik),  310. 
Murray  River  (mur'rl-),  391. 

N 

Nagoya  (na'go-ya),  370. 

Nantucket  (Mass.)  (nSn-tuk'St),  46. 

Naples  (na'p'lz),  326-327. 

Naples,  Bay  of,  320. 

Nashua  (N.  H.)  (nash'vi-a),  42. 

Nashville  (Tenn.)  (nash'vil),  87. 

Nassau  (nas'sa),  179. 

Natal  (na-tal'),  385,  386. 

Natchez  (Miss.)  (nach'ez),  88. 

Natural  gas,  in  Central  States,  103 ; 
description  of  formation  and  of 
method  of  obtaining,  56  ;  leader- 
ship of  United  States  in  production 
of,  408  ;  Middle  Atlantic  States, 
56  ;  Southern  States,  79. 

Nazareth  (naz'a-reth),  350. 

Nebraska  (ne-bras'ka),  93,  95,  99, 
101. 

Negritos  (ne-gri'toz),  159,  231. 

Negroes,  27.  231,  376. 

Nepal  (ne-pal'),  354. 

Netherlands  (nefh'er-landzj,  277-280: 
agriculture,  278  ;  cities,  280  ;  colo- 
nies, 280,  397  ;  commerce,  279-280; 
dairying,  278  ;  dikes,  277-278  ;  fish- 
ing, 278-279  ;  manufacturing,  279  ; 
population,  2(8  ;  surface  features, 
277  ;  waterways,  282  ;  windmills, 
279. 

Nevada  (ne-va'da),  120.  121,  123, 
125. 

Newark  (X.  J.)  (nu'erk),  69,  62. 

New  Bedford  (Mass.)  ( -bed'f f.rd ) ,  42, 
43. 

New  Brunswick  (N.  J.)(-brfmz'wik), 
162,  103. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


441 


New  Caledonia  (-kal'e-do'ni-a),  308. 

New  England  States  (-in'gland-), 
32-47  ;  agriculture,  38-40  ;  climate, 
33 ;  coastline,  33;  commerce.  43- 

44  ;  dairying,  39  :  fanning,  38-40; 
fishing,  36-38  ;  lumbering,  33-35  ; 
manufacturing,  40-43 ;  mountains, 

32  ;  quarrying,  35-36  ;  surface,  32- 

33  ;  truck  farming,  39  ;  work  of 
Great  Glacier  in,  32-33. 

Newfoundland  (nu'fund-land),  162, 
163. 

New  Guinea  (-gin'e),  314,  307. 

New  Hampshire  (-hamp'shir),  32,  33, 
45,  46. 

New  Haven  (Conn.)  (-ha'v'n),  43, 
45. 

New  Jersey  (-jeVzi),  50,  53,  50,  57, 
59,  60. 

New  Mexico  (-meksl-ko),  110,  124, 
142-143,  171. 

New  Orleans  (La.)  (-or'le-anz),  76, 
77,  S3,  84-86,  180. 

Newport  (Kv.)  (nu'port),  115. 

Newport  (H.  I.),  46. 

Newport  News  (Va.),  50,  68. 

New  South  Wales  (-walz),  302,  394, 
305,  300. 

New  York  Bay  (mV  york'-),  60. 

New  York  City  (X.  Y.),  50,  62-64, 
180,  272,  273. 

New  York  State,  40,  50,  51,  52.  53. 
54,  56,  57,  59,  60,  61,  62.  63.  64, 
65,  106. 

New  Zealand,  Dominion  of  (-ze'- 
land).  300. 

Niagara  Falls  (nl-Sg'a-ra-) ,  11-12, 
50,  05,  386. 

Niagara  Falls,  city  of  (X.  Y.),  65. 

Nicaragua  (ne'ka-ra'gwa  or  nik'a-), 
177. 

Nigeria  (nt-je'ri-a).  387. 

Niger  River  (nl'jBr-),  290,  373,  386. 

Nile  River  (nil-),  373,  374,  379-380. 
386. 

Nineveh  (nin'e-ve).  350. 

Nippon  ;nip'pon'),  307,  368. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  254-255. 

Nizhni  Novgorod  (nyez'nye  ndv'gu- 
rftt),  306. 

Nomads  (nom'adz),  230. 

Nome  (Alaska)  (nom),  151,  152. 

Norfolk  (Va.)  (nor'fak),  51,  60,  68. 

Norristown  (Pa.)  (nor'ris-toun),  66. 

North  America  (north  a-mert-ka), 
birth  of  continent  and  early  his- 
tory, 1-2  ;  Coal  Period,  2-4  ;  forma- 
tion of  coastline,  11-12;  formation 
of  mountains  and  plateaus,  4-7  ; 
Great  Ice  Age,  7-11  ;  peoples  of, 
22-26  ;  plants  and  animals,  13-22  ; 
population,  182  ;  present  shape, 
size,  and  position,  12-13  ;  see  also 
countries  of  North  America. 

North  Atlantic  Eddy,  220-221. 

North  Cape,  298. 

North  Carolina  (-kar'6-li'na),  71,  73, 
76,  77,  79,  97. 

North  Dakota  (-da-ko'ta),  93,  96,97, 
99. 


North  Pole,  108,  199. 

North  Sea,  278,  207,  310. 

North  Yakima  (Wash.)  (-yiik'i-ma), 
137. 

Norway  (nor'wa;,  205,  200,  297-298  ; 
cities,  207-208  ;  fishing,  207  ;  for- 
eign trade,  200  ;  government,  295  ; 
lumbering,  207 ;  people,  205 ; 
reasons  for  independence,  296 ; 
scenery,  298 ;  shipbuilding,  297  ; 
surface  features,  296. 

Nova  Scotia  (no'vii  sko'shi-a),  162, 
104,  166,  160. 

Nuremberg  (nu'rem-br-rg),  316. 

Nyassa,  Lake  (-ne-iis'sa),  389. 

0 

Oahu  (o-ii'hoo),  157. 

Oakland  (Cal.)  (ok'ltmd),  138,  140. 

Oases  (o'a-sez),  121-122,  229,  352, 
376. 

Oats,  in  Australia,  304  ;  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 332  ;  British  Isles,  265  ;  Cen- 
tral States,  98;  Germany,  311; 
Ireland,  270 ;  The  Netherlands, 
278  ;  Northwestern  States,  127  ; 
Ontario,  160;  Russia,  304;  Sweden, 
298. 

Ocean  movements,  218-223. 

Oder  River  (o'der-),  314,  316. 

Odessa  (6-des'sa),  307,  334. 

Ogden  (Ut.)  (og'den),  131,  138. 

Ohio  (o-hl'o),  54,  56,  91,  92,  93,  95, 
00,  07,  103,  106,  107,  115. 

Ohio  River.  67,  108  ;  cities  on,  115 

Oil  City  (Pa.),  56. 

Oil.  mineral,  55-57.    See  Petroleum. 

Oil  wells,  56. 

Oklahoma  (ok-la-hS'ma),  72,  70,  89- 
90. 

Oklahoma  City  (Okla.),  90. 

Old  Point  Comfort  (Va.),  50,  68 

Olean  (N.Y.)  (o'le-an'),  56. 

Olive  oil,  382. 

Olives,  in  Arizona,  133  ;  Barbary 
States,  382  ;  California,  128,  131  ; 
France,  285 ;  Greece,  339  ;  Italy, 
325;  southern  Europe,  261 ;  south- 
ern Russia.  304  ;  Spanish  penin- 
sula, 292  ;  Turkey,  348. 

Olympia  (Wash.)  (6-lim'pI-a),  142. 

Omaha  (Neb.)  (o'ma-ha'),  114. 

Oman  (6-tnau'),  351. 

Ontario,  Lake  (-on-ta'ri-5),  53. 

Ontario,  province  of,  162,  165-166. 

Opals.     See  Precious  stones. 

Opium,  351,  357. 

Oporto  (6-p6r'too),  295. 

Orange  Free  State,  384. 

Orange  River.  386. 

Oranges,  in  Arizona.  133 ;  Australia, 
394  ;  Bahamas,  170  ;  California, 
128,  131,  132;  China.  345  ;  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  153  ;  Egypt,  380  ; 
France,  285  ;  Italy,  325  ;  Jamaica, 
178;  Mexico,  174;  Paraguay.  218; 
southern  Europe,  261  ;  Southern 
States.  77-78  ;  Spanish  peninsula, 
292  ;  Turkey,  348. 


Orbit  of  Earth  (or'bit-).  198. 
Oregon  ((Ve-gon),  110,  120,  121,  125, 

120,  127,  140. 
Orinoco  River  (o'ri-no'kij-).  236,  238, 

248. 
Orizaba,  Mt.  (-o're-sa'va),  171. 
Osaka  (0'za/ka),  370. 
Oshkosh  (Wis.)  (Gsh'kdsh),  106. 
Ostriches,  378,  385,  388. 
Oswego  (N.  Y.)  (os-we'g.6),  60. 
Ottawa  (ot'ta-wa),  162,  103,  169. 
Ottawa  River,  107. 
Ottoman  Empire  (ot'to-inan-),  337 

347-350.     See  Turkish  Empire. 
Oxford  (oks'fFrd),  273. 
Oyster    fisheries,    Chesapeake    Bay, 

51-52  ;    Great   Britain,   266  ;   New 

England,  38 ;   Puget  Sound,  126  ; 

Southern  States,  73. 
Ozark  Mountains  (o'zark-),  29,  72. 


Pacific  islands  fpa-slf'ik-),  398. 
Pago  Pago  (pa'gij  pa'go"),  157. 
Palermo  (pa-lermo),  327. 
Palestine  (pal'es-tin),  348-350. 
Palm  trees,  India,  356. 
Pampas  (pam'pas),  231,  246. 
Panama  Canal  (p&n'a-ma'-).  88,  154- 

155,  381. 
Panama  Canal  Zone   154-155. 
Panama,  city  of,  154. 
Panama,  Isthmus  of,  110,  136. 
Panama,  Kepublic  of,  177,  250 
Para  (pa-ra/),  244. 
Paraguay  (pa'ra-gwl'  or  par'a-gwa), 

247-248. 
Paraguay  tea,  244,  248. 
Parana  River  (pii'ra-na'-),  247. 
Paris  (parts),  280-280. 
Pasadena  (Cal.)  (pas'a-de'na),  140. 
Patagonia  (pat'a-go'nl-a),  241,  246. 
Paterson  (N.  J.)  (pat'ei-sun),  60,  62. 
Pawtucket  (R.  I.)  (pa-tuk'et),  42. 
Peaches,    in    California,    131,    132 ; 

Central  States,  97  ;   Mexico,  173  ; 

Michigan   peninsula,    97 ;    Middle 

Atlantic  States,  53  ;  Ontario,  166  ; 

Southern  States,  77. 
Peanuts.  78. 

Pearls,  351,  360,  304.  397. 
Peat,    3,    4,    250;    Denmark,    300; 

Ireland,  270. 
Pecos  River  (pa'kos-),  88,  121,  132. 
Peking  (pe'kin).  301.  366-367. 
Pelee,  Mt.  (-pc-la'),  170 
Pendleton  (Ore.)  (pei/d'1-tun),  128. 
Pennsylvania    (pen'sil-va'ni-a),    49, 

50,  52,  54,  56,  57,  59,  60,  61,  62, 

66,  67,  71,  102,  107. 
Pensacola  (Fla.)  (pen'sa-ko'la),  73, 

88. 
Peoples  of  the  earth.  231-235. 
Peoria  (111.)  (pe-o'rl-a),  96. 
Pepper,  Mexico,  173.     See  Spices. 
Pernambuco  (pfr'nam-boo'ko),  245. 
Persia  (per'sha  or  per'zha),  351-352 

agriculture,    351  ;     climate,    351 

government,  351-352  ;  mining,  351 


442 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


nomadic  tribes,  351 ;  surface  fea- 
tures, 351. 

Persian  Gulf,  350. 

Peru  (pe-roo') ,  238, 241, 248,  S51-252  ; 
agriculture,  251-252  ,  cities,  252  ; 
climate,  251  ;  manufacturing,  252  ; 
mining,  251  ;  transportation,  252. 

Petersburg  (Va.)  (pe'terz-burg),  52. 

Petrograd  (pet'ro-grad),  260,  306- 
307. 

Petroleum  (pe-tro'le-um),  in  Argen- 
tina, 247  ;  Austria-Hungary,  333 ; 
California,  125, 139;  Central  States, 
103;  formation,  method  of  obtain- 
ing, and  products  from,  56;  geo- 
graphic distribution  of,  407  ;  India, 
358;  Indiana,  103;  Japan,  370; 
Kansas,  103;  Mexico,  175;  Ohio, 
103;  Peru,  251;  Russia,  305;  South- 
ern States,  79;  Western  States, 
122,  124. 

Philadelphia  (Pa.)  (fil'a-del'fl-a), 
69,  60,  62,  66,  189. 

Philippine  Islands  (fil'ip-pm-  or 
-pen-),  75,  158-160,  346,  397;  ani- 
mal life,  159  ;  cities,  160  ;  climate, 
158;  people,  159;  products,  159- 
160;  surface  features,  158;  vege- 
tation, 158-159. 

Phoenix  (Ariz.)  (fe'niks),  124,  132, 
142. 

Phosphates,  mineral,  80. 

Piedmont  Plateau  (ped'mont-),  48, 
71. 

Pike's  Peak,  137. 

Pineapples,  in  Bahamas,  179 ;  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  153,  154;  Florida, 
78;  Mexico,  174;  Pacific  islands, 
398  ;  South  Africa,  385. 

Pirseus  (pi-re'us),  339. 

Pittsburgh  (Pa.)  (pits'burg),  55,  59, 
62,  67,  105,  115. 

Pittsfield  (Mass.)  (pits'feld),  42. 

Plants,  Arctic  regions,  13-14 ;  tem- 
perate zone,  16,  17,  19;  torrid 
zone,  19.  See  also  under  names 
of  countries,  etc. 

Plata  Estuary  (pla'ta  es'tu-a-ry), 
247. 

Platinum,  Russia,  305. 

Platte  River  (plat-),  129. 

Po  River  (po-),  257,  324,  328. 

Poland  (po'lnnd),  307,  331. 

Poles  of  the  earth,  198,  199.  202-203. 

Pomona  (Cal.)  (pft-mo'na),  140. 

Pompeii  (pom-pa'ye),  327. 

Ponce  (pon'sa),  154. 

Pontchartrain,  Lake  (-pon'char- 
tran'),  84. 

Popocatepetl  (po-po'ka-ta'pSt'l  or 
-ta-pet'l),  171. 

Population,  comparison  of  United 
States  and  other  countries,  400- 
401.  See  "population"  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Porcelain  manufacture,  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  333;  China,  362,  306; 
Denmark,  300;  France,  285;  Ja- 
pan, 370 ;  near  Paris,  288 ;  Sevres, 
288. 


Port  Arthur  (Canada)  (portar'thur), 

170. 
Port  Arthur  (China),  223,  353. 
Port  au   Prince   (por'  to'  praNs'  or 

port'  6  prins'),  179. 
Portland  (Me.)   (port/land),  37,  41, 

45. 
Portland  (Ore.),  120,  126,  140-141. 
Portland  cement,  60,  79,  106,  107. 
Porto  Rico   (por'to   re'ko),  75,  152- 

154  ;  agriculture,  153  ;  cities,  154  ; 

climate,  152  ;  size,  152. 
Port  Said  (-sa-ed'),  381.  _ 
Portsmouth     (Eng.)     (ports'muth), 

271,  273. 
Portsmouth  (N.  H.),  45. 
Portsmouth  (Va.),  68. 
Portugal  (por'tu-gal),  see  .Spain  and 

Portugal. 
Posen  (po'zen),  309. 
Potatoes,  in  Austria-Hungary,  332  ; 

Bermudas,  180  ;  British  Isles,  265  ; 

Germany,  311;  Ireland,  270;  The 

Netherlands,     278 ;      Peru,     251  ; 

Russia,  304  ;  Southern  States,  78  ; 

Sweden,    298  ;    Switzerland,    320 ; 

Venezuela,  248. 
Potomac  River  (po-to'mnk-),  49. 
Potsdam  (pots'dam),  315. 
Poughkeepsie    (N.    Y.)    (po-kip'si), 

65. 
Prague  (prag),  333,  334. 
Prairies,  230. 
Precious  stones,  in  Austria-Hungary, 

332;    Burma,   360;    Ceylon,   360; 

Colombia,  250  ;  East  Indies,  397  ; 

Montana,  123  ;  Persia,  351 ;  Russia, 

305 ;  Siam,  360  ;  Southern  States, 

80. 
Prescott  (Ariz.)  (pres'kut),  142. 
Prevailing  westerlies,  209,  211,  212, 

238,  239,  261,  264. 
Pribilof  Islands  (pre'be-lof-),  150. 
Prince   Edward   Island   (-ed'werd-), 

162,  164,  166. 
Providence  (R.  I.)  (prov'1-dens),  42, 

43,  45. 
Provincetown  (Mass.),  37. 
Prunes,  California,  131,  132  ;  Servia, 

335. 
Prussia  (prflsh'a),  308,  309,  315. 
Pueblo   (Col.)    (pweb'16),  123,  130, 

135,  137. 
Pueblo,  177. 
Pueblo  Indians,  143. 
Puget  Sound  (pu'jet-),  120,  126, 127. 
Pulp  mills,  41. 
Pulque  (pul'ka),  173. 
Pyrenees     Mountains     (pir'e-nez-) , 

257,  283,  291. 


Quarrying,  35-36;  granite,  35-36, 
79,  267  ;  marble,  35,  36,  79,  282, 
325.     See  also  Building  stones. 

Quebec  (kwe-bek'),  161,  168-169. 

Quebec,  Province  of,  162,  163. 

Queensland  (kwenz'loud),  394. 

Queenstown,  275. 


Quicksilver,     in      Austria-Hungary, 

332  ;  Spanish  peninsula,  292. 
Quincy  (111.)  (kwin'zi),  114. 
Quincy  (Mass.),  36. 
Quinine  (kwi'nin),  251. 
Quito  (ke't6),  251. 

R 

Races  of  mankind,  231-233. 

Racine  (Wis.)  (ra-sen'),  111. 

Rain,  belts  of,  211-214  ;  cause,  210. 
See  also  "Rainfall"  under  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Rainier,  Mt.  (ra'ner),6, 120,  142, 146. 

Raisin  grapes,  in  California,  132 ; 
Greece,  339 ;  Servia,  335  ;  Turkey, 
336. 

Raleigh  (N.  C.)  (ra'li),  83. 

Ranching,  Canada,  165;  Great  Plains, 
99-101  ;  Mexico,  174  ;  Texas,  78  ; 
United  States,  184-185  ;  Western 
States,  133-134. 

Rattan,  159,  356. 

Reading  (Pa.)  (reding),  59. 

Redlands  (Cal.),  140. 

Red  Sea,  350. 

Reims  (remz),  285. 

Religions,  233-235. 

Reunion  Island  (re-Qn'yun-),  389. 

Rhine  River  (rin-),  257,  277,  279, 
317—318 

Rhode  Island  (rod'  i'land),  36, 42, 43, 
45. 

Rhone  River  (ron-),  257,  284,  285, 
286,  289,  320. 

Rice,  in  Burma,  360  ;  Ceylon,  360 ; 
China,  364  ;  East  Indies,  397  ; 
Egypt,  380;  French  Indo-China, 
361 ;  Hawaiian  Islands,  157  ;  India, 
357  ;  Italy,  325  ;  Japan,  369  ; 
Korea,  370  ;  Mexico,  174 ;  Para- 
guay, 248  ;  Philippine  Islands,  159 ; 
Siam,  360  ;  South  Africa,  385  ; 
Southern  States,  76-77 ;  Spanish 
peninsula,  292  ;  Straits  Settle- 
ments, 361  ;  Texas,  88 ;  world  dis- 
tribution of   production,  402-403. 

Richmond  (Va.)  (rich'mund),  52,  59, 
60,  68. 

Riga  (re'ga).  322. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (re'6  da  zha-na'ro), 
245. 

Rio  Grande  River  (re'6  gran'da-),  88, 
121,  132. 

Riverside  (Cal.),  140. 

Roanoke  (Va.)  (ro'a-n5k'),  69,  68. 

Rochester  ( N.  Y. )  (roch'es-tgr),  63, 60. 

Rocky  Mountains,  30,  99,  119-120. 

Rome  (Ga.)  (ram),  82. 

Rome  (Italy),  324.  327-329. 

Rookwood  pottery,  107. 

Rosario  (ro-sa're-6),  247. 

Rosewood,  Central  America,  177 ; 
Mexico,  173. 

Rosin  (roz'in),  82. 

Rotterdam  (rot'ter-dam'),  280. 

Roubaix  (roo'ba'),  285. 

Rouen  (roD'an'),  286,  289. 

Roumania  (roo-ma'ni-a),  336,  336. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


443 


Rubber,     in     Belgian    Congo,    380 
Brazil,  244  ;  Central  America,  177 
East  Indies,  897  ;    Ecuador,   251 
geographic  distribution  of  produc- 
tion, 407  ;  Guiana,  248  ;  Madagas- 
car, 389  ;  Mexico,  173;  l'araguay, 
248 ;     Philippine     Islands,      158 ; 
Straits  Settlements,   301 ;    Sudan, 
388  ;  Venezuela,  248. 

Rumford  Falls  (Me. )  (rum'ferd-),  41. 

Rugs,  330,  337,  348,  351. 

Russia  (riish'a),  302-308  ;  agricul- 
ture, 304  ;  area,  302,  400  ;  cities, 
306-307 ;  civilization,  303-304  ; 
climate,  303;  fishing,  304;  geo- 
graphical position,  302  ;  govern- 
ment, 304  ;  grazing,  304  ;  lumber- 
ing, 304  ;  manufacturing,  305-306  ; 
mining,  305  ;  people,  303-304  ; 
population,  400 ;  rainfall,  303 ; 
surface  features,  302-303. 

Russia  in  Asia,  352-354  ;  area,  352  ; 
cities,  354  ;  climate,  352;  divisions, 
352  ;  minerals,  352-353  ;  products, 
352-353. 

Rutland  (Vt.)  (rutlanrt),  36. 

Rye,  in  Austria-Hungary.  332  ;  Cen- 
tral States,  98;  Germany,  311; 
The  Netherlands,  278  ;  Russia,  304 ; 
Spain,  292  ;  Sweden,  298. 


S 


Sacramento  (Cal.)  (s&k'ra-inen'to"), 

128,  139. 
Sacramento  River,  121,  132,  136. 
Saginaw  (Mich.)  (sag'I-na),  106. 
Sahara  Desert  (sa-hii'ra-),  290,  295, 

374,  376,  377-378. 
St.  Anthony  Falls  (s&nt  au'to-ny-), 

113. 
St.   Augustine   (Fla.)    (-a'gus-ten'), 

73. 
St.  Croix  (-kroi),  179,  300. 
St.  Etienne  (sas'ta'tyen'),  285,  286. 
St.  GothardRy.  (-goth'ard-) ,  322. 
St.  Helena  (-he-le'na),  389. 
St.  Helens,  Mt.  120. 
St.  John  (N.  B.),  163. 
St.  John  (\V.  I.),  300. 
St.  John  River,  163. 
St.  John's  (Newfoundland),  164. 
St.  Joseph  (Mo.),  115. 
St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of  (-la'rens),  167. 
St.  Lawrence  River,  167. 
St.  Louis  (Mo.)  (-lools  or  -looT),  96, 

97,  98,  112-113. 
St.  Paul  (Minn.),  97,  113. 
St.  Pierre,  Island  (sax'  pyar'),  162. 
St.  Pierre  (Martinique),  179. 
St.  Thomas,  179,  300. 
Sakhalin  (sa-Ka-lyen'),  367. 
Salem  (Mass.)  (sa'liin),  45. 
Salem  (Ore.),  140. 
Salmon    fishery,    in    Alaska,    150; 

Canada,  164 ;  Great  Britain,  266 ; 

northwestern  United  States,  127. 
Salt,  in  Austria-Hungary,  332 ;  Brit- 


ish Isles,  267  ;  Central  States,  106  ; 

Germany, 312;  India, 358;  Kansas, 

54 ;  Louisiana,  80 ;  methods  of  pro- 
duction, 53-54  ;  Michigan,  54,  106  ; 

New  York  State,  5:3-64  ;  Ohio,  64  ; 

Stassfurt,  312;  Texas,  80. 
Salt  Lake  City  (Utah),  131,  138. 
Salt  River,  132. 
Salvador  (sal'va-dor7),  177. 
Samoa  (sa-mO'a),  157,  398. 
San  Antonio  (Tex.)  (s5n  an-to'ni-o), 

89. 
San  Bernadino  (Cal.)   (san  ber'nar- 

de'no),  140. 
San  Diego  (Cal.)  (-de-a'go),  140. 
Sandwich  Islands,  165. 
San    Francisco    (Cal.)     (s5n    frin- 

sis'ko),  119,  138,  189. 
San  Francisco  Bay,  139. 
San  Joaquin  River  (san  wa-ken'-), 

132,  139. 
San  Jose  (Cal.)  (san  ho-sa') ,  139. 
San  Juan  (siin  hoo-an'),  154. 
San  Luis  Potosi  (san  166-es'  po'-to- 

se'),  177. 
San  Marino  (san  ma-re'no),  330. 
San  Salvador  (san  sal'va-dor'),  177. 
Santa  F6  (N.M.)  (siin'ta  fa'),  142. 
Santiago  (Chile)  (siin'te-a'gS),  255. 
Santiago  (Cuba),  153,  154. 
Santo  Domingo,  City  of  (-san'to  do- 

men'go),  179. 
Santo  Domingo,  Republic  of,  179. 
Santos  (saN'toosh),  245. 
Saone  River  (son-),  287. 
Sao  Paulo  (sous  pou'loo),  245. 
Sardinia  (sar-din'i-a),  323. 
Sargasso  Sea  (sar-gas'so-),  221. 
Sarsaparilla,  173,  251. 
Saskatchewan  (sas-kach'e- won),  162, 

163,  165. 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  (Mich.)  (sod'  sant 

ma'ri),  108. 
Savannah  (Ga.)  (sa-van'na),  73,  77, 

87. 
Savannas,  228-229,  374,  386. 
Saxony  (s&ks'un-I),  316. 
Scandinavian    Peninsula    (skSn'dl- 

na'vi-an-),  295;   see  also  Norway 

and  Sweden. 
Scheldt  River  (skelt-),  282. 
Schenectady  (N.  Y.)  (ske-n6k'ta-dl), 

59. 
Scotland  (skot'land),  263,  264,  267, 

268,  269,  274.     See  British  Isles. 
Scottish  Highlands,  264. 
Scranton  (Pa.)  (skrun'ttin),  64,  59. 
Sealing,  Alaska,   150-151 ;   Eastern 

Canada,  164. 
Seattle  (Wash.)  (s4-at't'l),  120,  125, 

126,  141. 
Seeland  Island  (se'lornd-),  300. 
Seine   River   (san-),   286,  287,  288, 

289. 
Seoul  (se-6ol'),  370. 
Servia  (seVvi-a),  335. 
Seville  (sevll  or  se-vil'),  291,  294. 
Shad  fishing,  61. 
Shanghai  (shang'ha'i),  363,  366. 
Shasta,  Mt.  (shas'ta),  120. 


Shawnee  (Okla.)  (sha'ne'),  90. 

Sheep,  in  Arabia,  351  ;  Argentina, 
246 ;  Australia,  394 ;  Austria- 
Hungary,  332  ;  British  Isles,  265, 
268  ;  Canada,  165 ;  Chile,  255  ; 
Denmark,  299 ;  Egypt,  380 ; 
France,  285 ;  Greece,  339 ;  Ire- 
land, 270 ;  Mexico,  174  ;  The 
Netherlands,  278 ;  New  Zealand, 
396  ;  Ohio,  97  ;  Persia,  351  ;  Peru, 
251  ;  Roumania  and  Bulgaria,  336  ; 
Russia,  304  ;  Servia,  335 ;  six 
leading  States  in  production  of, 
187  ;  South  Africa,  385  ;  Southern 
States,  78  ;  Spain,  292 ;  Turkey, 
337  ;  Uruguay,  247  ;  Western 
States,  133-134 ;  world  distribu- 
tion of,  404,  405. 

Sheffield  (shef'feld),  269,  271. 

Shetland  Islands,  265. 

Shipbuilding,     in     Antwerp,     283 
Belfast,     274;      Denmark,     300 
Liverpool,     274;     Norway,     297 
Philadelphia,  59  ;   San  Francisco, 
138  ;  Seattle,  141. 

Shoshone  Falls  (sho-sho'ne'),  145. 

Shreveport  (La.)  (shrev'port),  88. 

Siam  (si-am'  or  se'am'),  360-361. 

Siberia  (st-be'rl-a),  302,  352. 

Sicily  (sis'i-li),  325. 

Sierra  Leone  (se-er'ra  le-o'ne),  388. 

Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  (-ne- 
va'da-),  30,  119,  120,  291. 

Silk  industry,  in  Austria-Hungary, 
332 ;  China,  286,  365  ;  Florence, 
329 ;  France,  285,  286 ;  French 
Indo-China,  361 ;  Germany,  313  ; 
Italy,  325-326;  Japan,  369-370; 
Persia,  351 ;  Roumania  and  Bul- 
garia, 336  ;  sections  of  the  world 
engaged  in,  405,  406. 

Silk  Manufacturing,  in  Paterson  (N. 
J.),  60;  Switzerland,  322. 

Silver,  4  ;  in  Argentina,  246-247  ; 
Australia,  395  ;  Austria-Hungary, 
.332;  Belgium,  281  ;  Bolivia,  252- 
253  ;  Canada,  166  ;  Central  Amer- 
ica, 178  ;  Chile,  254  ;  China,  365  ; 
Colombia,  250 ;  Germany,  312  ; 
Idaho,  124  ;  Japan,  370  ;  Mexico, 
174,  175 ;  Montana,  123-124  ;  New 
Zealand,  396  ;  Norway,  297  ;  Peru, 
251  ;  Russia,  305  ;  Spanish  penin- 
sula, 292  ;  Sweden,  299  ;  Tennes- 
see and  Texas,  80  ;  tropical  Andean 
countries,  249  ;  Utah,  124  ;  Western 
States,  120,  122,  123,  124 ;  world 
distribution  of,  407-408,  409. 

Simplon  Tunnel  (sim'plon-),  322. 

Singapore  (sin'ga-por'),  361. 

Sioux  Falls  (S.  D.)  (soo-),  97. 

Sitka  (Alaska)  (sit'ka),  11,  152. 

Skagway  (Alaska)  (skag'wa),  152. 

Slate,  in  New  England  States,  35,  36; 
Pennsylvania,  57  ;  Wales,  267. 

Smyrna  (smSr'na),  348. 

Snake  River,  132. 

Somaliland  (so-male-land),  388. 

Somerville  (Mass.)  (sum'er-vll),  46. 

Soo  Canal  (soo-),  108. 


444 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


South  Africa,  384-386  ;  agriculture, 
385  ;  development  and  settlement, 
384-385  ;  mining,  385-380. 

South  America,  236-256  ;  animal  life, 
239-241 ;  climate,  238-239  ;  coast 
line,  2-iti,  238  ;  government,  242- 
243 ;  harbors,  238 ;  immigrants, 
242  ;  the  Incas,  241-242  ;  inhabit- 
ants, 241-242  ;  mountains,  236  ; 
plant  life,  239  ;  rainfall,  238  ;  rivers, 
235  ;  shape,  236  ;  Spanish  in,  242  ; 
surface  features,  236-238. 

Southampton  (suth-hainp'tun  or 
soiuh-amp'tun),  271,  273. 

South  Australia,  394. 

South  Carolina  (-kar'o-li'na),  76,  77, 
79,  80. 

South  Dakota  (-da-ko'ta),  91,  93,  96, 
99,  106. 

Southern  States,  70-91  ;  agriculture, 
74-79;  cities,  84-90;  climate,  72- 
73  ;  coast  line,  72  ;  commerce,  84  ; 
fishing,  73-74 ;  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, 77-78 ;  lumbering,  73 ; 
manufacturing,  81-84  ;  mining,  79- 
80;  mountains,  71-72;  oil  and 
gas,  79 ;  railways,  84,  85,  88 ; 
ranching,  78 ;  surface  features, 
71-73. 

South  Georgia  (-j6r'ji-a),  255. 

Spain  (span),  settlements  of,  in 
America,  24. 

Spain  and  Portugal,  290-295  ;  agri- 
culture, 292  ;  cities,  293-294  ;  cli- 
mate, 291 ;  colonies,  295  ;  decline 
in  power,  290  ;  farming,  292  ;  gov- 
ernments, 291  ;  grazing,  292  ;  high- 
lands, 291  ;  manufacturing,  292- 
293;  mining,  292;  rainfall,  291; 
seaports,  294-295 ;  surface  features, 
291. 

Spartanburg  (S.  C.)  (spar'tan-burg) , 
82. 

Spice  Islands,  397. 

Spices,  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  15.3  ; 
East  Indies,  397  ;  French  Indo- 
China,  361  ;  India,  336;  Philippine 
Islands,  159 ;  Straits  Settlements, 
361. 

Spokane  (Wash.)  (spo'kan'),  124, 
137. 

Spokane  River,  137. 

Sponge  fishing,  Bahamas,  179  ;  Flor- 
ida, 73  ;  Greece,  339  ;  Italy,  325. 

Spree  River  (spra-),  314. 

Springfield  (Mass.)  (spring'feld), 
43. 

Springfield  (Ohio),  115. 

Standard  Time,  205-206,  342. 

Stanley  Pool,  387. 

Stassfurt  (stas'foort),  312. 

Steel  manufacturing,  Belgium,  282; 
France,  286  ;  Germany,  317  ;  Great 
Britain,  269;  Southern  States, 
82. 

Steppes  (stepz),  231,  303. 

Stettin  (stSt-tSn'),  315,  316. 

Stockholm  (stok'holm),  208,  299. 

Stock  raising.  See  Cattle,  Hogs, 
and  Horses. 


Stockton  (Cal.)  (stok'tun),  128,  139, 
140. 

Straits  Settlements,  360,  361. 

Strassburg  (stras'boorc),  308,  309. 

Straw  plaiting,  326,  329. 

Sudan  (sob'dai/),  290,  377,  379,  387- 
388. 

Suez  Canal  (soo-ez'-  or  soo'ez-),  342, 
381. 

Suez,  Isthmus  of,  312,  381. 

Sugar,  beet,  75;  Austria-Hungary, 
332 ;  Belgium,  281 ;  Central  States, 
9b;  geographic  distribution  of 
world's  production,  402  ;  Germany, 
311,  313-314;  The  Netherlands, 
278 ;  Russia,  304. 

Sugar,  cane,  74 ;  in  Argentina,  246 ; 
Brazil,  245;  Central  America, 
178;  Colombia,  250 ;  comparison 
of  sugar-producing  sections,  184 ; 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  163;  culti- 
vation and  production  of,  75-76 ; 
East  Indies,  397  ;  Ecuador,  25 1  ; 
Egypt,  380 ;  geographic  distribu- 
tion of  world's  production,  402, 
403;  Guiana,  248;  Haiti,  179; 
Hawaiian  Islands,  157  ;  India,  357  ; 
Jamaica,  178;  Japan,  369;  Lesser 
Antilles,  179;  Mexico,  174;  Pa- 
cific islands,  398  ;  Paraguay,  248  ; 
Peru,  251 ;  Philippine  Islands,  159 ; 
Queensland,  394 ;  South  Africa, 
385;  Southern  States,  75-76;  states 
which  lead  in  production  of,  184; 
Texas,  88  ;  tropical  Andean  coun- 
tries, 249  ;  Venezuela,  248. 

Sugar,  maple,  in  New  England,  41; 
in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
51. 

Sulphur,  in  Japan,  370;  Sicily,  325. 

Sumatra  (soo-ma'tra),  397. 

Superior  (Wis.)  (su-pe'ri-er),  102, 
104,  108. 

Superior,  Lake,  108. 

Surinam  (soo'ri-nam') ,  248. 

Susquehanna  River  (siis'kwe-han'- 
na-),  49. 

Sweden  (swe'den),  295,  296,  298- 
299 ;  agriculture,  298 ;  foreign 
trade,  299;  lumbering,  298-299; 
manufacturing,  299  ;  mining,  299  ; 
people,  295  ;  reasons  for  independ- 
ence, 296 ;  surface  features,  296- 
297. 

Switzerland  (swit'zgr-land),  319- 
323  ;  advantaces  of  location,  321 ; 
agriculture,  320 ;  cities,  322 ;  cli- 
mate, 319-320  ;  dairying,  320 ;  gov- 
ernment, 320 ;  languages  spoken, 
320;  manufacturing,  321 ;  mining, 
320-321;  people,  320;  rainfall, 
320 ;  scenery  and  tourists,  322 ; 
surface  features,  319  ;  temperature, 
319-320;  transportation,  321-322. 

Sydney  (Australia)  (sld'ni),  395- 
396. 

Sydney  (Cape  Breton  Id.),  167. 

Syracuse  (N.  Y.)  (sir'a-kus'),  53, 
59. 

Syrian  Desert  (sir'i-an-),  349. 


Table  Bay,  386. 

Table  Mountain,  386. 

Tacoma  (Wash.)  (ta-ko'ma),  120, 
125,  126,  141. 

Tacoma,  Mt.  120. 

Taconic  Mountains,  32. 

Tafilet  (taf'i-let'  or  ta'fe-let'),  378. 

Tagus  River  (tii'gus-),  295. 

Tahoe,  Lake  (-ta'ho  or-  ta'h6), 
145. 

Tampa  (Fla.)  (tam'pa),  73,  80,  83, 
88. 

Tampico  (tam-pe'ko),  177. 

Tanana  River  (ta'na-na'-),  151. 

Tanganyika  (tau'gan-ye'ka),  385, 
389. 

Tangier  (tan-jer'),  384. 

Tanneries.  42-43,  110. 

Tannic  acid,  41,  42,  51,  82,  110. 

Tar,  82. 

Tashkend  (tash'kent'),  354. 

Tasmania  (taz-ma'ni-a),  392. 

Taunton  (Mass.)  (tan'tQn  or  tan'- 
tun),  42. 

Tea,  Ceylon,  360;  China,  345,  365; 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  153 ;  French 
Indo-China,  36]  ;  India,  357 ; 
Japan,  369;  South  Africa,  385; 
world  distribution  of  production, 
403,  404. 

Teak-wood,  356,  360,  361. 

Teheran  (te-h'riin'),  352. 

Temperature,  distribution  of,  223- 
225. 

Tennessee  (tfn'nes-se'),  71,  77,  79, 
80,  87,  97. 

Tennessee  River,  87. 

Territories  of  United  States,  148- 
160. 

Texas  (tgks'as),  56,  72,  73,  75,  76, 
77,  78,  79,  80,  88-89,  171. 

Textile  manufactures,  41,  66;  in 
Barcelona,  294;  Germany  313, 
317;  Great  Britain,  269;  Italy, 
326;  New  England,  41-43;  South- 
ern States,  81.  See  also  Cotton, 
Silk,  and  Wool  manufacturing. 

Thames  River  (tgmz-),  272. 

Thousand  Islands,  170. 

Tiber  River  (ti'ber-).  328. 

Tibet  (ti-bet'oj'tib'et),  342,  361, 
364. 

Tides.  219-220. 

Tientsin  (tg-gn'tsen),  367. 

Tiflis  (tye-'fiyes),  354. 

Tigris  River  (ti'gris-),  348.  350. 

Timbuktu  (tim-buk'too),  378,  388. 

Timor,  island  of  (-te-mor7),  397. 

Tin,  in  Australia,  396;  Bolivia,  252- 
253;  East  Indies,  397;  England, 
267 ;  Siam,  360 ;  Straits  Settle- 
ments, 361. 

Titicaca,  Lake  (-tit'e-ka'ka),  252. 

Tobacco,  in  Argentina,  246  ;  Austria- 
Hungary,  332  ;  Brazil,  246  ;   Cen 
tral  America,  178  ;  Central  States 
97;   Chile,   255;    Colombia,   i50 ; 
Connecticut  Valley,  39,  62  ;  Cuba, 


INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


445 


153;  Germany,  312;  Greece,  339; 
Haiti,  17S);  Korea,  370;  Mexico, 
174  ;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  52  ; 
Ontario,  106 ;  Paraguay,  248 ; 
Persia,  351  ;  Peru,  251  ;  Philippine 
Islands,  159 ;  Porto  Hico,  153 ; 
Russia,  304  ;  Russia  in  Asia,  352  ; 
South  America,  249  ;  South  Africa, 
385  ;  Southern  States,  77  ;  states 
which  lead  in  production  of,  184; 
Turkey  in  Europe,  330  ;  Uruguay, 
217. 
Tobacco   manufactures,    Cuba,  153 ; 

Seville,  294  ;  Tampa,  83. 
Tobago  (to-ba'go),  255. 
Tokyo  (to'ke-6).  370. 
Toledo  (.0. I  (to-le'do),  105,  118. 
Tonopah  (Nev.)  (to-no-pn'),  123. 
Topeka  (Kan.)  (to-pe'ka),  115. 
Toronto  (to-ron'to),  103,  170. 
Tornadoes,  215. 

Trade,  statistics  of  foreign  and  do- 
mestic, of  United  States,  190-191, 
410-412  ;     wholesale,    New    York 
City,  63,  191. 
Trade  winds,  207-208,  238. 
Transvaal     Republic      (triins-val'-) 

384,  385. 
Trebizond  (trebl-zond'),  348. 
Trees,  in  Alps  Mountains,  319-320; 
Australia,    391-392 ;    Brazil,  243- 
244  ;  California,  125  ;  Canada,  103; 
German  Empire,  311 ;  India,  356  ; 
Japan,     309  ;     Mexico,     172-173 ; 
Russia,  303  ;  temperate  zone,  230  ; 
tropical  jungles,  243-244,  356,  374, 
376. 
Trenton  (N.  J.)  (tren'tiin),  59,  66. 
Trieste  (tr$-es'ta),  334. 
Trinidad  (trin'i-dad'),  255. 
Tripoli  (trip'6-li),  377,  384. 
Trondhjem  (tron'yeiu),  298. 
Tropics,  243-244  ;  plants  and  animals 

of  the,  227-229. 
Troy  (N.  Y.)  (troi),  59,  60,  61. 
Truck  farming,   in   Central    States, 

97  ;  New  England,  39. 
Tucson  (Ariz.)  (tfi-son'  or  tuk'siin), 

124,  133,  142. 
Tundras   (tOon'draz),   14,    152,  163, 

227,  260,  303,  343. 
Tunis   (tu'nis),  290,  377,  382,  384. 
Tunis,  city  of,  384. 
Turin  (tu'rin),  329. 
Turkestan  (toor'kes-tan'),  352,  361. 
Turkey  (tfir-ki-)  in  Europe,  336-337  ; 
chief  city,  337  ;  government,  336  ; 
industries,   336-337  ;  people,  330  ; 
toleration   of,   by   Great    Powers, 
337. 
Turkish  Empire  or  Turkey  in  Asia, 
347-350;  agriculture,  348;    cities, 
348  ;  climate,  347  ;   disadvantages 
of  position,  347-348  ;    Holy  Land, 
348-350  ;  industries,  348  ;  Mesopo- 
tamia,  350  ;   products,  348  ;  rain- 
fall, 347  ;  surface  features,  347. 
Turpentine,  82. 
Tutuila  (too'toc-e'la),  157. 
Typhoons,  362. 


United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  203-277.  See  British 
Isles. 

United  States,  26-161  ;  agriculture, 
183-184  ;  area,  27,  400  ;  'coal,  185- 
186,  189;  commerce,  03,  190-191, 
410—112;  comparisons  with  other 
countries,  400-413  ;  educational  in- 
stitutions, 45,  65,  66,  67,  87,  111, 
112,  138,  142;  farming,  29;  fish- 
ing, 185  ;  forests,  185,  187  ;  gold, 
186  ;  grazing,  3<J,  184-185  ;  iron 
ore,  180 ;  lumbering,  185,  187  ; 
manufacturing,  188-189,  194;  min- 
ing, 29-30,  185-186  ;  population, 
27-29,  182,  400  ;  railways,  61-62, 
84,  85,  88,  121,  135-136,  137,  410 ; 
rainfall,  214-210  ;  silver,  186  ; 
transportation,  196-197,  410.  See 
also  under  names  of  physical  divi- 
sions, states,  and  territories. 

Upernivik  (oo-per'ne-vik),  170. 

Upola  (oo'po-lod),  157. 

Ural  Mountains  (u'ral-),  257,  305, 
353. 

Uruguay  (oo'roo-gwl'  or  u'roo-gwa), 
247. 

Utah  (u'tii  or  u'ta),  120,  124,  125, 
131. 

Utica  (X.  Y.)  (u'ti-ka),  52,  00. 


Valencia  (va-len'shi-a') ,  294. 

Valparaiso  (val'pa-ra-e'so),  255. 

Vancouver  (Wash.)  (van-koo'ver), 
103,  167,  170. 

Vanilla  bean,  Brazil,  244  ;  Mexico, 
173. 

Vegetables,  in  Arabia,  351 ;  Bahamas, 
179;  Bermudas,  180;  British  Isles, 
205 ;  Central  States,  97 ;  Chile, 
255 ;  Colombia,  250 ;  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  153 ;  Great  Lake  re- 
gion, 97  ;  Ireland,  270  ;  Jamaica, 
178  ;  Middle  Atlantic  States,  53  ; 
The  Netherlands,  278  ;  New  Eng- 
land, 39 ;  Northwestern  States, 
127  ;  South  Africa,  385  ;  Southern 
States,  77-78 ;  tropical  Andean 
countries,  249. 

Venezuela  (ven'e"-zwg'la),  248. 

Venice  (venls),  324,  329-330. 

Vera  Cruz  (va'ra  krooz  or  vSr'a 
krooz),  172,  177. 

Vermont  (vgr-nionf),  32,  33,  30, 
45. 

Versailles  (veV-sa'y'),  288. 

Vesuvius  (ve~-su'vl-us),  326,  327. 

Vicksburg  (Miss.)  (viks'burg).  88. 

Victoria  (Australia)  (vik-to'rl-a), 
392,  395. 

Victoria  (Canada),  170. 

Victoria  Falls,  373,  386. 

Victoria  Nyanza,  Lake  (-nyan'za), 
389. 

Vicuna  (ve-koon'ya),  241. 

Vienna  (ve-en'na),  333-334. 


Virginia  (ver-jin'i-a),  50,  52,  53,  56, 

59,  (iO,  08,  77,  97. 
Virginia  City  (Nev.),  123. 
Vladivostok   (vla'dye-vas-tok'),  223, 

354. 

Volcanoes,  4 ;  Andes  Mountains,  251 ; 
Central  America,  177  ;  East  Indies, 
397  ;  Ecuador,  251  ;  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands, 155 ;  Iceland,  300 ;  Mont 
Pelee,  179;  on  islands  west  of 
Africa,  389  ;  Japan,  307  ;  Mexico, 
171  ;  New  Zealand,  390  ;  Philip- 
pine Islands,  158  ;  South  America, 
230  ;  Vesuvius,  326,  327  ;  Western 
States,  120  ;   West  Indies,  179. 

Volga  River  (vol'ga-),  306. 

W 

Wake  Island  (wak-),  158. 

Wales   (walz),  263,   267,  274.     See 

British  Isles. 
Walfisch  Bay  (wol'flsh-),  386. 
Walla  Walla  (  Wash.  )(wol'la  wol'la), 

127-128,  137. 
Waltham  (Mass.)  (wol'tham),  43. 
Warsaw  (war'sa),  307. 
Washington  (D.  C.)  (wosh'Ing-tun), 

60,  07-68. 
Washington,  Mt.  32,  35,  46. 
Washington,   state,     120,    121,    124, 

125,  126,  127,  137,  141. 

Waterbury  (Conn.)  (wa'tSr-ber-I), 
43. 

Waterloo  (wa'ter-loo').  281. 

Water  power,  Italy,  325 ;  Switzer- 
land, 321. 

Watertown(N.Y.)(wa'ter-toun),51. 

Waterville  (Me.)  (wa'ter-vil),  40. 

Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  216. 

Weather  maps,  216. 

Wellington  (wel'ling-tun),  397. 

Westerly  (R.  I.),  (west'er-li),  36. 

Western  Australia.  394. 

Western  States,  119-146 ;  agricul- 
ture, 127-133;  cities,  130-142;  cli- 
mate, 120-121  ;  early  history,  119; 
fishing,  120-127  ;  irrigation,  129- 
133  ;  lumbering,  125-126  ;  manu- 
facturing, 134-135,  139  ;  mining, 
122-125  ;  mountains,  119-120  ; 
rainfall,  121  ;  ranching,  133-134  ; 
scenery,  143-146  ;  surface  feat- 
ures, 119-121  ;  transportation  of 
goods,  135-136. 

West  Indies  (-In'd*z),  1,  152-154, 
178-179.  See  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
Bahamas,  etc. 

West  Virginia,  49,  50,  51,  54,  56,  59, 
71. 

West  Wind  Drift,  221,  222,  223. 

Whaling,  150,  274. 

Wheat,  in  Argentina,  246  ;  Australia, 
394  ;  Austria-Hungary,  332  ;  Brit- 
ish Isles,  265  ;  Canada,  165  ;  Cen- 
tral States,  94,T>0-97  ;  Chile,  255; 
Ecuador,  251;  Egypt.  380;  France, 
284  ;  geographic  distribution  of 
world's  production,  401-402  ;  Ger- 
many, 312  ;   India,  357  ;   Ireland, 


446 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


270  ;  Italy,  325  ;  Japan,  369  ;  The 
Netherlands,  278  ;  Northwestern 
States,  127-128  ;  Ontario,  166 ; 
Oregon  and  Washington,  127-128  ; 
Peru,  251 ;  Persia,  351 ;  Red  River 
Valley,  96-97  ;  Roumania  and  Bul- 
garia, 336  ;    Russia,  304  ;    Servia, 

335  ;  South  Africa,  385  ;  Southern 
States,  78 ;  Spain,  292 ;  states 
which  lead  in  production  of,  183  ; 
Sweden,  298  ;  tropical  Andean 
countries,  249;  Turkey  in  Europe, 

336  ;  Turkey  in  Asia,  348  ;  Uru- 
guay, 247. 

Wheeling,    (W.V.)    (hwellng),   59, 

67,  115. 
White  Mountains,  32,  46. 
White  Sea,  302. 
Whitney,      Mt.      (-hwit'ni),     120, 

145. 
Wichita  (Kan.)  (wlchl-ta),  115. 
Wilkes-Barre    (Pa.)    (wliks'bar-ri), 

54. 
Willamette  River  (wil-la'm6t-),  119, 

140. 
Williamsport  (Pa.)  (wll'yamz-port), 

51. 
Wilmington   (Del.)   (wll'mlng-tun), 

53,  59,  66. 
Windsor  (win'zSr),  170. 
Winds,  206-210  ;  explanation  of,  206- 

207 ;    prevailing    westerlies,    209, 

211,  212,  238,  239,  261.  264;  trade, 

207-208,  238. 


Wine,  Algeria,  382  ;  California,  132  ; 
France,  286  ;  Germany,  313  ;  Italy, 
325 ;  Spain  and  Portugal,  294, 
295. 

Winnipeg  (win'ni-peg),  97,  165. 

Winnipeg,  Lake,  165. 

Winona  (Minn.)  (wi-uo'na),  102, 
114. 

Winston-Salem  (N.  C.)  (win'stiin- 
sa'lem),  83. 

Wisconsin  (wls-kon'sln),  92,  102, 
104,  106,  110. 

Wood  alcohol,  82. 

Wood  carving,  in  Germany,  313; 
Italy,  326 ;  Persia,  351 ;  Switzer- 
land, 321. 

Wool,  42  ;  in  Australia,  394  ;  British 
Isles,  268  ;  Italy,  325  ;  New  Zea- 
land, 396;  South  Africa,  385; 
Western  States,  134 ;  world  dis- 
tribution of  production,  405. 

Woolen  manufacturing,  in  Australia, 
395;  Austria- Hungary,  333;  Bel- 
gium, 281,  282;  Brazil,  245;  Ger- 
many, 313  ;  Great  Britain,  268  ; 
Prance,  285-286  ;  Italy,  326  ;  Mid- 
dle Atlantic  States,  60 ;  New 
England,  42  ;  Russia,  306. 

Woonsocket  (R.  I.)  (woon'sok'et) , 
42. 

Worcester  (Mass.)  (woos'tSr),  43. 

Wuchang  (woo'chang'),  366. 

Wyoming  (wi-o'ming  or  wl'S-ming), 
124,  125,  130,  143. 


Yakima   (Wash.)    (yakl-ma),    128, 

137. 
Yakima  River,  132. 
Yangtse-kiang    River    (yang'tse'-ke- 

ang'-),  361,  366. 
Yarmouth  (yar'muth),  164. 
Yellowstone  Park  (yel'16-ston'-),  120, 

143-145. 
Yellowstone  River,  132. 
Yezo  (yez'o),  367. 
Yokohama  (yo'ko-ha'ma),  370. 
Yonkers  (N.  Y.)  (yon'kerz),  60,  62. 
Yosemite  Falls  (yft-slml-ti-),  146. 
Yosemite  Valley,  145,  146. 
Yucatan  (yoo'ka-tan'),  172,  178. 
Yukon  River  (yoo'kun-),  151. 
Yukon  Territory,  162,  166. 


Zambezi  River  (zam-ba'ze'-),  373, 386. 

Zanzibar  (zan'zl-bar'  orzan'zl-bar'), 
389. 

Zinc,  in  Belgium,  281,  312 ;  British 
Isles,  267 ;  Central  States,  106 ; 
Germany,  312;  Greece,  339;  Mex- 
ico, 175 ;  Missouri,  106 ;  New 
Jersey,  57. 

Zones  of  the  earth,  200-201. 

Zuider  Zee  (zi'der  ze'),  277,  278. 

Zululand,  385. 

Zurich  (zoo'rik),  322. 

Zurich,  Lake,  322. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


"Loneltudo  Weat 


0      G     10  20  30 

ithot-er  100,000 Cleveland 

dttta  with  2j,oco  fo  100,000 Hamilton 

CitiV«  trifA  U'.oOO  to  2o,000 Mansfield 

Smaller  Plocta  Coshocton 

;;  Capital*        <"'         County  Sent*      ®       Other  places   c 
Canuffl—u.  Aiufi<"t<W  Jioa<J== 

Wil)l4mnEiigr«'lagCo..X.y.; 


Fig.  1. 


OHIO 


BY   STELLA    S.    WILSON,    HEAD    OF   THE    SCIENCE    DEPARTMENT    OF   THE    HIGH    SCHOOL 

OF   COMMERCE,    COLUMBUS,    OHIO 


Physiography  and  Drainage 

Ohio  is  a  part  of  the  great  Allegheny 
Plateau  region,  which  extends  from  New 
York  south  and  west,  through  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  West  Virginia,  and  Kentucky, 
to  Tennessee.  It  is  a  plain  with  an  aver- 
age height  of  about  850  feet.  There  are  no 
true  mountains  in  the  state, 
but  there  are  many  hills, 
and  some  of  these  reach  such 
a  height  that  they  are  locally 
called  mountains;  for  ex- 
ample, the  hills  between  the 
basins  of  the  Scioto  and 
Miami,  which  have  a  height 
from  1200  to  1300  feet 
bove  sea  level. 

There  are  two  causes  for 
the  hills  of  Ohio:  the  first 
is  the  erosion  of  the  old 
plateau  through  long  pe- 
riods of  time.  Hills  of  this 
class  are  often  steep  and 
high,  are  underlain  by  rock 
(Fig.  2),  and  are  covered 
usually  with  a  soil  which  is 
formed  by  the  decay  of  the 
rock;  if  in  the  glaciated  re- 
gion, they  may  be  covered  with  drift.  Ex- 
amples of  these  are  the  hills  along  the  Hock- 
ing Valley,  or  the  valley  of  the  Muskingum. 
The  second  class  are  made  of  gravel  and 
clay,  are  never  very  high  nor  steep,  but  are 
usually  rounded  on  the  top,  and  have  gently 
sloping  sides.  These  are  deposits  from  the 
great  glacier.  (See  Geog.  pp.  7-10.)  Such 
hills  may  be  seen  almost  anywhere  in  central 
or  western  Ohio. 


A  series  of  hills,  most  of  them  made  of 
drift,  with  an  average  elevation  of  but  a  few 
hundred  feet  above  the  surrounding  coun- 
try, extends  from  Ashtabula  County,  in  a 
south  and  west  direction  across  the  state,  to 
Mercer  County,  dividing  the  plain  into  two 
slopes,  a  short,  rather  abrupt  slope  to  the 
north,   a   long,  gentle  slope   to  the  south. 


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2.  —  A  hill  underlain  by   ruck.    Notice  the  position  of  the  rock  layers. 
Notice,  also,  the  depth  of  the  soil.    What  is  soil? 


The  waters  of  the  northern  slope  are 
carried  by  many  short  streams  to  Lake 
Erie;  the  southern  streams  carry  the  water 
to  the  Ohio. 

Draw  a  map  of  Ohio,  and  put  in  all  the  streams  of 
importance.    Trace  the  great  divide.  tions 

With  dotted  lines  trace  the  divides         6S 
between    the   different  smaller  streams.     On    this 
map  write  the  characteristic  features  of  each  river 
basin  as  the  basin  is  studied. 


Copyright,  1911,  by  The  Macmillan  Company. 


OHIO 


The  divide  which  separates  the  streams 
flowing  north  from  those  flowing  south  is 
broad  and  flat,  and  has  an  average  elevation 
of  about  500  feet  above  Lake  Erie.  The 
highest  point  is  not  more  than  1000  feet 
above  the  lake.  Lake  Erie  is  565  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

Owing  to  an  uneven  distribution  of  the 
drift  on  the  crest  of  the  divide,  there  are 
many  small  depressions  which  are  filled 
with  water,  forming  charming  little  lakes. 
They  are  rarely  more  than  a  square  mile  in 
area,  many  of  them  but  a  few  acres;  some 
have  been  filled  up  with  the  waste  from 
the  hillsides,  and  have  become  swamps. 
They  act  as  reservoirs  for  the  surround- 
ing region,  their  waters  supplying  small 
streams,  or,  sinking  into  the  ground,  re- 
appear farther  down  on  the  sides  of  the 
hills,  as  springs  of  clear  water;  these 
springs  add  much  to  the  value  of  the  farm 
land.  Many  of  these  little  lakes  are  seen 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Akron  and  Canton. 

Some  of  the  towns  along  the  divide  are 
Celina,  Kenton,  Marion,  Bucyrus,  Crestline, 
Canton,  and  Akron.  Most  of  the  land  is 
good  rolling  farm  land. 

North  of  the  divide,  the  land  sloping 
toward  Lake  Erie  was  once  covered  by  the 
glacier,  and  most  of  it  by  the  waters  of  the 
larger  Lake  Erie.     The  glaciers  smoothed 


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Fig   3.  — Cuyahoga  Falls. 


down  the  hills  and  filled  up  the  valleys, 
some  of  which  had  a  depth  of  two  hundred 
or  more  feet,  and  over  all  laid  down  a 
thick  cover  of  drift,  usually  quite  level,  but 
sometimes  arranged  in  long  ridges.  When 
the  ice  had  melted  away  and  the  region  was 
covered  by  the  waters  of  the  lake,  another 
layer,  this  time  a  fine  clay  sediment,  was 
deposited  over  the  drift,  giving  a  peculiar 
character  to  the  soil  of  this  region.  Around 
the  lake,  banks  and  ridges,  real  beaches  of 
sand  were  formed,  just  as  they  are  to-day 
being  formed  along  parts  of  the  shore  of 
Lake  Erie.  This  also  gives  a  peculiar  char- 
acter to  the  soil.- 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  the  divide 
is  so  far  north  that  some  of  the  streams 
which  flow  to  the  south  have  their  rise 
almost  within  sight  of  the  lake.  The 
streams  that  flow  directly  north  to  the  lake 
are  short  and  rapid;  some,  however,  are 
turned  asiie  by  the  drift  ridges  already  men- 
tioned, and  run  for  some  distance  back  of 
these  ridges,  until,  finding  a  way  through, 
they  turn  to  the  north  and  enter  the  lake. 
To  illustrate  this,  trace  the  course  of  the 
Cuyahoga  River  and  the  Grand  River. 
These  streams  have  narrow  valleys,  swift 
currents,  and  many  falls  and  rapids. 

The  Cuyahoga  is  the  largest  of  these  streams ;  in 
its  upper  course  it  flows  through  a  shallow  valley 
in  the  upland ;  near  the  village  of 
Cuyahoga  Falls  it  has  a  descent 
of  over  two  hundred  feet  in  three 
miles.  In  a  part  of  its  course  called 
"  the  glen,"  it  flows  swiftly  between 
steep  walls  of  sandstone,  which  are 
a  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height. 
Some  distance  farther  down,  the 
stream  runs  over  a  projecting  ledge 
of  hard  sandstone  some  twenty 
feet  in  thickness,  forming  what  is 
known  as  the  "  Big  Falls  "  (Fig. 
3).  A  short  distance  farther  down 
it  leaves  the  gorge,  and  flows  into 
a  broader  valley,  and  so  on  to  the 
lake.  At  the  mouth  it  has  cut 
down  through  sixty  feet  of  drift 
to  reach  the  lake  level.  On  the 
terrace,  as  the  land  on  either  side 
of  the  river  is  called,  lies  the  city 
of  Cleveland.  Many  fine  residences 
have   been   built   on  the   heights 


OHIO 


back  of  the  terraces.    The  Cuyahoga  River  furnishes 
water  power  for  many  mills  and  factories. 

The  streams  of  the  middle  northern  sec- 
tion have  their  sources  in  swamps  or 
marshes  on  the  divide,  and  flow  through 
narrow  valleys  almost  due  north  to  the 
lake.  The  falls  and  rapids  in  almost  every 
stream  are  used  for  water  power. 

In  Erie  County,  east  of  the  Sandusky 
River,  is  a  large  spring,  called  the  "  Blue 
Hole,"  which  is  the  outlet  for  an  under- 
ground stream  of  good  size,  which  from 
this  point  on  to  the  lake 
flows  on  the  surface. 

The  Sandusky  River  is 
navigahle  as  far  as  Fremont. 
Most  of  the  basin  is  level; 
the  upper  part,  which  in- 
cludes the  Sandusky  Plains, 
has  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and 
was  once  a  grass-covered 
prairie. 

The  Maumee,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  St. 
Joseph's  and  the  St.  Mary's, 
is  the  largest  river  in  north- 
ern Ohio.  A  large  part  of 
its  basin,  as  well  as  the  land 
to  the  southeast  of  it,  has 
been  known  as  the  "  Black 
Swamp "  region.  Until 
quite  recent  times  this  was 
covered  with  a  thick  forest, 
which  is  fast  disappearing 
(Fig.  -t);  the  miles  of  ditch  that  have  been 
dug,  at  a  cost  of  millions  of  dollars,  have 
changed  the  swampy  forest  land  to  one  of 
the  best  farm  regions  in  the  state.  There 
are  many  fine  artesian  wells  all  through 
this  part  of  the  state. 

Name  the  principal  towns  in  the  Maumee  basin. 
Why  is  Toledo  a  great  lumber  market? 

Lake  Erie  is  a  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  system,  and  borders  Ohio  for  230 
miles.  In  comparison  with  the  other 
Great  Lakes,  it  is  very  shallow,  Lake 
Superior  having  a  depth  of  over  900  feet, 


Lake  Michigan  over  800  feet,  while  Lake- 
Erie  is  but  a  little  over  200  feet  in  the 
deepest  place,  and  at  the  western  end, 
between  the  islands,  it  has  a  depth  of  but 
40  feet. 

The  lake  shore  is  regular,  having  but 
two  large  natural  harbors,  Sandusky  and 
Maumee  bays ;  all  the  other  harbors  are 
artificial.  There  are  two  types  of  lake 
shore :  first,  the  steep,  rugged  rock  cliffs, 
which  are  being  constantly  beaten  upon 
and  worn  down,  and  which  may  be  seen  at 
Marblehead,  across  the  bay  from  Sandusky, 


Fig.  i.  —  A  lumber  camp  in  Wood  Couuty. 

and  on  any  of  the  islands  ;  second,  the  low, 
sandy  shore,  where  the  waves  that  roll  in 
bring  large  quantities  of  sand,  which  is 
being  deposited,  thus  building  up  the  shore 
(Fig.  5).  This  may  be  seen  at  Cedar 
Point,  at  the  opening  of  Sandusky  Bay, 
which  is  noted  for  its  fine  bathing. 

At  the  western  end  of  the  lake  are  a  number  of 
islands ;  these  are  masses  of  limestone  which  pro- 
ject from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  above  the  water. 
A  good  soil  and  a  good  climate  fit  them  for  agri- 
culture, and  gardening  and  fruit  raising  are  impor- 
tant industries.  The  delightful  climate  and  the 
fine  boating  and  bathing  are  attractions  which  dur- 


0B10 


iug  the  summer  draw  thousands  of  people  from  all 
parts  of  the  state.  Many  of  these  visitors  go  to  the 
islands  for  but  one  day,  many  more  spend  the  sum- 
mer there.  Summer  hotels,  cottages,  club  houses, 
and  summer  homes  are  numerous,  and  caring  for 
the  summer  visitors  is  one  of  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  people. 

On  Put-in-Bay  there  are  several  large  caves  in 
the  limestone  rock.     How  are  caves  formed? 

The  name  Put-in-Bay  has  been  given  to  the  large 
bay  in  South  Bass  Island.  It  is  also  applied  to 
the  island,  because  it  is  said  Commodore  Oliver 
Perry  "  put  in  "  to  the  bay  after  the  battle  of  Lake 
Erie  in  which  the  American  fleet  gained  a  victory 
over  the  English  boats  and  took  them  all  captive. 
In  what  war  was  this  ?  What  was  the  famous  mes- 
sage sent  to  General  Harrison?    Johnson's  Island, 


Fig.  5.  —  The  low,  sandy  shore.    Cedar  Point 


at  the  mouth  of  Sandusky  Bay,  was  used  as  a  mili- 
tary prison  during  the  Civil  War,  and  many  Con- 
federate officers  were  confined  there. 

The  greater  part  of  Ohio  is  south  of  the 
divide  on  the  long  slope  which  is  drained 
by  the  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  River. 
These  streams  have  a  fall  throughout  their 
whole  course  of  from  a  few  inches  to  five 
feet  in  a  mile  ;  while  those  on  the  northern 
slope  have  a  fall  of  from  twelve  to  seven- 
teen feet  in  a  mile. 

Name  the  principal  streams  flowing  south. 
Which  is  the  longest?  Which  drains  the 
largest  basin? 

The  glacier  passed  over  the  northern  and 
western  part  of  this  section,  but  not  over 
the  eastern  part,  and  this  causes  a  marked 
difference  in  the  surface  and  in  the  soil. 


The  Ohio  River  (Fig.  28)  is  a  large  stream 
flowing  for  446  miles  through  a  narrow  val- 
ley on  the  boundary  of  the  state.  The  val- 
ley, which  has  been  cut  out  of  the  plateau, 
is  in  no  place  on  the  Ohio  boundary  more 
than  two  miles  wide,  and  it  reaches  that 
width  in  but  few  places.  The  hills  which 
form  the  sides  of  the  valley  are  from  300  to 
600  feet  in  height,  are  quite  steep,  and  are 
covered  with  forests.  Here  and  there  among 
the  trees  may  be  seen  the  opening  of  a  clay 
bank,  a  quarry,  or  a  coal  mine.  The  river 
is  winding,  and  the  narrow  flood  plain  is 
sometimes  on  one  side,  sometimes  on  the 
other.  The  bottom  land 
and  most  of  the  islands  are 
good  farm  land,  but  suffer 
greatly  from  the  spring  and 
autumn  floods. 

The  river  is  navigable 
for  small  craft  throughout 
the  year,  for  large  boats 
during  the  seasons  of  high 
water,  and  for  coal  fleets 
only  at  the  time  of  very  high 
water  (Fig.  11).  Work 
is  now  being  done  by  the 
United  States  government 
to  improve  the  river,  and 
so  to  aid  transportation. 
Name  the  cities  and  towns 
along  the  river.  A  great  many  manufac- 
tories, such  as  potteries,  blast  furnaces,  steel 
plants,  and  rolling  mills,  are  seen  on  both 
sides  of  the  river. 

Why  is  the  Ohio  called  the  American  Rhine? 
Compare  the  Rhine  and  the  Ohio  as  to  length. 
The  Ohio  River  may  be  said  to  belong  to  Kentucky 
and  West  Virginia,  since  the  southern  boundary  of 
our  state  is  the  line  of  lowest  water.  Who  was 
Blennerhasset?  What  two  presidents  were  born 
in  Ohio  river  towns?  President  William  Henry 
Harrison  is  buried  on  the  side  of  a  hill  overlooking 
the  Ohio  at  Great  Bend,  below  Cincinnati. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  southern  slope  of 
Ohio,  the  part  which  was  not  covered  by 
the  glacier,  has  many  high  hills  with  deep 
valleys  between.  The  rocks  in  the  sides  of 
the  hills  are  to  be  found  in  horizontal  beds, 


OHIO 


and  the  layers  on  either  side  of  the  valley 
correspond.  From  this  we  know  that 
during  the  many  years  that  this  land  has 
been  above  the  ocean,  the  streams  that  have 
been  flowing  across  it  have  been  wearing  it 
down  and  carrying  the  material  away  until 
the  valleys  have  been  made.  The  high 
lands  between  are  the  remnants  of  the  old 
plateau. 

The  Muskingum,  which  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Walhonding  and  the  Tusca- 
rawas, drains  a  larger  area  than  any  other 
river  entirely  within  the  state.  The  north- 
ern part  of  the  basin  is  broad,  the  tribu- 
tary streams  coming  in 
from  every  direction;  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  course 
there  are  no  tributaries  of 
importance  and  the  basin  is 
narrow.  The  Muskingum 
is  navigable  for  steamboats 
for  a  distance  of  eighty 
miles  above  its  mouth.  To 
help  navigation  the  govern- 
ment has  built  a  series  of 
dams,  canals,  and  locks, 
which  make  it  possible  for 
boats  to  pass  over  or  around 
the  shoals  and  rapids.  The 
dams  also  furnish  valuable 
water  power,  which  is  used  for  various  man- 
ufactories. 

In  the  broad  upper  part  of  the  Muskin- 
gum basin  there  is  much  fine  rolling  farm 
land  (Fig.  6);  in  the  middle  and  eastern 
part  are  important  coal-mining  districts; 
the  lower  narrow  part  of  the  basin  is  very 
hilly,  except  along  the  river,  where  there 
is  a  narrow  flood  plain,  which  is  good  farm 
land.  Name  the  cities  in  the  Muskingum 
Valley. 

The  Hocking  is  a  small,  rapid  stream 
draining  a  very  hill)7  area;  the  hills  along 
the  upper  course,  called  the  "  Hocking 
Hills,"  are  locally  quite  famous  for  their 
beauty.  The  Hocking  Valley  is  the  most 
important  coal-mining  region  in  the  state. 

The  Scioto  River  drains  a  long  narrow 
strip  through  the  central  part  of  the  state; 


it  has  several  tributaries,  whose  water  power 
is  used  in  sawmills,  paper  mills,  tanneries, 
and  gristmills.  The  upper  part  of  the 
basin  is  good  rolling  farm  land;  in  the 
middle  and  lower  part  are  fine  bottom 
lands,  which  produce  large  crops  of  corn 
and  other  grains.  To  the  south  the  hills 
are  higher  and  nearer  to  the  river.  At 
Portsmouth,  where  the  Scioto  enters  the 
Ohio,  the  valley  is  very  narrow,  and  the 
hills  are  from  four  to  five  hundred  feet 
high.  This  valley  was  a  favorite  dwelling 
place  of  the  Mound  Builders,  many  of  their 
most  famous  earthworks  being'  built  along- 


Fig.  6.  — Looking 


across  the  Kokosing  Valley  from  Gambier.     In  the  upper 
part  of  the  Muskingum  basin. 

the  river.     Name  the  cities  in  the  Scioto 
Valley. 

The  region  along-  the  divide  between  the 
Scioto  and  the  Miami  is  hilly,  the  hills  in 
the  south  being  named  mountains,  as  Long 
Lick  Mountain  and  Bald  Mountain;  some 
of  the  upland  in  this  section  is  flat  and 
poorly  drained,  the  result  being  considerable 
swamp  land.  Along  the  northern  part  of 
the  divide,  near  Bellefontaine,  in  Logan 
County,  is  the  highest  land  in  the  state,  one 
hill  being  1540  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
lowest  land  in  the  state  is  also  in  the  basin 
of  the  Big  Miami,  the  mouth  of  the  river 
being  but  432  feet  above  sea  level,  or  133 
feet  lower  than  the  surface  of  Lake  Erie 
The  fall  in  the  Big  Miami  is  from  three  to 
six  feet  in  a  mile.  It  is  estimated  that  at 
least   three    hundred   mills   use   the  water 


6 


OHIO 


power  from  the  two  Miamis  and  their  tribu- 
taries. 

The  upper  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Big 
Miami  is  rolling  farm  land;  it  is  underlain 
by  a  limestone,  which  is  near  to  the  surface, 
There  are  many  quarries  where  stone  is 
obtained  for  building  purposes,  and  also  for 
burning  to  make  lime.  The  lower  part  of 
the  basin  has  a  deep,  rich,  black  soil,  which 
has  been  derived,  in  part  at  least,  from  the 
underlying  limestone.  Tt  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  best  farm  regions  in  the  world. 
The  Miami  and  Erie  Canal  follows  the  river 
for  many  miles;  it  furnishes  water  power 
for  paper  mills,  gristmills,  and  other  manu- 
factories. 

Name  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  Big  Miami  basin. 
Name  three  in  the  Little  Miami  basin.  Model  the 
map  of  Ohio  in  sand;  show  the  divide  between  the 
Mississippi  system  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  princi- 
pal river  basins,  and  the  divides  between.  Locate 
the  principal  cities  and  see  if  you  can  tell  why  they 
are  situated  as  they  are. 

Climate 

In  what  zone  do  you  live?  Give  your  latitude 
and  longitude.  From  what  direction  does  the  wind 
usually  blow?  What  is  meant  by  the  "prevailing 
westerlies  "  ? 

Ohio  is  in  the  path  of  the  prevailing  west- 
erly winds.  Will  these  winds  be  wet  or 
dry  after  blowing  across  the  United  States? 
If  we  depended  upon  the  prevailing  wind 
to  bring  us  rain,  we  would  have  a  dry  cli- 
mate ;  we  are,  however,  also  in  the  path  of 
the  great  whirls  or  eddies  of  air  which  are 
constantly  disturbing  the  regular  flow  of 
the  westerly  winds.  These  great  whirls 
come  usually  from  the  northwest,  and  when 
the  wind  blows  out  from  the  center  in  every 
direction,  we  have  tine  clear  weather  ;  when 
the  wind  blows  in  toward  a  center,  as  you 
have  seen  it  do  in  the  little  whirlwinds  in 
a  dusty  road,  then  we  have  cloudy,  rainy 
weather.  The  areas  in  which  the  air  is  mov- 
ing in  toward  a  center  are  known  as  cyclonic 
storms.  When  one  of  these  cyclonic  storms 
moves  slowly  along  over  Ohio  the  winds 
blow   in  from   every   direction ;    the   winds 


from  the  south  and  southeast  are  warm  and 
bring  moisture  from  the  sea.  This  mois- 
ture, as  the  air  cools,  is  condensed  and  falls 
as  rain.  It  is  because  of  the  passage  of  the 
storm  and  clear  weather  areas  that  we  have 
such  variable  weather  from  day  to  day. 

The  average  rainfall  for  a  year  in  Ohio  is 
37  inches.  The  northeastern  part  of  the 
state  averages  34  inches,  while  in  and  around 
Toledo  the  average  is  but  28.5  inches.  The 
central  part  of  the  state  averages  38  inches, 
and  the  southwestern  part  has  39.6  inches. 
There  is  sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture  in 
all  portions  of  the  state,  but  crops  requiring 
the  most  moisture  are  produced  in  greater 
abundance  where  more  moisture  falls.  Grass 
grows  well  with  light  rainfall;  therefore, 
a  larger  per  cent  of  the  land  is  in  pasture 
in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  state. 

The  temperature  of  the  state  is  subject  to 
extremes ;  the  summers  are  hot,  the  winters 
are  cold.  Lake  Erie  modifies  the  climate 
of  the  counties  along  its  border,  causing 
them  to  be  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in 
winter  than  the  counties  farther  south ;  the 
effect  of  this  is  seen  in  the  many  orchards  and 
vineyards  which  are  found  along  the  lake 
border.  The  warmer  counties  in  the  south 
produce  a  great  many  berries  and  some  other 
fruits,  and  also  much  tobacco. 

The  climate  of  the  state,  as  a  whole,  is 
suitable  for  raising  grain ;  wheat  and  corn 
are  two  of  the  most  important  products. 

Industries 

With  a  gently  rolling  surface,  broken  Hy 
river  valle}'S,  a  fertile  soil,  a  sufficient  rain- 
fall, and  a  temperate  climate, 
Ohio  will  always  rank  as  one 
of  the  foremost  agricultural  states.  Good 
home  markets  and  the  best  means  of  trans- 
portation to  the  near-by  eastern  trade 
centers  have  also  done  much  to  encourage 
agriculture. 

The  valleys  of  the  Miamis,  the  Scioto,  and 
the  Muskingum  (Fig.  6)  and  their  tribu- 
tary valleys  have  a  deep,  rich  soil  which 


Agriculture 


OHIO 


produces  large  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  and 
hay. 

In  the  part  of  the  state  covered  by  the 
glacier  the  rolling  land  between  the  river 
basins  has  a  good  soil  and  produces  oats, 
corn,  and  wheat ;  there  is  also  much  grass 
land,  furnishing  pasturage  for  great  num- 
bers of  sheep  and  cattle  and  a  smaller  num- 
ber of  horses.  The  hill  country  in  the  south 
and  southeast  has  not  as  good  soil  as  the 
other  parts  of  the  state,  and  is  not  so  well 
adapted  to  agriculture.  Fruits,  such  as 
berries  and  peaches,  and 
tobacco  are  important  prod- 
ucts of  the  southern  coun- 
ties. Market  gardening, 
fruit  raising,  and  dairying 
are  profitable  industries  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  manufac- 
turing towns  and  the  large 
cities. 


bage,  and  celery,  are  stored  in  the  cellar  for  use  dur- 
ing the  winter.  Add  to  these  stores  the  flour  and 
the  meal  made  from  wheat  and  corn  raised  on  the 
farm,  also  a  constant  supply  of  milk,  butter,  and 
eggs,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  farmer  produces 
on  his  own  farm  most  of  the  necessary  foodstuffs 
for  his  family. 

The  methods  of  farming  have  greatly  im- 
proved. With  a  hoe  a  man  could  cultivate 
but  a  small  field  of  corn ;  with  a  two-horse 
cultivator  his  power  to  do  work  has  greatly 
increased.      The  wheat,  once  sown   broad- 


FlG. 


The  average  farm  in  central 
Ohio  contains  from  100  to  150 
acres.  It  is  not  all  given  to  one 
crop,  as  are  the  wheat  farms  of 
Dakota,  or  the  corn  farms  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska;  here  30 
to  40  acres  may  be  given  to 
wheat,  20  to  30  are  planted  with 
corn,  about  the  same  with  timo- 
thy and  clover,  while  20  or  more 
are  still  covered  with  timber,  the 
trees  furnishing  the  supply  of 
fuel,  while  the  land  affords  some 
pasture.  A  smaller  acreage  is 
devoted  to  oats,  pasture,  potatoes,  and  fruits.  A 
farmer  usually  owns  from  six  to  eight  head  of 
horses,  fifteen  to  twenty  cattle,  a  flock  of  a  hundred 
or  more  sheep,  a  few  pigs,  and  a  great  many  turkeys 
and  chickens.  The  five  or  sis  milch  cows  furnish 
the  family  with  milk  and  butter,  and  enough  butter 
is  sold  to  supply  the  table  with  groceries.  The 
farmhouses  are  comfortable  houses  of  wood  or  brick, 
the  barns  are  large,  and  are  surrounded  by  gran- 
aries, cattle  sheds,  wagon  and  machine  houses,  and 
other  necessary  buildings  (Fig.  7). 

The  spring  and  summer  seasons  are  given  to  plants 
ing,  cultivating  the  crops,  and  harvesting  them  ;  the 
autumn  and  winter,  to  caring  for  the  stock,  and  cut- 
ting the  year's  supply  of  fuel.  In  the  fall  such  of 
the  live  stock  as  has  been  fattened  for  the  purpose 
is  killed  and  the  meat  cured,  enough  being  put 
away  to  last  through  the  coming  year.  Potatoes  and 
apples,  with  such  vegetables  as  turnips,  beets,  cab- 


—  A  farm  home  in  central  Ohio  (Parmenter). 

cast,  cut  with  a  cradle,  and  threshed  with  a 
flail,  is  now  sown  with  a  drill,  cut  with  a 
self-binding  machine,  and  threshed  by  steam. 
This  improved  machinery  allows  more  lei- 
sure time,  and  the  farmer  has  time  to  read 
the  agricultural  journals,  the  daily  paper, 
and  the  best  magazines,  which  are  brought 
to  his  gate  by  the  rural  delivery  postman 
(Fig.  8).  Telephones  are  in  most  of  the 
homes ;  electric  cars  and  automobiles  give 
easy  access  to  the  towns  and  cities. 

Most  of  the  farmers  are  Americans  by 
birth  and  have  at  least  a  common  school 
education.  Special  attention  is  now  being 
given  to  the  improvement  of  the  country 
schools.     Centralization  of  the  schools  (see 


8 


OHIO 


p.  17)  will  soon  bring  a  high  school  edu- 
cation within  the  reach  of  every  boy  and 
girl  in  Ohio.  According  to  law,  agricul- 
ture must  now    be    taught  in   all   country 


Fig.  8.  —  Rural  delivery,  Franklin  County. 

schools.  The  agricultural  course  in  the 
State  University  at  Columbus  offers  spe- 
cial advantages  to  the  farmers  for  the 
study  of  soils  and  of  stock,  and  for  study- 
ing the  most  improved  methods  of  farming, 
gardening,  and  making  butter  and  cheese 
(Fig.  9). 

Tell  what  you  have  learned  of  the  formation  of 

.  coal.     (See  Geog.  pp.  2-3.)     What 

°  kinds  of  coal  are  there?     What  are 

*•■   Coal  its  most  important  uses?     In  what 

part  of  the  United  States  is  it  mined? 

The  coal  veins  in  Ohio  were  discovered 
early  because  of  their  exposure  on  the  sides 
of  the  hills  (Fig.  10).  Some  of  the  veins 
are  but  a  few  inches  in  thickness,  others 
have  a  thickness  of  from  ten  to  twelve 
feet.  It  does  not  pay  to  mine  the  small 
veins  for  the  market,  but  where  one  out- 
crops on  a  man's  farm  it  furnishes  him  with 
necessary  fuel.  It  pays  to  mine  a  vein  of 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  and  a  half  feet 
thick  if  the  coal  is  of  a  good  quality.  The 
tunnels  in  such  mines  are  too  low  for  horses, 
and  large  dogs  are  sometimes  used  to  haul 
out  the  coal.  Such  mines  are  called  "  dog 
mines." 


Veins  with  a  thickness  of  from  three  to 
twelve   feet   furnish   most   of   the   coal   of 
commerce.     If  the  coal  outcrops  on  a  hill- 
side,  the   mine   is   run   into   the  hill,  and 
this  is  called  "  drift 
mining"  (Fig.   10); 
if,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  coal  seam  is  deep 
down  in  the  ground, 
a  shaft  must  be  sunk, 
and    this    is    "  shaft 
mining."       Most    of 
the    mines    in    Ohio 
are  drift    mines,  but 
there  are  a  number  of 
shaft  mines  in  Jack- 
son, Stark,  Meigs,  and 
some  other  counties. 
The  deepest  shaft  is 
less  than  three  hun- 
dred feet.    The  great- 
est coal  seam  in  the 
state  is  in  the  Hocking  Valley;  it  is  about 
twelve  feet  in  thickness,  and  is  mined  by 
a  drift   mine.     The   most   improved  mine 
machinery  is  used  in  these  mines. 

All  of    our  coal   is  soft  or  bituminous; 


Fig.  9.  —  The  dairy  department  at  the  State  University. 

it  is  used  for  fuel,  for  making  coke,  for 
reducing  iron  ore,  and  for  making  artifi- 
cial gas.  Railroads,  which  carry  the  coal 
to  market,  run  out  from  the  mining  re- 
gion in  every  direction.  Great  quantities 
of  coal  are  also  shipped  on  the  Ohio  River; 


OHIO 


towboats,  with  fleets  of  barges, 
go  down  the  river  at  the  time 
of  high  water,  carrying  from 
five  hundred  thousand  to  seven 
hundred  thousand  bushels  of 
coal  in  one  fleet  (Fig.  11). 
Give  reasons  for  shipping  by 
the  river.  What  advantage  is 
it  to  the  coal  trade  to  have  the 
Great  Lakes  on  the  north? 

There     are     983     mines     in 
Ohio    (1910);    new    ones    are    still    being 
opened,  and  old  ones  are  being  abandoned  ; 


2.  Iron  ore 


Fig. 


11.  —  Towboat  with    fleet   of   empty  barges    going    up   the    Ohio    River 
(T.  J.  Farley). 


47  were  suspended  or  abandoned  in  1910. 

Forty-eight  thousand  men  are  engaged  in 

mining,    while    others    still 

are  employed  in  getting  the 

coal  to  market ;    30,000,000 

tons  of  coal  were  mined  in 

1910.     Most  of  the  miners 

are  of  foreign  birth.     They 

live    in    small    towns    near 

the  mouth  of  the  mine;  the 

houses   in   which  they  live 

(Fig.   12)  are  often  owned 

by     the     company      which 

employs     them,      as     are 

also    the    stores    at     which 

they    trade.       Some     of 

the    towns    in    the    mining 

region    are     Nelsonville, 


Fig.  10.  —  Aii  ideal  section  across  an  eroded  valley  in  the  coal  measures. 
A,  B,  C,  and  D  represent  coal  seams.  Which  of  these  seams  can 
te  mined  by  drift  mining?    By  shaft  mining? 

Shawnee,  Jackson,   Bellaire,  and  Steuben- 

ville. 

In  the  first  half  of  the 
last  century,  mining  of  iron 
ore  was  an  important  in- 
dustry in  Ohio. 
The  area  where 
iron  occurs  is  the  same  as 
the  coal  area.  Strata  from 
a  few  inches  to  several  feet 
in  thickness,  bearing  iron 
ore,  occur  in  the  rock  strata 
of  the  coal  measures. 

The  iron  ore,  like  the  coal, 
was  found  outcropping  on 
the  hillsides,  and  was  mined 
by  drifting  or  by  "strip- 
ping," that  is,  removing  the 
cover  of  soil  and  rock,  and 
then    taking    out    the    ore. 

Most  of  the  ore  that  is  near  enough  to  the 

surface  to  pay  for  mining  has  been  used. 


Fig.  12.  —  A  street  in  a  mining  town  in  Athens  County. 


10 


OHIO 


Quarrying 


1.   Limestone 


The  rock  which  underlies  the  soil  in  Ohio 
is  limestone,  shale,  and  sandstone.  There 
is  no  granite  in  the  state,  ex- 
cept the  large  granite  bowlders 
which  were  brought  here  by  the  glacier. 
Limestone  is  found  in  the  west,  southwest, 
and  northwest,  sandstone  and  some  lime- 
stone in  the  rest  of  the  state,  and  shales  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  state. 

Limestone  was  formed  under  the  water, 
and  is  made  of  the  remains  of  animals  that 
lived  in  the  sea  which  covered 
Ohio  years  ago;  many  of  these 
remains  or  fossils,  such  as  corals  and  shells, 
may  be  seen  in  almost  any  block  of  lime- 
stone. The  limestone  and  all  the  other 
rocks  of  Ohio  are  stratified,  that  is,  arranged 
in  layers,,  the  strata  varying  in  thickness 
from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  ten  or  more 
feet  (Fig.  2).  This  stratification  is  of 
great  assistance  in  quarrying. 

The  large  blocks  are  used  for  foundations 
and  other  building  purposes;  the  capitol  at 
Columbus  and  many  of  the  public  buildings 
and  churches  in  the  large  towns  are  made 
of  limestone.  In  Sandusky  the  stone  is  so 
near  the  surface  that  some  of  the  cellars  were 
blasted  out  of  the  solid  rock. 

Some  of  the  limestones  when  burned  make 
excellent  lime,  and  there  are  many  kilns  at 
Springfield,  Columbus,  Marblehead,  Kelley's 
Island,  and  other  towns  in  the  western  part 
of  the  state.  The  purest  of  the  limestone 
is  used  in  the  blast  furnaces  to  help  in  the 
reduction  of  iron  ore.  Larger  quantities 
mixed  with  clay  or  shale  are  being  used 
each  year  for  making  portland  cement,  which 
is  used  for  foundations,  sidewalks,  piers, 
docks,  and  for  many  other  purposes.  Ohio 
has  an  almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  these 
materials,  and  the  late  Dr.  Edward  Orton 
predicted  that  they  will  prove  to  be  of  even 
greater  commercial  value  than  has  the  coa1. 

Shale  or  claystone  is  very  abundant  all 
over  the  state.  It  is  a  soft  rock,  and  isde- 
2.  Shale  or  posited  in  such  thin  layers  that 

claystone  it  cannot  be  used  for  the  ordi- 

nary purposes  for  which  other  stone  is  used. 
Its  most  important  use  is  in  making  drain 


tile  and  paving  brick;  for  this  purpose  it 
must  first  be  ground  very  fine,  when  it  be- 
comes plastic  like  clay,  and  it  is  then  mixed 
and  molded  as  clay  is. 

Sandstone  is  found  east  of  a  linj  drawn 
from  Erie  County  in  the  north  to  Adams 
County  in  the  south.     There 

.  ,    ,  3.   Sandstone 

are  many  uses  tor  sandstone; 
when  the  strata  are  thick   and  the   stone 
comes  out  in  large  blocks,  it  is  used  for  all 
kinds  of  building  purposes. 

In  Lorain  and  Cuyahoga  counties  are 
some  of  the  best  sandstone  quarries  in  the 
United  States.  The  stone  is  called  "  Berea 
Grit,"  from  Berea,  where  there  is  a  very 
important  quarry.  The  stone  in  this  quarry 
is  from  65  to  75  feet  in  thickness,  and  has 
been  quarried  to  a  depth  of  40  feet.  Berea 
Grit  has  been  used  in  making  some  of  the 
finest  public  buildings  in  New  York,  Balti- 
more, Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  Boston, 
and  in  some  of  the  large  cities  of  Canada. 
The  Canadian  Parliament  House  is  made 
of  it. 


Fig.  13.  —  Grindstones  made  of  Berea  sandstone. 

The  thinner  strata  of  sandstone,  if  taken 
out  in  large  slabs,  are  used  for  nagging  and 
for  paving  blocks.  Near  Warren  is  a  flag- 
stone quarry.  If  the  stone  has  a  fine,  even 
grain,  it  is  used  for  grindstones  and  whet- 
stones. Suitable  stone  for  both  these  pur- 
poses is  also  found  at  Berea,  and  the  largest 
grindstone  factory  in  the  world  is  situated 
there  (Fig.  13).  Grindstones  from  this 
factory  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  civil- 
ized world.     Some  of  those  in  the  picture 


OHIO 


11 


were  being  made  to  send  to  Russia.  Some 
of  the  purest  sandstone  is  ground  up,  and 
put  with  limestone  and  soda  to  form  glass. 
Near  Newark  there  is  a  fine  glass  sand. 

Some  of  the  places  where  sandstone  is 
produced  in  quantities  large  enough  for 
shipping  are :  Berea,  Amherst,  Akron,  and 
Massillon,  in  the  north  ;  Zanesville  and  Lan- 
caster, in  the  interior ;  and  on  the  Ohio 
River,  Buenavista,  Steubenville,  and  Ports- 
mouth. Cuyahoga  County  is  the  most 
important  quarry  district  in  the  United 
States. 


What  is  clay  ?     What  is  the   peculiar   property 
which   gives   it  value?      For   what 
.  is    it  used  ?      Does   it   make    good 
farm  land  ? 


Clay 

working 


Ohio  is  the  first  state  in  the  Union  in  the 
production  of  clay  products.  Clay  occurs 
in  the  greatest  abundance  in  all  parts  of 
the  state,  and  each  year  its  value  is  becom- 
ing more  apparent.  In  some  places  it  is 
obtained  on  the  surface  from  the  drift ;  in 
other  places  it  is  so  deeply 
covered  that  it  has  to  be 
mined. 

The    first    building    ma- 
terial used  in  the  state  was 
obtained    from    the   timber 
which  had  to  be  cut  down 
to  make  the  land  ready  for 
farming.       When    in    time 
something  better   than  the 
log  cabin  was  desired,  bricks 
began  to  be  made  from  the 
clay.     Many  old  brick  farm- 
houses are  seen   in   central 
Ohio,  for  which  the  bricks  were  made  in 
an   adjoining    field.     As   the   towns   grew, 
brickmaking  became  a  more  important  in- 
dustry,   and    as    the    timber    disappears    it 
becomes  every  day  of  greater  importance. 

Crocks,  jugs,  and  jars  were  necessary 
articles  in  every  pioneer  household,  and 
they  were  expensive  when  brought  over  the 
mountains  in  wagons  ;  so  potteries  for  their 
manufacture  were  established.  Along  the 
Ohio   River  a  clay  was    found  which   was 


suitable  for  making  a  coarse  ware  called 
"yellow  ware,"  and  a  pottery  to  manufac- 
ture it  was  started  at  East  Liverpool.  For 
a  long  time  there  were  but  one  or  two  kilns 
then  other  and  better  ware  began  to  be 
made,  and  the  industry  spread  to  the  neigh- 
boring towns  along  the  river,  and  grew 
very  rapidly.  Clay  suitable  for  the  new 
ware  was  not  found  in  Ohio,  but  the  work- 
men were  here,  the  coal  for  burning  the 
kilns  was  here,  and  the  means  of  transpor- 
tation were  good,  so  that  the  industry 
became  firmly  established.  There  are  now 
hundreds  of  kilns  in  the  towns  along  the 
Ohio,  and  East  Liverpool  is  the  center  of 
the  dish  manufacturing  business  in  the 
United  States.  The  largest  pottery  (Fig. 
14)  in  the  country  is  located  there.  The 
heavy  white  ware  and  a  finer  decorated 
tableware  are  some  of  the  principal  prod- 
ucts. 

Numerous  other  uses  are  found  for  the 
clays  :  lire  clay  is  made  into  bricks  to  line 
furnaces,  chimneys,  and  kilns  ;    other  clays 


Fjg.  14.  —  The  largest  pottery  in  the  Uuked  States.     East  Liverpool. 

are  used  for  tile  for  roofs,  floors,  and  man- 
tels. Pressed  brick,  paving  brick,  hollow 
ware,  door  knobs,  marbles,  pipes,  and  orna- 
mental pottery  are  some  of  the  products 
that  have  not  been  mentioned. 

The  most  noted  ornamental  pottery  in 
the  United  States  is  the  Rookwood  pottery, 
which  is  made  in  Cincinnati.  It  is  valued 
for  its  fine  coloring,  beautiful  decoration, 
and,  above  all,  for  its  fine  glaze.  A  number 
of  skilled  artists  are  employed  to  decorate 


12 


OBIO 


the  ware.  A  school  for  studying  the  clays 
and  their  manufacture  has  been  established 
at  the  State  University  at  Columbus. 

Besides  the  coal  which  furnishes  fuel  for 

factories,  furnaces,  and  mills,  we  have   in 

Ohio   natural   gas   and  petro- 

Oil  and  gas  leum        Natural  gas   is  said  to 

be  the  most  perfect  fuel  so  far  discovered. 
It  comes  from  deep  down  in  the  earth,  where 
it  is  stored  up  in  a  porous  rock,  over  which 
is  a  nonporous  rock,  like  shale,  which  acts 
as  a  cover  to  keep  the  gas  in.  Take  a  piece 
of  sandstone  and  put  it  in  water  or  in  oil, 
and  see  whether  it  absorbs  any  of  the  liquid. 
Men  cannot  tell  from  the  surface  where 
oil  or  gas  will  be  found,  but  a  region  must 


Fig.  15.  —  Oil  tanks  near  Bowling  Green. 

be  tested  by  putting  down  wells.  In  drill- 
ing the  wells  the  drill  first  goes  down 
through  the  soil,  then  through  the  solid 
rock  for  from  one  hundred  to  two  thousand 
feet.  Veins  of  water  are  often  struck,  and 
the  water  comes  up  into  the  well ;  if  from 
a  great  depth,  it  will  be  strong  with  salt 
and  other  minerals.  When  the  drill  gets 
down  to  the  gas  rock,  the  gas  may  come  up 
with  such  force  that  the  drill  is  blown  out 
of  the  well.  In  other  wells  it  comes  in  such 
small  quantities  that  the  well  is  "shot"; 
that  is,  an  explosive  is  lowered  into  the 
well,  and  then  exploded.  This  may  cause 
the  well  to  flow  more  freely,  but  in  some 
cases  nothing  comes  out  but  salt  water. 
In  some  wells  there  is  no  gas,  but  oil  may 
be  obtained  by  pumping.  One  large  engine 
can  be  made  to  pump  a  number  of  wells  that 
are  near  together. 


Gas  was  first  discovered  in  Ohio  in  paying  quan- 
tities at  Findlay  in  1884.  Thinking  the  supply  was 
unlimited,  it  was  offered  free  for  a  number  of  years 
to  any  factories  which  would  locate  there  and  use  it 
as  a  fuel.  Glass  works,  potteries,  chain  and  nail 
works,  and  other  industries  soon  took  advantage  of 
the  offer.  The  gas  was  allowed  to  burn  along  the 
roads  in  large  jets  both  day  and  night.  Many  wells 
were  sunk  around  Findlay  and  Bowling  Green,  and 
pipes  carried  the  gas  to  Toledo  and  other  cities.  In 
a  short  time  the  amount  of  gas  began  to  decrease, 
and  in  some  wells  stopped  flowing  altogether.  Then 
it  became  evident  that  the  supply  was  limited,  and 
must  be  carefully  guarded.  In  a  few  years  the  gas 
was  all  gone. 

The  history  of  the  gas  wells  in  all  sec- 
tions seems  to  be  the  same.  First  comes 
gas,  which  in  time  diminishes,  and  is  then 
accompanied  by  oil ;  then 
the  oil  grows  less,  and  the 
well  produces  but  a  few 
barrels  a  day  when  pumped, 
and  finally  the  amount  of 
oil  is  so  small  that  the  well 
is  abandoned. 

The  most  important  gas 
fields  at  present  in  the  state 
are  in  Fairfield,  Licking,  and 
Knox  counties.  Gas  is  also 
obtained  at  Corning,  Cam- 
bridge, and  South  Olive. 
Nearly  all  the  counties  in  northwestern 
Ohio  produce  either  oil  or  gas.  The  region 
around  Lima  still  produces  considerable  oil. 
The  first  well  was  drilled  here  in  1885. 
The  average  depth  of  the  wells  is  about 
twelve  hundred  feet.  Some  of  the  oil  from 
this  section  is  refined  at  Toledo,  Lima,  and 
Cleveland  ;  but  great  quantities  of  it  are 
transported  to  Chicago  and  to  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  by  means  of  pipe  lines,  and  refined 
there.  Many  large  tanks  for  storing  the 
crude  oil  are  seen  in  Lima,  Toledo,  Bowling 
Green,  and  Findlay  (Fig.  15). 

When  the  oil  comes  from  the  wells  it  is  thick, 
and  has  a  dark  color.  In  the  process  of  refining 
many  substances  are  obtained ;  for  example,  benzine, 
gasolene,  kerosene,  machine  oil,  vaseline,  a  material 
from  which  chewing  gum  is  made,  and  paraffin. 

There  is  another  important  oil  field  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  Ohio,  —  in  Athens, 


OHIO 


13 


Perry,  Morgan,  Harrison,  and  adjoining 
counties.  Some  of  the  wells  are  less  than 
a  hundred  feet  in  depth ;  others  have  a 
depth  of  over  two  thousand  feet.  Cadiz, 
Scio,  Macksburg,  and  Corning  are  some  of 
the  chief  oil  towns.  Marietta  is  a  distrib- 
uting center  for  the  oil  in  the  Ohio  River 
region.  One  of  the  latest  fields  to  be  de- 
veloped is  near  Bremen  in  Fairfield  Count}'. 
These  wells  are  very  deep,  one  reaching  a 
depth  of  3500  feet. 

Most  of  the  oil  wells  and  the  refineries 
are  controlled  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company, 
one  of  the  greatest  trusts  in  the  world, 
which  has  its  headquarters  in  Cleveland. 
Oil  from  Ohio  is  shipped  to  all  parts  of  this 
country,  and  also  to  foreign  lands.  Which 
European  country  produces  large  quantities 
of  oil '?  Which  of  the  Western  states  have 
oil  and  gas  fields? 

Ohio  is  the  second  state  in  the  Union  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods, 
Iron  Manufac-  Pennsylvania  being  the  first, 
turing  The  iron  ore  now  used  is  not 

a  product  of  the  state,  and  we  owe  this  im- 
portant industry  to   our  coal,   and  to   our 
position  on  the  trade  route  of  the   Great 
Lakes,  rather  than   to   our 
natural  resources  of  iron  ore 
(page  9). 

Iron  is  obtained  from  iron  ore 
by  reducing  the  ore   in    a  blast 
furnace  (Fig.  16).     Into  the  blast 
furnace,    which   is   a   high    iron 
cylinder  lined  with  fire-brick,  are 
put  iron  ore,  coke,  and  limestone  ; 
these   are  carried   to  the  top  of 
the  furnace  in  small  cars  by  an 
elevator  or  "  hoist."    When   the 
furnace  is  filled,  a  blast  of  hot  air 
is  sent  through  it  from  other  large 
cylinders   called   "  stoves."      The 
material   of  the   coke   and   lime- 
stone unite  with  the  impurities  in 
the  ore,  and  the  iron  is  set  free, 
and  runs  down  to  the  bottom  of 
the  furnace,  where  about  every  four  hours  it  is  let  out 
into  sand  molds.    The  bars  from  these  molds  are  called 
'•  pigs  "  of  iron.    To  make  steel,  the  pig  iron  is  melted 
and  put  into  a  large  vessel  called  a  "converter"; 
certain  chemicals  are  added,  a  blast  of  hot  air  is 
blown  through  it  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  and  chem- 


ical changes  take  place  which  change  the  pig  iron  into 
steel.  The  steel  is  then  poured  out  into  large  molds, 
and  these  "  ingots,"  as  the  blocks  of  steel  are  called, 
are  ready  to  be  made  into  steel  rails,  bridge  iron, 
sheet  steel,  wire,  and  nails,  which  are  a  few  of  the 
more  important  products  from  the  steel  plants. 

What  materials  necessary  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  iron  or.e  are  found  in  Ohio? 

Ohio  still  has  some  iron  ore,  but  the  dis- 
covery of  the  rich  ore  beds  around  Lake 
Superior  made  ours  of  little  value  (Geog. 
p.  104).  Trace  the  route  from  the  Super- 
ior region  to  the  coal  fields  (Fig.  17). 

The  ore  that  came  by  the  lakes  was  un- 
loaded at  our  lake  ports  to  be  reshipped  to 
the  coal  fields.  Cleveland  was  an  impor- 
tant coal  market,  and  when  the  iron  ore 
was  brought  there,  it  followed  that  fur- 
naces were  built  where  the  two  came  to- 
gether. The  same  thing  is  true  in  a  smaller 
way  of  the  other  lake  ports.  A  great 
many  iron  works  are  therefore  found  in  the 
towns  along  the  lake,  and  also  in  the  region 
between  the  lake  and  the  coal  fields. 

Not  only  are  there  reducing  furnaces  and 
steel  plants,  but  there  are  factories  and 
foundries  which  make  use  of  the  pig  iron 


Fig.  16.  —  A  blast  furnace. 

and  steel.  Cleveland  has  become  one  of 
the  largest  cities  in  the  United  States  and 
the  largest  in  Ohio.  Other  towns  largely 
interested  in  ironwork  are  Ashtabula,  Con- 
neaut,  Lorain,  Sandusky,  and  Toledo ;  the 


14 


OHIO 


towns  in  counties  nearer  the  coal  fields  are 
Youngstown,  Akron,  Canton,  Massillon,  and 
many  others.  All  of  these  cities  have 
increased  in  size  and  in  wealth  with  the 
growth  of  the  iron  industry.  Large  boats, 
which  are  built  expressly  for  that  purpose, 
are  used  in  shipping  the  ore.     These  boats 


Grain  frZn' 

»rior  Sandstone'ron\^ 
Iron    M    I        Lurnbe 

,  IronUl-     , 
n)ber-$A      " 


r,.&gr*Natiral  Gas 

-*MM>rOil     FEKN&VI.TtAKIA 

Cement;         Cleveland     \     Coal\ 
\'rFWr^ — Sandstone\-z — 7~ 
ifPro"^    f    '    °|C°a/ 


Fig.  17.  —  Some  oi  the  raw  materials  which  are  readily 
brought  to  the  lake  ports  by  boat. 

are  loaded  and  unloaded  almost  entirely  by 
machinery. 

Southern  Ohio  had  been  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  state  in  the  production 
of  iron  until  the  advent  of  the  new  ore  from 
Lake  Superior  ;  then  the  southern  industry 
received  a  check.  There  were  ironworkers 
there,  however,  and  coal  and  limestone  were 
near,  while  the  Ohio  River  offered  means 
of  cheap  transportation ;  consequently  it 
was  not  long  until  new  and  larger  furnaces 
were  built,  and  iron  manufacturing  is  now 
one  of  the  most  important  industries  along 
the  river.  Some  of  the  river  towns  engaged 
in  ironwork  are  Steubenville,  Bellaire, 
Ironton,  Portsmouth  and  Cincinnati.  Cin- 
cinnati is  one  of  the  great  markets  for  pig 
iron  in  the  United  States. 

Besides    the    great  industries  that   have 
been  mentioned,  which  give  employment  to 
the    majority    of    our    people, 
there  are  many  others  of  im- 
portance. 

Where  agriculture  is  the  principal  indus- 
try, a  large  amount  of  farm  machinery  will 
be  needed  ;  with  the  iron  and  the  wood  at 
hand,  it  follows  that  the  work  will  be  done 


Other 
industries 


at  home.  Plows,  harrows,  reapers,  thresh- 
ing machines,  windmills,  wheelbarrows, 
farm  wagons,  automobiles,  buggies,  and 
garden  tools  are  among  the  products  from 
these  factories. 

Columbus  is  one  of  the  most  important  centers 
in  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of  carriages  and 
wagons.  Columbus  buggies  are  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  world. 

Cleveland  and  Toledo  have  large  boat- 
building interests,  building  most  of  the 
boats  used  on  the  lakes.  In  the  making  of 
merchant  boats  Cleveland  stands  first  in 
the  United  States.  Boats  are  also  being 
built  here  for  use  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Many  boats  for  use  on  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers  are  built  in  the  towns  on 
the  Ohio.  Street  cars  are  made  in  Dayton, 
and  railroad  cars  in  Toledo  and  Columbus. 
Doors,  sash,  furniture,  wagon  beds,  and 
other  articles  made  of  wood  are  produced 
in  the  towns  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  state.     Why  ? 

Paper  made  of  straw  or  of  wood  fiber  is 
manufactured  in  many  towns  where  the 
canals  or  the  streams  furnish  water  power. 
Gristmills  and  sawmills  also  use  the  power 
furnished  by  the  streams.  Boots,  shoes, 
and  gloves,  and  leather  for  harness  are  be- 
coming very  important  products.  Flour, 
oatmeal,  cereals,  canned  goods,  and  packed 
meats  are  some  of  the  food  products. 
There  are  large  breweries  in  Cincinnati, 
Columbus,  and  Cleveland.  Wine  is  made 
on  the  islands  and  in  towns  along  the  lake. 
Window  glass,  tableware,  bottles,  and  cans 
are  made  in  Toledo,  Lancaster,  Newark, 
Columbus,  and  Bowling  Green ;  Toledo 
has  the  most  important  glass  factory  in  the 
state.  Salt  is  produced  in  the  southern  and 
in  the  northeastern  parts  of  the  state, 
matches  are  manufactured  in  Akron  and 
Barberton,  hard  and  soft  rubber  goods  in 
Akron,  bicycles  in  a  number  of  towns  in  the 
state,  cash  registers  and  airships  in  Dayton, 
beet  sugar  in  Paulding  and  Fremont. 

What  manufacturing  industries  are  there  in  your 
county  ?     Try  to  find   a  reason  for  their   location. 


OHIO 


15 


What    manufactured    products    must   we    import? 
What  food  products? 


Transportation 

One  of  Ohio's  greatest  men  has  said, 
"  Next  in  advantage  to  having  the  tiling  to 
sell  is  to  have  the  convenience  to  carry  it 
to  the  buyer."  In  this,  as  in  natural  re- 
sources, Ohio  is  greatly  favored.  The  most 
important  route  in  early  days  was  the  Ohio 
River,  and  rafts  and  flatboats  were  the 
quickest  means  of  transportation.  The 
difficulty  of  going  up  the  river  with  loaded 
boats  caused  the  people  to  look  for  a  mar- 
ket down  the  river,  and  this  was  found  at 
New  Orleans  and  intervening  towns.  Usu- 
ally the  boat  was  sold  and  the  seller  found 
his  way  back  to  his  home  on  foot  or  on 
horseback. 

Congress  had  promised  to  make  a  road 
from  the  Ohio  country  to  the  ocean,  and  in 
1806  the  commissioners  appointed  chose  a 
route  from  Indiana  across  Ohio  through 
Wheeling  and  Cumberland.  This  is  the 
National  Road,  still  one  of  the  best  roads  in 
the  state.  Find  it  on  the  map.  Through 
what  cities  does  it  pass  ?  This  was  the  first 
road  to  a  market  for  the  central  part  of  the 
state.  On  it  might  have  been  seen  herds  of 
cattle,  flocks  of  sheep,  and  droves  of  swine 
which  were  being  driven  to  the  Eastern 
markets.  Heavy  wagons  with  six  horses 
made  regular  trips  over  the  mountains. 
Over  the  mountains  came  also  a  steady 
stream  of  white-covered  wagons  in  which 
was  the  pioneer  with  his  family  and  all  of 
his  household  goods,  going  West  to  find  a 
home  on  the  fertile  prairies. 

In  1811  the  first  steamboat  was  launched 
on  the  Ohio,  and  after  that  boats  could  go 
both  up  and  down  the  river.  Many  of  the 
people  had  never  heard  of  a  steamboat, 
and  the  great  speed  with  which  this  boat 
traveled  led  some  to  imagine  that  a  comet 
which  had  been  attracting  much  attention 
had  fallen  into  the  water. 

Lake  Erie  was  of  no  great  importance  as 
a  trade  route  until  the  opening  of  the  Erie 


Canal  in  New  York,  then  the  prosperity  of 
northern  Ohio  was  assured.  A  connection 
between  the  two  important  water  routes  of 
Ohio,  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  River,  was 
now  needed,  and  an  appeal  was  made  to  the 
General  Assembly.  Two  canal  routes  were 
selected,  one  from  Cincinnati  to  Toledo,  the 
other  from  Cleveland  by  way  of  the  Scioto 
River  to  Portsmouth.  Trace  these  two 
canals.  Why  do  they  follow  the  rivers  ? 
The  day  chosen  on  which  to  begin  work  on 
the  canals  was  kept  as  a  holiday,  and  cele- 
brations were  held  all  over  the  state.  This 
was  in  1825,  and  in  eight  years  the  canals 
were  opened,  but  they  were  not  finished 
until  ten  years  later. 

While  the  canals  were  still  unfinished,  the 
first  railroad  of  Ohio  was  built  ;  it  ran  from 
Toledo  to  Adrian,  Michigan,  a  distance  of 
thirty-three  miles,  and  the  first  power  used 
was  horse  power.  The  rails  were  strips  of 
Avood  on  which  were  spiked  iron  bands. 
When  steam  was  used  and  the  time  required 
to  make  the  journey  was  reduced  to  three 
and  a  half  hours,  the  speed  was  considered 
remarkable.  In  1841  a  railroad  was  com- 
pleted between  Dayton  and  Sandusky,  and 
the  day  of  traveling  by  the  stagecoach  and 
the  canal  boat  was  past. 

The  states  west  of  Ohio  were  developing 
rapidly,  and  to  reach  the  West  and  North- 
west from  many  places  in  the  East,  the  rail- 
roads had  to  pass  through  Ohio,  so  that  the 
great  trunk  lines  were  built  across  the  state. 
Why  is  Ohio  called  "  The  Gateway  to  the 
West  "  ?  To  get  the  coal  to  market,  rail- 
roads had  to  be  built  from  the  mining  re- 
gions, and  these  rtfads  run  across  the  state 
in  every  direction.  Now  there  is  not  a 
county  in  Ohio  that  has  not  at  least  one 
railroad. 

Lake  traffic  was  injured  for  a  time  by  the 
railroads,  but  with  the  development  of  the 
ore  mining  around  Lake  Superior,  and  of 
the  lumbering  business  and  farming  in  the 
Northwest,  the  lake  ports  became  again 
places  of  the  first  importance  in  trade. 
Fine  passenger  boats  go  back  and  forth 
around  the  lakes  all  through   the  summer 


16 


OHIO 


season,  and  a  daily  line  of  boats  connects 
Cleveland  with  Toledo  and  the  islands. 
Transportation  by  the  Ohio  is  also  of  great 
importance,  but  it  is  greatly  interfered 
with  in  dry  seasons.  The  federal  govern- 
ment by  a  series  of  dams  is  doing  what  it 
can  to  correct  this  trouble.  Boats  carrying 
both  passengers  and  freight  run  three  times 
a  week  from  Cincinnati  to  Pittsburg  except 
in  times  of  very  low  water.  Thousands  of 
tons  of  coal  and  great  quantities  of  lumber 
come  down  the  river  in  the  times  of  high 
water  (Fig.  11).      Iron  ore  from  Missouri, 


Fig.  18.  — The  Wright  Brothers'  aeroplane  factory,  at  Dayton 


and  pig  iron,  steel,  and  manufactured  iron 
products  get  to  the  markets  by  way  of  the 
Ohio. 

Electric  car  lines  now  run  out  from  all  the 
large  cities  in  every  direction,  and  lines  are 
now  being  laid  which  will  connect  the  capi- 
tal with  all  the  important  cities  in  the  state. 
These  will  be  of  especial  benefit  to  the 
farmers.  The  Miami  and  Erie  Canal  is  be- 
ing repaired  with  the  intention  of  using  on 
it  canal  boats  drawn  by  a  so-called  "  electric 
mule." 

The  first  aeroplane  used  for  commercial 
purposes  traveled  from  Dayton  to  Colum- 
bus in  1910.     (See  Fig.  18.) 

The  legislature  (1910)  has  appropriated 


large  sums  of  money  to  be  used  in  improv- 
ing the  country  roads;  this  will  make  it 
easier  and  cheaper  to  market  the  farm  crops. 

"What  means  of  transportation  are  there  in  your 
county?  What  is  the  condition  of  the  country 
roads?     Whose  business  is  it  to  take  care  of  them? 


Education 

Provision  was  made  to  educate  the  future 
citizens  of  Ohio  before  there  was  a  perma- 
nent settlement  in  the  state.  The  Ordinance 
of  1787,  which  outlined  the  government  of 
the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory, said,  "  Schools  and 
the  means  of  educa- 
tion shall  forever  be  en- 
couraged." A  certain 
portion  of  the  public 
land  was  set  aside  for 
free  schools ;  and  pro- 
vision was  made  not 
alone  for  the  common 
schools,  but  also  for  acad- 
emies and  a  university. 
The  schools  were  not  free 
at  first,  as  there  was  no 
public  money,  and  there 
was  so  much  free  land 
that  the  school  lands 
could  not  be  sold  or 
leased  ;  it  was  not  until 
1838  that  enough  money  was  raised  by  tax- 
ation and  by  disposing  of  the  school  lands 
to  make  the  schools  free  to  all. 

After  a  long  time  all  the  school  lands 
were  sold,  not  always  to  the  best  advantage, 
and  the  money  loaned  to  the  state  at  six  per 
cent  interest;  this  is  called  the  state's  irre- 
ducible debt.  In  this  way  a  permanent 
school  fund  was  established.  The  interest 
from  this  fund,  with  state  and  local  taxes 
and  certain  fines,  furnish  the  money  for 
the  support  of  the  public  schools.  Accord- 
ing to  law,  no  school  shall  be  in  session  less 
than  eight  months. 

In  years  past  the  country  schoolhouse  was  a  one 
room  building  placed  near  the  center  of  a  small  dis- 


OHIO 


17 


trict,  usually  where  two  roads  crossed  (Fig.  19). 
One  teacher  had  charge  of  all  classes  from  the  prim- 
ary to  the  high  school  grades.  There  were  a  num- 
ber of  these  buildings  in  each  township. 

This  is  now  being  changed.  A  township  now 
builds  one  large  central  building  with 
room  for  all  grades  and  a  high  school. 
Some  of  these  centralized  schools  have 
good  libraries,  well-equipped  labora- 
tories and  auditoriums  large  enough, 
for  all  ordinary  public  meetings.  The 
schools  are  carefully  graded  and  are 
taught  by  trained  teachers.  The 
children  are  taken  to  and  from  these 
schools  in  large  comfortable  covered 
wagons  (Fig.  20)  or  on  electric  cars, 
all  expenses  being  paid  by  the  town- 
ship. The  law  requires  that  agri- 
culture be  taught  in  all  country 
schools. 

Where  the  schools  are  not  yet 
centralized  pupils  may  take  the  Box- 
well  examination,  and  if  successful 
may  then  attend  some  high  school  in 
the  county,  the  district  paying  the 
tuition. 


state  normal  schools;  Ohio  University  at 
Athens,  which  includes  another  of  the  state 
normal  schools;  and  two  other  state  normals, 
one  at  Bowling  Green  and  the  other  at  Kent. 


In  most  of  the  city  schools 
domestic    science    and    manual 
training  are  taught  in  the  grades.     In  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  high  schools  there  are 
manual  training,  technical,  and  commercial 
high  schools,  where  boys  and  girls  may  bet- 


Fig.  20.  —  A  centralized  school  building  with  the  wagons  used  to  carry  the 
pupils  to  and  from  school. 


Fig.  19.  —  A  country  schoolhouse  in  Knox  County.     (Parmenter.) 


ter  prepare  for  practical  life  or  for  a  busi- 
ness career.  In  a  few  cities  vocational 
schools  give  boys  a  chance  to  learn  a  trade. 
Following  the  high  schools,  and  still  a 
part  of  the  public  school  system,  are  Ohio 
State  University  in  Columbus;  Miami  Uni- 
versity at  Oxford,  which  includes  one  of  the 


The  Ohio  State  University  is  located  on  a 
tract  of  land  containing  over  three  hundred 
acres,  part  of  which  is  still  farm  land.  It 
has  a  beautiful  campus  and  many  fine,  well- 
equipped  buildings  (Fig.  21). 
Besides  the  regular  college 
courses  there  are  the  colleges 
of  Agriculture  (Fig.  9),  Do- 
mestic Science,  Engineering, 
Education,  Pharmacy,  Law 
and  Journalism. 

There  are  also  many  pri 
vate  schools  and  colleges. 
Some  of  these  are  Western 
Reserve  University  and  Case 
School  of  Applied  Sciences 
in  Cleveland,  Oberlin  Col- 
lege in  Oberlin,  Ohio  Wesleyan  University 
in  Delaware,  Dennison  University  in  Gran- 
ville, Kenyon  College  in  Gambier,  one  of 
the  oldest  colleges  in  the  state,  Cincinnati 
University,  Wittenberg  in  Springfield,  and 
a  number  of  others.  There  are  schools  of 
medicine  and  of  law  in  Columbus,  Cleve- 


18 


OHIO 


land,  and  Cincinnati.  Wilberforce  College 
at  Xenia  is  a  school  where  negro  youth  may 
receive  an  industrial  as  well  as  an  academic 
education.  It  is  in  part  under  the  care  of 
the  state.  State  schools  for  the  blind,  the 
deaf,  and  the  feeble-minded  are  located  in 
Columbus. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787  says,  "'Schools 
and  the  means  of  education  shall  forever  be 
established."  One  of  the  greatest  "means 
of  education"  after  the  schools  is  the  public 
library,  and  the  number  of  these  is  increas- 
ing every  year.  Besides  the  public  libraries 
in  nearly  all  the  towns,  we  now  have  the 
Traveling  Library ;  this  is  a  part  of  the 
State  Library  in  the  Capitol,  and  consists 
of  sixty  thousand  volumes.  If  a  board  of 
education  or  a  number  of  citizens  from  any 
part  of  the  state  desire  books  from  this 
library,  they  may  be  obtained  through  the 
state  librarian.  Sixty  books  may  be  drawn 
at  one  time,  and  may  be  kept  a  period  of 
eight  months,  the  only  cost  being  that  of 
transportation. 

Is  there  an  academy  or  a  college  in  your  county? 
Are  there  any  public  libraries  ?  Have  the  people 
in  your  town  taken  advantage  of  the  Traveling 
Library  ? 

Government 

Ohio,  like  all  other  states  of  the  United 
States,  has  its  own  constitution  and  has 
charge  of  all  matters  which  concern  the 
state  alone. 

The  first  constitution  was  framed  in  1802. 
In  1851,  and  again  in  1912,  it  was  amended 
and  greatly  changed.  An  important  amend- 
ment adopted  in  1912,  known  as  the  initia- 
tive and  referendum,  gives  the  people  much 
power  in  making  the  laws. 

According  to  the  constitution  the  state 
government  consists  of  three  branches,  the 
legislative,  the  executive,  and  the  judicial. 
The  county  and  township  governments  have 
two  branches,  the  executive  and  the  judicial. 
The  village  and  city  governments  have  three 
branches,  which  are  the  same  as  the  branches 
of  the  state  government. 

The  legislative,  or  law-making,  branch  of 


the  state  government  is  called  the  General 
Assembly.  It  has  two  departments,  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 
A  bill  to  become  a  law  in  Ohio  legislative 
must  pass  both  houses,  and  branch 
then  be  signed  by  the  presiding  officers  of 
both  the  Senate  and  the  House  and  by  the 
governor.  The  governor  of  Ohio  has  the 
power  to  veto  a  bill.  The  General  Assem- 
bly elects  the  United  States  senators.  How 
many  United  States  senators  are  there  from 
each  state  ? 

The  executive  branch  of  the  government 
sees  that  laws  are  properly  administered. 
The  chief  executive  officers  of  Executive 
the  state  are  the  governor,  branch 
lieutenant  governor,  secretary  of  state,  audi- 
tor, treasurer,  attorney-general,  and  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction.  All  of 
these  are  elected  by  the  people  except  the 
last,  who  is  appointed  by  the  governor. 

The  office  of  the  judicial  department  is  to 
interpret  the  law,  and  in  case  the  law  is  not 
obeyed  to  punish  the  offender.  Judicial  de- 
There  are  many  courts.  The  partment 
lowest  is  the  court  of  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  the  highest  is  the  Supreme  Court, 
which  is  in  session  once  a  year  in  the  Capitol 
in  Columbus  (Fig.  22). 

.  Each  county  has  charge  of  its  OAvn  local 
affairs.  The  chief  officials,  such  as  the 
commissioners,  the  auditor,  the  sheriff,  the 
probate  judge,  and  others,  are  elected  by 
the  people. 

Each  county  is  divided  into  townships, 
the  number  of  these  in  the  different  coun- 
ties ranging  from  twelve  to  twenty.  Each 
township  has  charge  of  such  affairs  as  re- 
pairing the  roads,  caring  for  the  schools,  and 
levying  certain  taxes.  The  chief  adminis- 
trative officers  are  the  trustees;  the  chief 
judicial  officer  is  the  justice  of  the  peace. 

Villages  and  cities  have  charge  of  local 
affairs,  not  only  administering  the  law  and 
trying  offenders,  but  they  also  have  legis- 
lative power,  making  the  laws  that  are 
necessary  for  the  best  government  of  the 
corporation.  The  lawmaking  power  is 
vested  in  the  council ;    the  administrative 


Fig.  21.  —  The  Armory  and  Gymnasium,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus. 


Fig.  22.  —  Capitol  Building,  Columbus.     In  the  foreground  is  the  memorial  to  President  McKinley. 


20 


OHIO 


power,  in  the  mayor  and  his  cabinet  ;  and 
the  special  judicial  power,  in  the  villages, 
in  the  mayor's  court,  in  the  cities,  in  the 
police  court. 

AVho  are  the  United  States  senators  from  Ohio? 
How  are  they  elected?     AVho  is  the  congressman 
from    your    district?      How    is    he 
^  .  elected?     For    how   long    a    time? 

'  '  '  Find  out  the  names  of  the  governor 

and  other  executive  officers.  What  is  the  duty  of 
each?  Who  is  the  state  senator  from  your  district? 
The  representative?  Name  the  county  officials  and 
give  the.  duty  of  each.  If  you  live  in  a  village  or 
city  name  the  municipal  officers. 

Cities  and  Towns 

Columbus.  —  Locate  the  capital  of  Ohio. 
Columbus  is  the  third  city  in  size  in  Ohio, 
having,  in  1910, 181,511  people.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  city,  almost  in  the  center  of  the 
state,  has  caused  it  to  be  an  important  rail- 
road center,  not  only  for  the  local  roads, 
but  also  for  the  great  lines  that  extend  from 
east  to  west  across  the  continent.  Its  many 
manufactories  and  wholesale  houses  cause  it 
to  be  a  center  of  trade  for  a  large  district 
adjoining.  Electric  car  lines  are  now  being 
built  which  will  connect  it  still  more  closely 
with  all  parts  of  the  state. 

The  city  waterworks  system  is  thought 
to  be  one  of  the  best  in  the  country.  The 
waters  of  the  Scioto  are  held  back  by  the 


Fig.  24. 


•  At  the  corner  of  Broad  Street  and  High  Street 
in  Columbus. 


Fig.  23.  —  The  storage  darn  at  Columbus.     (A.  II.  Heitman.) 


storage  dam  (see  Fig.  23),  insuring  a  steady 
supply.  At  the  filtration  plant  the  water  is 
softened,  and  the  germs 
and  other  impurities 
removed  from  it. 

Many  of  the  state 
institutions  are  in  Co- 
lumbus :  the  State 
University,  the  schools 
for  the  blind,  the  deaf, 
and  the  feeble-minded, 
the  hospital  for  the 
insane,  and  the  peni- 
tentiary. 

Columbus  has  many 
industries,  some  of  the 
more  important  being 
the  manufacture  of 
buggies,  wagons,  and 
automobiles,    pig   iron 


OHIO 


21 


MAP        ,  OHIO 


Mk€t 


Fig.  25.  —  Map  of  Columbus,  Ohio. 


and  steel,  shoes,  leather,  flour,  malt  liquors, 
cigars,  glass,  bicycles,  and  many  kinds  of 
machinery. 

Columbus  is  also  an  educational  center; 
besides  the  State  University,  the  public 
schools,  and  other  state  educational  insti- 
tutions,   there    is    a    medical    school,    the 


Capital  City  University,  and  several  busi- 
ness colleges  and  private  schools.  Besides 
the  Carnegie  City  Library  and  the  large 
Public  School  Library,  there  are  the  libra- 
ries belonging  to  the  state  in  the  Capitol 
and  at  the  University.  These  are  all  free 
to  the  public. 


22 


OHIO 


Columbus,  it  is  said,  was  born  a  capital.  When 
Ohio  was  made  a  state,  in  1802,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  established  for  a  certain  number  of  years 
at  Chillicothe,  but  no  state  buildings  were  to  be 
built  there.  All  felt  that  the  capital  should  be  near 
the  center  of  the  state,  and  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  select  a  location.  Nothing  definite  was 
done  for  some  time;  then  a  company  of  men  who 
owned  the  land  "on  the  high  bank  of  the  Scioto," 
made  the  following  proposition :  they  would  lay 
out  the  town  on  their  land,  making  broad  streets, 
give  ten  acres  for  a  public  square  on  which  to  build 
the  capitol,  give  another  ten  acres  for  a  peniten- 
tiary, and  construct  these  two  buildings  for  a  sum 
not  to  exceed  $50,000.  This  proposition  was  ac- 
cepted. Work  was  begun  at  once,  felling  the  trees, 
surveying  the  land,  and  laying  out  the  town.  Town 
lots  were  sold  to  raise  money  with  which  to  build 
the  new  buildings.  The  General  Assembly  met  in 
the  new  capital  the  first  time  in  1816.  The  mem- 
bers came  on  horseback,  and  when  the  legislature 
adjourned,  those  living  along  the  Scioto  returned  in 
rowboats.  In  1826  an  appropriation  was  made  to 
remove  the  stumps  from  High  Street.  The  present 
capitol  (Fig.  22)  was  finished  in  1857;  in  late  years 
it  has  proved  to  be  too  small,  and  a  very  handsome 
addition  has  been  built.  In  this  are  the  Supreme 
Court  rooms,  and  the  offices  of  many  of  the  state 
officials. 

In  less  than  a  hundred  years  Columbus 
has  grown  from  a  few  log  houses  to  be  one 
of  the  wealthiest  cities  in  the  Union.  It 
has  fine  wide  streets,  Broad  Street  being 
noted  for  its  beauty,  numerous  parks,  fine 
business  blocks  (Fig.  24),  churches,  and 
school  buildings. 

The  General  Assembly  meets  in  Colum- 
bus every  two  years. 

Cleveland. — The  largest  city  in  Ohio 
is  Cleveland.  It  is  situated  on  Lake  Erie 
(Fig.  27),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga 
River,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
ports  on  the  Great  Lakes.  The  city  is  built 
on  three  plains:  the  first  is  the  narrow  flood 
plain  along  the  river;  the  second  is  a  clay 
and  gravel  plateau,  or  terrace,  from  sixty  to 
eighty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake;  and 
third  is  the  "heights"  back  of  the  plateau, 
which  is  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
feet  higher  than  the  plateau.  At  a  time 
when  the  lake  was  larger  than  it  is  now, 
the  "heights"  was  the  lake  shore,  while  the 
plateau  was  under  the  waters  of  the  lake. 


The  Cuyahoga  River  has  cut  a  channel  for 
itself  through  the  rocky  heights,  and  in  the. 
softer  material  of  the  plateau  lias  worn,  not 
only  a  channel,  but  has  made  a  narrow  flood 
plain.  Formerly  the  river,  just  before 
reaching  the  lake,  turned  west,  and,  after 
running  a  short  distance  parallel  with  the 
lake  shore,  turned  again  and  entered  the 
lake.  A  new  channel,  which  runs  due 
north,  has  been  cut  for  it,  and  this  wide, 
deep  channel,  protected  by  breakwaters, 
forms  the  harbor.  The  old  river  channel  is 
lined  with  ore  docks  and  yards  for  ship- 
building.    (Geog.,  p.  112.) 

The  low  land  along  the  river,  called  the 
"flats,"  is  covered  with  docks,  warehouses, 
lumberyards,  and  factories.  On  the  plateau, 
or  terrace,  is  the  public  square,  the  business 
part  of  the  city,  and  also  much  of  the  resi- 
dence portion,  as  Euclid  Avenue  and  neigh- 
boring streets  (Fig.  26).  The  heights, 
such  as  Euclid  Heights,  Mayfield,  and  Cedar 
Heights,  are  fast  becoming  the  most  beauti- 
ful residence  part  of  the  city. 

Cleveland  is  in  the  part  of  Ohio  known  as  the 
Western  Reserve,  and  was  first  settled  in  1796.  The 
Western  or  Connecticut  Reserve  is  the  land  that 
was  held  back  by  Connecticut  at  the  time  when  the 
states  ceded  to  Congress  the  land  which  they  claimed 
west  of  the  mountains.  It  extends  from  the  forty- 
first  parallel  north  to  Lake  Erie,  and  from  the 
Pennsylvania  line  west  120  miles.  The  land  east  of 
the  Cuyahoga  River  was  sold  in  1795  to  the  Con- 
necticut Land  Company,  which  was  composed  of 
some  of  the  wealthiest  citizens  of  Connecticut.  A 
party  sent  out  to  survey  the  land  was  in  charge  of 
Moses  Cleaveland,  a  member  of  the  company,  and 
when  the  town  was  laid  out  it  was  named,  in  his 
honor,  Cleaveland,  afterward  changed  to  Cleveland. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  river  a  trading  post  had  long 
been  established,  as  this  was  considered  a  place  of 
importance,  lying  as  it  does  on  the  direct  line  be- 
tween the  two  posts,  Pittsburg  and  Detroit. 

The  little  settlement  grew  very  slowly,  and  it 
was  not  till  the  Erie  Canal  was  built  that  it  showed 
decided  signs  of  progress.  It  then  became  a  distrib- 
uting center  for  the  merchandise  and  other  com- 
modities brought  by  the  canal.  Stage  lines  were 
already  built  connecting  Cleveland  with  Pittsburg, 
Columbus,  and  other  towns.  The  building  of  the 
state  canals,  two  of  which  terminated  in  Cleveland, 
was  of  great  importance  to  the  growing  town,  and 
it  became  one  of  the  leading  grain  markets  on  the 
lakes.     The  lake  route  was  now  of  great   impor- 


OBIO 


23 


tance;  fine  steamers  were  plying  back  and  forth  on 
the  lakes,  carrying  large  quantities  of  merchandise 
as  well  as  great  numbers  of  passengers.  Cleveland 
was  a  regular  stopping  place  for  the  boats,  and  for 
thirty  years  held  a  place  of  first  importance  in  the 
state.  Then  came  the  period  of 
railroad  building,  and  the  lake 
traffic  began  to  decline.  Cleve- 
land, with  the  other  lake  ports, 
felt  the  change. 

In  1851  something  oc- 
curred which  seemed  of  no 
importance  at  the  time,  but 
which,  in  the  history  of  both 
the  city  and  the  state,  has 
proved  to  be  of  the  greatest 
importance.  A  boat  coming 
from  Lake  Superior  brought 
with  it  a  few  barrels  of  iron 
ore,  which  were  landed  at 
Cleveland.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  a  new  era. 
Coal  mining  was  being  car- 
ried on  in  the  Mahoning 
Valley  and  in  other  sections 
to  the  south,  and  Cleveland 
was  one  of  the  markets ; 
more  iron  ore  was  brought  to  be  sent  to 
the  coal  region,  and  the  ore  and  the  coal 
met  in  Cleveland.  Local  railroads  were 
soon  built  to  the  mining  region,  and  large 


receiving  station  for  the  ore,  and  a  ship- 
ping place  for  the  manufactured  product. 

It  is  estimated   that   fifteen  per  cent  of 
the  ore  shipped  from   the  Superior  region 


The  lake  front  at  Cleveland. 


quantities  of  coal  were  shipped  out.  Iron 
manufacturing  became  an  important  in- 
dustry. The  same  railroads  that  brought 
the  coal  could  carry  back  some  of  the  ore, 
and  iron  manufacturing  began  all  along 
the    railroads ;     and    Cleveland    became    a 


Fig.  26.  — The  public  square,  Cleveland. 

now  comes  to  Cleveland.  Of  the  boats 
that  bring  it,  many  are  owned  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Cleveland.  The  ore  is  not  only  re- 
duced and  the  pig  iron  changed  to  steel,  but 
these  products  are  manu- 
factured into  machinery, 
steel  rails,  iron  for  boat 
building,  bridge  iron,  boil- 
ers, wire,  nails,  nuts,  bolts 
and  screws,  sewing  ma- 
chines, hardware,  and  many 
other  iron  products. 

Cleveland  is  the  most  im- 
portant builder  of  merchant 
boats  in  the  United  States. 
Besides  building  most  of  the 
lake  boats,  it  is  now  build- 
ing boats  to  be  used  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  numerous  industries  that  followed 
the  iron  industry  brought  many  people  to 
Cleveland.  In  1896  it  had  become  the 
second  city  in  size  in  Ohio,  and  in  1900 
the  largest  city  in  the   state.     It   is  now 


24 


OHIO 


the  sixth  in  size  in  the  United  States,  and 
continues  to  grow  rapidly. 

Cleveland  has  many  important  industries 
besides  ironworking.  More  oil  is  refined 
here  than  in  any  other  city  in  the  world. 
There  are  woolen  mills,  and  factories  where 
clothing  is  made.  Paints,  varnishes,  and 
chemical  supplies  are  made  here.  Electric 
light  carbons  and  all  sorts  of  electrical  sup- 
plies are  important  products. 

Cleveland  has  wide,  beautiful  streets  and 
many  parks,  as  Wade  Park,  Gordon  Park, 
and  others.  The  many  fine  trees  that  grow, 
not  only  in  the  parks,  but  in  all  parts  of  the 
city,  has  given  Cleveland  the  name  of  "  The 
Forest  City."  The  city  is  not  compactly 
built ;  there  are  few  large  residence  blocks 
and  tenement  houses.  The  workingman 
and  the  rich  man  both  have  homes  with 
dooryards. 

The  public  schools  of  Cleveland  are 
counted  among  the  best  in  the  West. 
Manual  and  commercial  training  are  impor- 
tant parts  of  the  public  school  education. 
Other  educational  institutions  are  the  West- 
ern Reserve  University,  the  Case  School  of 
Applied  Sciences,  and  several  schools  of 
medicine. 

President  Garfield's  tomb  is  in  one  of 
Cleveland's  beautiful  cemeteries. 

Cincinnati. —  On  the  map  locate  Cincin- 
nati, and  describe  its  location.  What  cities 
are  there  across  the  river?    (Geog.,  p.  112.) 


Fig.  28.  —  A  bridge  over  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati. 


Cincinnati,  the  "  Queen  City  of  the  West," 
with  its  fine  public  buildings,  many  parks, 
and  beautiful  suburbs  scattered  all  through 
the  hills,  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  the 
West,  as  well  as  one  of  the  largest.  It  is 
second  in  size  in  Ohio. 

The  business  part  of  the  city  is  on  a  low 
plain  which  borders  the  Ohio  River,  and  is 
not  many  feet  above  it.  This  plain,  which 
extends  back  along  Mill  Creek,  is  almost 
encircled  by  hills,  which  are  from  two  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred  feet  above  the  river. 
The  city  extends  for  fifteen  miles  up  and 
down  the  river.  With  the  extension  of  the 
street  car  lines  the  people  began  to  build 
their  homes  back  in  the  hills,  away  from 
the  heat  and  the  dust  of  the  main  city.  To 
get  to  the  top  of  the  hills,  which  are  very 
steep,  a  number  of  inclines  have  been  built; 
on  these  are  large  trucks  on  to  which  the 
street  cars  are  run,  and  then  both  are  slowly 
drawn  to  the  top  of  the  hill. 

Eden  Park  and  Burnet  Woods  are  two 
of  the  fine  parks  of  the  city  in  which  are 
still  growing  stately  forest  trees  which  were 
once  a  part  of  the  original  forest.  In  a 
commanding  position  overlooking  the  Ohio 
in  Eden  Park  are  the  Art  Museum  and  the 
Art  School. 

Cincinnati  is  the  meeting  place  for  two 
lines  of  boats,  the  one  running  to  Pittsburg 
and  other  towns  to  the  e.ast,  the  other  run- 
ning to  Louisville,  Memphis,  New  Orleans, 
and  other  towns  to  the  west 
and  south  (Geog.,  p.  115). 
Many  lines  of  railway  con- 
nect the  city  with  all  parts 
of  the  country;  one  of  the 
great  lines  to  the  south,  the 
Cincinnati  Southern,  was 
built  and  is  still  owned  by 
the  city.  By  means  of  the 
southern  railways  as  well  as 
the  steamboat  lines  Cincin- 
nati is  open  to  trade,  not  only 
with  the  southern  states, 
but  also  with  the  countries 
bordering  the  Gulf  and  the 
Caribbean    Sea,    and    with 


OHIO 


25 


South  America.  It  has,  therefore,  a  large 
market  for  its  leather,  furniture,  shoes, 
liquors,  carriages,  automobiles,  clothing, 
paper,  and  machinery.  Why  is  Cincinnati 
called  "  The  Gateway  to  the  South  "  ? 

The  Miami  and  Erie  Canal  terminates  in 
Cincinnati,  and  was  a  very  important  fea- 
ture in  an  early  day.  It  is  now  being  re- 
paired with  the  expectation  of  establishing 
a  line  of  electric  canal  boats  between  the 
lake  and  the  river.  Electric  lines  give 
easy  communication  with  all  the  sur- 
rounding towns  and  with  the  capital.  A 
number  of  fine  bridges  connect  it  with 
Covington  and  Newport  in  Kentucky 
(Fig.  28). 

Cincinnati  is  an  important  manufacturing 
city;  its  tanneries,  wagon,  carriage  and 
automobile  factories,  machine  shops,  facto- 
ries where  furniture  and  clothing  are  made, 
and  its  breweries  and  distilleries  are  among 
the  largest  in  the  United  States.  Other 
important  products  are  pianos,  harness, 
shoes,  meats,  drugs,  hardware,  soap,  paint, 
ink,  tobacco,  and  cigars. 

Rookwood  pottery,  which  is  the  most 
noted  of  all  the  American  decorative  pot- 
teries, is  made  in  Cincinnati  (Geog.,  p.  107). 

But  the  Queen  City  is  more  than  a  man- 
ufacturing and  commercial  town;  it  is  one 
of  the  leading  cities  in  music  and  art  in  the 
West.  Musical  festivals  are  held  biennially 
in  Music  Hall,  in  which  is  employed  the 
finest  talent  to  be  obtained  in  the  world. 
The  Art  Museum  contains  a  great  amount 
of  valuable  material,  and  the  children  of  the 
public  schools  are  given  the  oppor- 
tunity to  visit  it  with  their  teachers. 

The  public  school  S3rstem  covers 
not  only  the  course  in  the  high 
school,  but  a  course  in  the  Cincin- 
nati University.  There  are  also 
public  libraries,  and  schools  of  medi- 
cine and  law. 

Toledo  is  the  fourth  city  in  size 
in  Ohio.  It  is  situated  on  either 
side  of  the  Maumee  River,  some 
distance  down  from  its  entrance  to 
Maumee  Bay.     It  has  a  fine  harbor, 


with  nineteen  miles  of  docks.  This  excellent 
water  front  furnishes  room  for  the  construc- 
tion of  ships,  and  one  of  the  best-equipped 
ship-building  yards  on  the  lakes  is  located 
here.  It  is  a  receiving  station  for  iron  ore 
from  the  Superiorregion, lumber  from  Michi- 
gan, and  coal,  grain,  and  other  products  from 
Indiana  and  Ohio.  It  is  also  one  of  the 
chief  ports  for  the  shipment  of  the  coal 
which  goes  up  the  lakes  (Geog.,  p.  113). 

It  is  an  important  lumber  market,  as  well 
as  a  manufacturing  center  for  wooden 
articles,  such  as  cars,  carriage  beds,  wheels, 
sash,  doors  and  blinds,  furniture,  and  pic- 
ture frames.  Other  important  industries 
are  refining  oil,  making  glass,  fishing,  and 
manufacturing  pigiron,  steel,  and  machinery. 

It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Miami  and  Erie 
Canal,  also  of  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal. 
It  is  the  pioneer  railway  town  in  Ohio,  and 
has  many  important  railroads.  Toledo 
exports  grain,  coal,  wool,  live  stock,  fish, 
lime,  glass,  cement,  and  many  other  manu- 
factured articles  (Fig.  28). 

Dayton,  the  fifth  city  in  size  in  Ohio,  is 
a  beautiful  city,  with  well-paved  streets 
and  many  fine  residences.  Situated  on  the 
Miami  at  a  point  where  several  tributary 
streams  join  it,  Dayton  is  the  natural  mar- 
ket for  the  fine  farm  region  which  sur- 
rounds it.  In  early  days  these  streams 
were  the  paths  over  which  farm  produce 
came  to  market ;  and  in  later  times  the  rail- 
ways have  found  it  convenient  to  follow 
the  valleys,  and  this  has  made  the  city  an 
important  railroad  center. 


Fig.  28.  —  A  grain  elevator  on  the  Maumee  River  at  Toledo. 


26 


OHIO 


Cash  registers,  street  cars,  automobiles, 
bicycles,  wheels,  cigar  boxes,  paper,  soap, 
paint,  locks,  furniture,  sewing  machines, 
agricultural  and  other  machinery,  and  aero- 
planes (Fig-  18)  are  some  of  the  manufac- 
tured articles.  A  fine  system  of  public 
schools  is  aided  by  one  of  the  best  public 
museums  and  libraries  in  the  state.  The 
central  branch  of  the  National  Soldiers' 
Home  is  located  here  and  is  visited  yearly 
by  thousands  of  people. 


Fig.  29. 


■  A  crowd  of  workmen  leaving  a  factory  at  the  close  of  the  day, 
at  Dayton. 


Sandusky,  on  Sandusky  Bay,  has  the 
finest  and  largest  natural  harbor  on  the 
lake.  The  ground  back  of  the  bay  rises 
gradually,  giving  the  city  the  benefit  of 
the  lake  breeze,  as  well  as  a  fine  view  of 
the  lake.  In  and  around  the  city  are  many 
limestone  quarries,  and  many  of  the  public 
buildings  and  dwelling  houses  are  made  of 
stone,  which  gives  the  city  a  very  handsome 
appearance.  Grapes  and  pears  are  produced 
in  abundance  in  the  surrounding  country. 
Sandusky  is  an  important  lumber  market, 
and  manufacturing  articles  from  wood  is 
one  of  the  principal  industries  ;  some  of 
the  products  are  boxes,  barrels,  window 
sash,  and  doors.  Fishing  is  an  important 
industry.  The  state  fish  hatchery  is  located 
in  Sandusky.     Large  quantities  of  ice  are 


shipped  from  Sandusky  to  Cincinnati  and 
other  towns  and  cities  in  the  interior. 

Milan,  in  Erie  County,  is  the  birthplace 
of  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

Akron  is  a  busy  manufacturing  city,  sit- 
uated on  the  divide  that  separates  the  basin 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  from  the  basin  of  the 
Mississippi.  There  are  a  number  of  beau- 
tiful little  lakes  in  the  vicinity.  One 
of  these,  Summit  Lake,  is  the  source  of 
Akron's  water  supply.  The  Ohio  Canal 
and  a  canal  connecting  the  lake 
and  the  Ohio,  near  Pittsburg, 
pass  through  the  town.  Some 
of  the  important  industries  are 
manufacturing  sewer  pipe  and 
stoneware,  harvesters,  twine, 
rubber  goods,  and  fire  brick. 
Such  food  products  as  flour, 
crackers,  and  cereals,  are  also 
made  here.  One  fifth  of  all 
the  matches  used  in  the  United 
States  are  made  in  Akron  and 
adjoining  villages. 

Canton  is  a  manufacturing 
town  producing  threshing  ma- 
chines, engines,  wagons,  plows 
and  other  machinery.  One  of 
the  largest  watchmaking  fac- 
tories in  the  country  is  situated 
here.  Canton  has  many  beauti- 
ful homes  ;  one  of  these  will  always  be  remem- 
bered as  the  home  of  President  McKinley. 

Youngstown,  in  the  Mahoning  Valley, 
is  the  center  of  a  fine  farming  and  sheep- 
raising  region,  and  holds  a  leading  place  in 
the  coal  and  iron  trade.  It  is  the  pioneer 
town  in  Ohio  in  the  iron  industry,  and  still 
has  some  of  the  largest  reduction  plants  in 
the  state. 

Like  Cleveland  and  other  cities  and 
towns  on  the  lake,  Lorain  is  interested  in 
ironwork.  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Black  River  and  has  a  good  harbor. 
Boat  building  has  long  been  an  important 
industry.  The  growth  of  Lorain  in  the  last 
ten  years  has  been  very  rapid.     Whjr  ? 

Ashtabula,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ash- 
tabula River,  has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  an 


OHIO 


27 


important  shipping  station  for  coal  and  a 
receiving  station  for  iron  ore.  More  ore 
was  handled  here  in  1910  than  in  any  other 
lake  port.  There  are  also  iron  furnaces  and 
steel  plants  here. 

One  of  the  leading  towns  in  the  market- 
ing and  refining  of  oil  is  Lima,  the  county 
seat  of  Allen  County.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Pipe  Line  Company,  which 
controls  a  large  part  of  the  oil  produced  in 
that  section.  The  crude  oil  is  transported 
by  pipes  to  Chicago  in  the  West  and  to  the 
coast  cities  in  the  East.  Oil  is  also  refined 
in  Lima,  and  the  various  by-products  from 
the  crude  oil  are  manufactured  here.  Lima 
is  an  important  railroad  town  and  several 
roads  have  shops  here. 

PiQUA,  a  thriving  manufacturing  town, 
is  on  the  Miami  River  and  has  fine  water 
power.  Among  the  leading  manufactured 
products  are  linseed  oil,  furniture,  straw- 
board,  and  machinery. 

Defiance  is  at  the  junction  of  the 
Auglaize  and  the  Maumee,  and  is  named  for 
Fort  Defiance,  built  by  General  Anthony 
Wayne  in  his  campaign  against  the  Indians 
which  was  ended  at  the  battle  of  Fallen 
Timbers.  The  region  surrounding  Defi- 
ance was  the  heart  of  the  Indian  country. 
The  representatives  of  various  tribes  came 
from  long  distances  and  from  every  direc- 
tion to  the  great  councils  which  were  held 
here. 

The  manufacturing  of  wooden  articles  is 
one  of  the  principal  occupations,  some  of  the 
products  being  boxes,  barrels,  furniture, 
wagons  and  carriages,  paper,  hoops,  and 
staves. 

Findlay  and  Bowling  Green  were  in 
the  center  of  the  first  great  gas  field  of 
Ohio  (Fig.  15).  Many  factories  were  built 
in  the  towns  at  that  time,  which  were  after- 
ward abandoned.  The  supply  of  gas  is  ex- 
hausted, but  there  is  still  oil  in  the  field. 
The  surrounding  country  is  a  good  farm- 
ing region,  and  the  towns  are  improving 
steadily.  One  of  the  State  Normal  Schools 
is  at  Bowling  Green. 

Fremont  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on 


the  Sandusky  River.     It  was  the  home  of 
President  Hayes. 

Tiffin  is  the  trade  center  for  a  large 
agricultural  district,  and  it  is  also  a  manu- 
facturing town.  Chief  among  the  manu- 
facturing industries  are  making  agricultural 
machinery,  bolts  and  screws,  woolen  goods, 
and  glassware.  Tiffin,  is  the  seat  of  Heidel- 
berg College. 

Marion  is  an  important  railway  center, 
and  a  trading  place  for  a  fine  farming  and 
grazing  region.  It  is  also  a  market  for  the 
limestone  and  lime  which  are  products  of 
the  quarries  in  the  vicinity. 

Massillon  has  an  important  coal  trade, 
and  is  also  a  manufacturing  town.  Iron- 
working  and  making  machinery  are  im- 
portant industries. 

Mansfield,  Mt.  Vernon,  and  Newark 
are  centers  of  important  farming  regions. 
At  Mt.  Vernon  is  located  the  state  Tuber- 
culosis Hospital.  At  Newark  are  some 
of  the  best  preserved  of  the  works  of  the 
Mound  Builders.  Mansfield  was  the  home 
of  John  Sherman.  Zanesville,  sometimes 
called  the  "  clay  city,"  is  an  important  town 
in. the  manufacturing  of  decorative  tile,  fine 
pottery,  glass,  and  different  kinds  of  brick. 
It  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Muskingum  River. 

Sidney,  Kenton,  and  Troy  are  trading 
places  for  large  farming  areas. 

Washington  Courthouse  is  one  of  the 
leading  cattle  markets  in  the  state. 

Lancaster  has  been  the  center  of  one 
of  the  most  important  gas  fields  in  Ohio. 
It  has  a  number  of  industries  which  make 
use  of  the  natural  gas.  Lancaster  is  the 
birthplace  of  General  William  Tecumseh 
Sherman. 

Circleville  is  the  market  for  a  fine 
farm  region,  the  Pickaway  Plains.  Some 
of  its  industries  are  making  strawboard  and 
straw  paper,  packing  pork,  and  canning  and 
drying  corn. 

Springfield  is  an  important  railroad 
town,  and  a  leading  market  for  limestone 
and  lime.  It  is  the  seat  of  Wittenberg 
College.     The    state    homes    of    the    Odd- 


28 


OHIO 


fellows,  Masons,  and  the  Knights  of  Pythias 
are  in  Springfield. 

Xenia  has  large  twine  factories  and 
powder  mills.  The  Soldiers'  and  Sailors' 
Orphans'  Home  is  in  Xenia. 


Steubenville  and  Bellaire  are  im- 
portant coal  markets,  and  manufacture 
pottery,  pig  iron,  and  steel. 

East    Liverpool  is  the  center  of  the 
pottery    industry    in    the    United    States 
(Fig.   14). 

Somerset,  in  Perry 
County,  was  the  birthplace 
of  General  Philip  H.  Sheri- 
dan. 

Lisbon  was  the  early 
home  of  President 
McKinley's  family. 


Fig.  30.  —  Marietta,  the  oldest  town  iu  Ohio 

Hamilton  is  a  growing  manufacturing 
town.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Big  Miami,  and  is  the  center  of  a  region 
called  the  "  Garden  of  Ohio."  Some  of 
the  products  of  the  manufactories  are 
canned  goods,  liquors  both  malt  and  dis- 
tilled, farm  machinery,  engines,  pumps, 
paper,  furniture,  and  tile. 

Chillicothe  is  situated  on  a  terrace, 
thirty  or  more  feet  above  the  Scioto  River. 
It  is  an  important  grain  market.  Chilli- 
cothe was  the  capital  of  Ohio  from  1800 
to  1816  (p.  22). 

Athens  is  the  seat  of  Ohio  University, 
a  state  institution  founded  in  1804.  One 
of  the  state  normal  schools  is  a  part  of  the 
University. 

Marietta  is  the  oldest  town  in  Ohio 
(Fig.  30).  The  first  inhabitants  were 
from  New  England,  and  it  still  has  the 
appearance  of  a  New  England  town.  Blen- 
nerhassett's  Island  is  twelve  miles  below 
Marietta,  in  the  Ohio  River.  Some  of  the 
best  known  of  the  Mound  Builders'  works 
are  at  Marietta.  Marietta  College  is  located 
here. 

Pomeroy  is  a  coal-mining  town,  and  has 
large  salt  works. 

Portsmouth  and  Ironton  are  both  iron- 
manufacturing  towns. 


Review  Questions 

I.   Location.  —  (1)  On  a  map 
of  the  United  States  locate  Ohio. 
(2)  Near  what  mountain  region 
is  it?      (3)   In  what  great  river 
basins?     (4)  Describe  the  boundary.     (5)  Keeping 
within   the  boundary  of   the   United   States   trace 
the    shortest  route   from    (a)    New  York   City  to 
Chicago,     (b)  From  Boston  to  St.  Louis,     fc)  From 
Philadelphia  to  Minneapolis,     (rf)  From  Duluth  to 
Pittsburg.     (6)  What  relation  have  these  lines  to 
Ohio?     (7)  Trace  Mason  and  Dixon's  line.     (8)  Is 
Ohio  a  Northern  or  Southern  state?     (9)  An  East- 
ern or   a  Western   state  ?     (10)  Show  what  effect 
the  position  and  boundary  of  the  state  have  had  on 
its  development. 

II.  Physiography  and  Drainage.  —  (1)  What 
is  the  general  character  of  the  surface  of  Ohio? 
(2)  What  two  great  forces  have  changed  and 
modified  the  surface?  (3)  What  part  of  the  state 
was  covered  by  the  glacier  ?  (4)  Give  the  most  im- 
portant effects  of  the  glacier?  (5)  What  important 
differences  are  there  between  the  part  of  the  state 
covered  by  the  glacier,  and  the  part  not  so  covered? 
(6)  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  divide  between 
the  rivers  flowing  to  Lake  Erie  and  those  flowing  to 
the  Ohio.  (7)  Describe  the  northern  slope  and 
name  the  principal  rivers.  (8)  Compare  the  south- 
ern slope  with  the  northern,  and  name  the  important 
rivers  on  the  southern  slope.  (9)  What  part  of 
the  state  is  best  adapted  to  agriculture?  Why? 
(10)   Which  of  the  rivers  furnish  water  power? 

III.  Climate.  —  (1)  In  what  wind  belt  is  Ohio? 
(2)  From  what  direction  do  our  storms  usually 
come?  (3)  What  is  the  average  rainfall  of  the 
state?  (4)  Compare  the  temperatures  in  different 
parts  of  the  state,  and  give  reasons  for  the  differ- 
ence. (5)  What  effect  does  this  difference  have  on 
agriculture?  (6)  Name  the  more  important  trees, 
shrubs,  and  wild  flowers  native  to  Ohio.  (7)  Do  the 
same  for  the  part  of  the  state  in  which  you  live. 


OHIO 


29 


(8)  What  is  being  done  in  the  state  to  protect  the 
forests?  (9)  What  is  the  government  doing  to  pro- 
tect the  wild  animals?     Why  is  this  necessary? 

Industries 

IV.  Farming,  Dairying,  Fruit  Raising. — 
(1)  What  are  the  conditions  that  make  Ohio 
primarily  an  agricultural  state?  (2)  What  are 
the  different  types  of  farm  lands?  (3)  Where  are 
the  best  farm  lands  in  the  state  ?  Why  are  these 
lands  the  best?  (4)  What  are  the  principal  farm 
products?  (5)  In  what  parts  of  the  state  is  fruit 
raising  an  important  industry  ?  (6)  Where  is  dairy- 
ing of  special  importance?  (7)  Where  is  market 
gardening  an  important  industry?  (8)  What  effect 
will  it  have  on  sheep  raising  to  lower  the  tariff  on 
wool?  (9)  Compare  the  present  methods  of  farm- 
ing with  those  in  the  past.  (10)  Compare  Ohio  with 
the  other  states  in  the  production  of  sheep,  wheat, 
horses,  hay,  and  corn. 

V.  Mining  and  Quarrying.  —  (1)  Name  the 
mineral  products  of  Ohio.  (2)  Locate  the  mining 
district.  (3)  What  kind  of  coal  is  produced  in 
Ohio,  and  for  what  is  it  used?  (4)  Tell  what 
you  can  about  the  formation    and  mining  of  coal. 

(5)  What  effect  has  the  supply  of  coal  in  Ohio 
had  upon  the  development  of  other  industries  in 
the  state?  (6)  What  are  the  building  stones  of 
Ohio,  and  in  what  parts  of  the  state  is  each  quarried  ? 
(7)  What  is  the  most  important  building  stone,  and 
where  is  it  quarried?  (8)  For  what  else  are  lime- 
stone and  sandstone  used  besides  for  building  pur- 
poses? (9)  What  is  lime?  (10)  Give  some  uses 
of  cement. 

VI.  Iron  Manufacturing.  —  (1)  What  place 
does  Ohio  occupy  in  the  production  of  pig  iron 
and  steel  ?  (2)  Give  reasons  for  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  industry  in  Ohio.  (3)  Locate  the  most 
important  iron  ore  producing  regions  in  the  United 
States.  (4)  From  which  of  these  regions  do  we 
receive  the  greatest  amount  of  ore?  (5)  Tell  how 
it   is   shipped,   and   in   what   towns  it  is  received. 

(6)  In  what  towns  and  cities  are  pig  iron  and  steel 
produced?    (7)  What  city  is  a  great  market  for  pig 


iron  ?  (8)  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  reduction  of  iron 
from  the  ore.  (9)  Give  the  principal  uses  of  steel. 
(10)  Name  some  of  the  cities  where  farm  machinery 
is  made. 

VII.  Clay,  Oil,  and  Gas.  —  (1)  What  are  the 
principal  uses  of  clay?  (2)  In  what  parts  of  the 
state  is  clay  found?  (3)  What  are  the  important 
clay  products  produced  in  Ohio?  (4)  Where  are 
these  articles  produced?  (5)  What  is  said  of  the 
importance  of  the  clays  of  Ohio?  (6)  Locate  the 
principal  oil  fields  of  Ohio.  (7)  What  is  meant  by 
"  refining  the  oil,"  and  what  are  the  products  from 
the  refineries?  (8)  How  is  the  oil  transported  to 
the  refineries?  (9)  Where  are  the  natural  gas  fields 
of  Ohio?  (10)  What  are  some  of  the  uses  of  natural 
gas? 

VIII.  Government  and  Education.  — 
(1)  What  are  the  departments  of  government  of 
a  state?  (2)  Name  the  executive  officers  of  the 
state,  and  give  length  of  term  of  each  officer. 
(8)  Name  the  members  of  the  General  Assembly 
from  your  district.  (4)  Name  the  county  officials 
in  your  county,  and  give  the  length  of  term  of 
each.  (5)  What  courts  are  held  in  your  county, 
and  who  are  the  judges?  (6)  Who  are  the  United 
States  senators  from  Ohio,  and  how  are  they  elected? 
(7)  Who  is  the  congressman  from  your  district,  and 
how  is  he  elected?  (8)  What  provision  did  the 
general  government  make  for  education  in  the 
Northwest  Territory?  (9)  How  is  the  money  ob- 
tained which  pays  the  expenses  of  the  public  schools? 
(10)  W7hat  is  the  "  Traveling  Library"? 

IX.  Cities  and  Towns  in  Ohio.  —  (1)  Name 
the  capital  city,  and  give  the  reason  for  its  loca- 
tion. (2)  What  is  the  largest  city,  and  give  reasons 
for  its  rapid  growth.  (3)  Give  some  of  the  causes 
that  have  made  Cincinnati  a  great  city.  (4)  Name 
and  locate  all  the  towns  that  have  over  ten  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  (5)  Name  the  principal  towns 
in  the  mining  region.  (6)  Name  the  principal  iron- 
manufacturing  towns.  (7)  Name  the  towns  in  the 
oil  regions.  (8)  Name  and  locate  the  towns  that 
are  interested  in  clay  working.  (9)  Name  the 
towns  where  colleges  or  universities  are  located. 
(10)  What  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  state? 


BOOKS   OF   PREFERENCE 


Newberry,  "  Physical  Geography  of  Ohio  "  ;  Ohio 
State  Geological  Survey,  Vol.  I. 

Leverett,  "  Water  Resources  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  "  ; 
United  States  Geological  Survev,  Vol.  XVIII, 
Part  III. 

Howe,  "  Historical  Collections  of  Ohio  "  ;  State  Print- 
ing Office,  Columbus. 

King,  "Ohio,"  Commonwealth  series;  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  N.Y. 

Howells,  "  Stories  of  Ohio  "  ;  American  Book  Co., 
Cincinnati. 

Clark. '-The  Picturesque  Ohio,  a  Historical  Mono- 
graph"; Robert  Clark  &  Co.,  Cincinnati. 


Goldthwaite, "  Afloat  on  the  Ohio  "  ;  Way  &  Williams, 
Chicago. 

Ilildreth,  "Lives  of  the  Early  Settlers." 

Postle,  "  Civil  Government  of  Ohio  " ;  II.  Postle,  Co- 
lumbus, Ohio. 

Van  Tassel,  "  The  Book  of  Ohio  "  ;  C.  S.  Van  Tassel, 
Bowling  Green. 

Orton,  "  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  "  Vols.  V  and 
VII. 

Siebert,  "  The  Government  of  Ohio  :  Its  History  and 
Administration  "  ;  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.Y. 

"  Geological  Survey  "  ;  Vols.  VIII  and  IX. 


APPENDIX 


TABLES  OF  POPULATION,  AREA,  ETC. 


POPULATION  OF  OHIO  |   1800  TO  1910. 


Census 
Year 

1800  . 
1810  . 
1820  . 
1830  . 
1840  . 
1850  . 


Popula- 
tion 

45,365 

230,760 

581,295 

937,903 

1,519,467 

1,980,329 


Increase, 
Number 


Per      Census 
cent       Year 


185,395 

408.7 

1860       .      .      . 
1870      .      .     . 

350,535 

151.9 

1880     ..      .     . 

356,608 

61.3 

1890       .      .     . 

581,564 

62.0 

1900      .      .     . 

460,862 

30.3 

1910      .      .      . 

Popula- 
tion 

2,339,511 
2,665,260 
3,198,062 
3,672,316 
4,157,545 
4,767,121 


Increase, 
Number 

359, 1S2 
325,749 
532,802 
474,254 
485,229 
609,576 


Per 

CENT 

18.1 
13.9 
20.0 
14.8 
13.2 
14.6 


POPULATION    OF    LARGEST    TEN    CITIES    OF    OHIO  ;      1850    TO    1910 


Cities  1910 

•Cleveland 560,663 

Cincinnati 363,591 

Columbus 1S1.511 

,-Toledo 168,497 

Dayton 116,577 

Youngstown 79,066 

V-Akron 69,067 

V-Canton 50,217 

Springfield 46,921 

Hamilton 35,279 


1900 

381,768 
325,902 
125,560 
131,822 
85,333 

44,885 
42,728 
30,667 
38,253 
23,914 


1890 

261,353 

296,908 
88,150 
81,434 
61,220 

33,220 
27,601 
26,189 
31,895 
17.565 


18S0 

160,146 

255,139 

51,647 

50,137 

38,678 

15,435 
16,512 
12,258 
20,730 


1870 

92,829 
216,239 
31,274 
31,584 
30,473 

8,075 
10,006 

8,660 
12,652 


1860 

43,417 
161,044 
18,554 
13,768 
20,081 

2,739 
3,447 
4,041 
7,002 


1850 

17,034 

115,435 

17,882 

3,829 

10,977 


3,266 
2,603 
5,108 


Cities  10,000  to  30,000  Population  : 
Census  1910 

1900 
8,974 

12,949 
9,912 
8,241 

12,976 


16,4S5 

8,791 

17,613 

11,868 

3,355 

8,991 
21,723 

16,028 
17,640 
13,348 

11,862 
11,944 

9,215 
18,157 

6,480 

12,172 
17,870 
19,664 
14,349 
10,989 


Alliance  .     . 

.     15,083 

Ashtabula     . 

.     1S.266 

Bellaire    .     . 

.      12,946 

Cambridge   . 

.      11,327 

Chillicothe   . 

.      14,508 

East  Liverpool 

.     20,387 

Elyria       .     . 

.      14,825 

Findlay    .     . 

.      14,858 

Ironton    . 

.      13,147 

Lakewood 

.      15,181 

Lancaster 

.      13,093 

Lima  .     .     . 

.     30,508 

Lorain      .     . 

.     28,883 

^Mansfield     . 

.     20,768 

Marietta 

.     12,923 

.Marion    .     . 

.     18,232 

Massillon 

.     13,879 

Middletown 

.     13,152 

Newark    . 

.     25,404 

Norwood 

.      16,185 

Piqua       .     . 

.      11,388 

Portsmouth 

.     23,481 

Sanduskv 

.      19,989 

Steubenville 

.     22,391 

Tiflfin  .     .     .     . 

.      11,894 

1910  1900 

Warren 11,081        8,529 

Zanesville      ....  28,026      23.53S 


Towns  having  from  5,000  to  10,000 
Population 


Ashland     .     . 
Athens      .     . 
Barberton 
Bellefontaine 
Bellevue   . 


Bowling  Green 
Bucyrus    .     . 


Canal  Dover 
Circleville 
Conneaut 
Coshocton 
Defiance   . 


Delaware  . 
Delphos    . 
East  Cleveland 
Fostoria    . 


Fremont    . 
Galion 
Gallipolis  . 
Greenville 


1910 
6795 
5463 
9410 
8238 
5209 

5222 
8112 

6621 
6740 
8319 
9603 
7327 

9076 
5038 
9179 
9597 

9939 
7214 
5560 
6237 


1900 

40S7 

3066 

4354 

6649 

4101 

5067 
6560 

5422 
6991 
7133 
6473 
7579 

7940 
4517 
2757 
7730 

8439 
7282 
5432 
5501 


Jackson     .     . 
Kenton     .     .     . 
Madisonville 
Martins  Ferry   . 

Mt.  Vernon  .     . 
Nelsonville    . 
New  Philadelphia 
Newburg  .     .     . 


Niles  .  . 
Norwalk  . 
Painesville 
Ravenna  . 


St.  Bernard 
St.  Mary's 
Salem  . 
Sidney 
Troy    .     . 


Urbana 

Van  Wert 

Wapakoneta 

WashingtonCourt-IIouse727 


1910 
5468 
7185 
5193 
9133 

9087 
6082 
8542 
5S13 

8361 
7858 
5501 
5310 

5002 
5732 
8943 
6607 
6122 

7739 
7157 
5349 


Wellston 6875 

Wellsville   ....  7769 

Wooster 6136 

Xenia S706 


1900 

4672 

6852 

3140 

7760 

6633 
5421 
6213 
5909 

746S 
7074 
5024 
4003 

3384 
5359 
7582 
5688 
5SS1 

6808 
6422 
3915 
5751 

8046 
6146 
6063 
8696 


30 


APPENDIX 


31 


Towns  having  from  2000  to 
Population 

1910 

.Ada 2405 

Amherst 2100 

Barnesville    ....  4333 

Berea 2609 

Bridgeport     ....  3974 

Bryan 3641 

Byesville 3156 

Carey 2225 

Carthage 361S 

Celina 3493 

Chicago  Junction   .     .  2950 


Cleveland  Heights 
Clyde  .... 
Collinwood    . 
Crestline  . 
Crooksville   .     . 


Cuyahoga  Falls 
Dennison 
East  Palestine 

East  Youngstow 
Eaton  .     .     . 
Elmwood  Place 
Fairport    .     . 
Franklin   .     . 


2955 
2815 


3807 
3028 

4020 
4008 
3537 

4972 
31S7 
3423 
2263 
2659 


5000 

1900 

2576 

1758 


2510 
3963 
3131 

1267 
1816 
2559 
2S15 
2348 


2515 

3639 

3282 

835 

3186 
3763 
2493 


3155 
2532 
2073 
2724 


Geneva 

Girard 

Glouster 

Greenfield 

Hartwell 

Hicksville 

Hillsboro 

Kent    . 

Lebanon 
Leetonia 
Lisbon 
Lockland 

Logan  . 
London 

Marysville 

Maumee 

Medina 

Miamisburg 

Middleport 

Millersburg 
Mingo  Junction 
Montpelier 
Napoleon 
Newcomerstown 

New  Lexington 
New  Straitsville 


1910 
2496 
3736 
2527 
4228 
2S23 
2395 
4296 
4488 

2698 
2665 
3084 
3439 

4850 
3530 

3576 
2307 
2734 
4271 
3194 

2020 
4049 
2759 
4007 
2943 

2559 
2242 


1900 

2342 

2630 

2155 

3979 

1833 

2520 

4535 

4541 

2867 
2744 
3330 
2695 

3480 
3511 

3048 
1856 
2232 
3941 
2799 

1998 
2954 
1869 
3639 
2659 

1701 
2302 


North  Baltimore 

Nottingham 

Oberlin 

Orrville 
Ottawa 
Oxford       . 
Paulding  . 
Pomeroy  . 

Port  Clinton 
Reading    . 
Rockport 

Roseville  . 
Salineville 
Sebring 
Shawnee   . 

Shelby       . 
Struthers 
Tippecanoe 
Toronto     . 

Uhrichsville 
Upper  Sandu; 
Wadsworth 
Wanseon  . 


Wellington 
Willoughby 
Wilmington 
Woodsfield 


ky 


1910 
2503 
2387 
4365 

3101 
2182 
2017 
2081 
4023 

3007 
3985 
3179 

2113 

2403 
2104 
2280 

4903 
3390 
2038 
4271 

4751 
3779 
3073 
2650 

2131 
2072 
4491 
2502 


1900 
3561 
939 
4082 

1901 
2322 
2009 
2080 
4639 

2450 
3076 
2038 

1207 

2353 

387 

2966 

4685 

1703 
3526 

4582 
3355 
1764 
2148 

2094 
1753 
3613 
1801 


THE    COUNTIES    OF   OHIO 


Counties  Organized 

Adams 1797 

Allen 1S20 

Ashland 1846 

Ashtabula 1807 

Athens 1805 

Auglaize 1S4S 

Belmont 1801 

Brown 1817 

Butler 1803 

Carroll 1832 

Champaign 1S05 

Clarke 1817 

Clermont 1800 

Clinton 1810 

Columbiana 1S03 

Coshocton •  1811 

Crawford 1820 

Cuyahoga 1807 

Darke 1809 

Defiance 1845 

Delaware 1808 

Erie 183S 

Fairfield 1800 

Fayette 1810 

Franklin 1803 

Fulton 1850 

Gallia 1803 

Geauga 1805 

Greene 1803 

Guernsey 1810 

Hamilton 1790 

Hancock 1820 

Hardin 1S20 

Harrison 1814 

Henry 1820 


Area 
Sq.  Mi. 

Population 
1900 

1910 

County  Seat 

415 

26,328 

24,755 

West  Union 

324 

47,976 

56,580 

Lima 

371 

21,184 

29,975 

Ashland 

537 

51,448 

59,547 

Jefferson 

370 

38,730 

47,798 

Athens 

299 

31,192 

31,246 

Wapakoneta 

461 

60,875 

76,856 

St.  Clairsville 

417 

28,237 

24,832 

Georgetown 

315 

56,870 

70,271 

Hamilton 

346 

16,811 

15,761 

Carrollton 

409 

26,642 

26,351 

Urbana 

312 

58,939 

66,435 

Springfield 

394 

31,610 

29,551 

Batavia 

311 

24,202 

23,680 

Wilmington 

436 

68,590 

76,619 

Lisbon 

479 

29,337 

31,121 

Coshocton 

332 

33,915 

34,036 

Bucyrus 

303 

439,120 

637,425 

Cleveland 

436 

42,532 

42,933 

Greenville 

304 

26,387 

24,498 

Defiance 

366 

26,401 

27,182 

Delaware 

177 

37,650 

38,327 

Sandusky 

423 

34,259 

39,201 

Lancaster 

335 

21,725 

21,744 

Washington 
Court-House 

361 

164,460 

221,567 

Columbus 

321 

22,801 

23,914 

Wauseon 

346 

27,918 

25,745 

Gallipolis 

344 

14,744 

14,670 

Chardon 

343 

31,613 

29,733 

Xenia 

441 

34,425 

42,716 

Cambridge 

400 

409,479 

460,732 

Cincinnati 

540 

41,993 

37,860 

Findlay 

440 

31,187 

30,407 

Kenton 

320 

20,486 

19,076 

Cadiz 

430 

27,282 

25,119 

Napoleon 

32 


County 


Organized 


Highland 1805 

Hocking 1818 

Holmes 1824 

Huron 1815 

Jackson 1816 

Jefferson 1797 

Knox 1808 

Lake 1840 

Lawrence 1816 

Licking 1808 

Logan 1817 

Lorain 1822 

Lucas 1835 

Madison 1810 

Mahoning 1846 

Marion 1824 

Medina 1818 

Meigs 1819 

Mercer 1820 

Miami 1807 

Monroe 1813 

Montgomery 1803 

Morgan 1818 

Morrow 1848 

Muskingum 1804 

Noble 1851 

Ottawa 1840 

Paulding 1820 

Perry 1817 

Pickaway 1810 

Pike 1815 

Portage 1807 

Preble 1808 

Putnam 1820 

Richland 1813 

Ross 1789 

Sandusky 1820 

Scioto 1803 

Seneca 1820 

Shelby 1819 

Stark 1808 

Summit 1840 

Trumbull 1800 

Tuscarawas 1808 

Union 1820 

Van  Wert 1820 

Vinton 1850 

Warren 1803 

Washington 1788 

Wayne 1796 

Williams 1820 

Wood 1820 

Wyandot 1845 

Total 


APPENDIX 

!ED         SqRMi. 

Population 
1900 

1910 

County  Seat 

470 
;                  400 

420 
;                450 
i                  410 

30,982 
24,398 
19,511 
32,330 
34,248 

28,711 
23,650 
17,909 
34,206 
30,791 

Hillsboro 

Logan 

Millersburg 

Norwalk 

Jackson 

440 
540 
I                  215 
440 
680 

44,357 
27,768 
21,680 
39,534 
47,070 

65,423 
30,181 
22,927 
39,488 
55,590 

Steubenville 
Mt.  Vernon 
Painesville 
Ironton 
Newark 

440 
500 
440 
470 
420 

30,420 
54,857 
153,559 
20,590 
70,134 

30,084 
76,037 

192,728 
19,902 

116,151 

Bellefontaine 
;   Elyria 
Toledo 
London 
Youngstown 

430 

400 

400 

'                 470 

400 

26,678 
21,958 
28,620 
28,021 
43,105 

33,971 
23,598 
25,594 
27,536 
45,047 

Marion 

Medina 

Pomeroy 

Celina 

Troy 

1                 470 
;                 470 
i                 400 
i                 450 
650 

27,031 
130,146 
17,905     . 
17,879 
53,185 

24,244 

163,763 

16,097 

16,815 

57,488 

Woodsfield 
Dayton 

McConnelsville 
Mt.  Gilead 
Zanesville 

400 
300 
420 
410 
480 

19,466 
22,213 

27,528 
31,841 
27,016 

18,601 
22,360 
22,730 
35,396 
26,158 

Caldwell 
Port  Clinton 
Paulding 
New  Lexington 
Circleville 

470 
490 
440 
510 
:                 490 

18,172 
29,246 
23,713 
32,525 
44,289 

15,723 
30,307 
23,834 
29,972 
47,667 

Waverly 

Ravenna 

Eaton 

Ottawa 

Mansfield 

i                 650 
i                  440 
640 
i                  540 
i                  420 

40,940 
34,311 
40,981 
41,163 
24,625 

40,069 
35,171 
48,463 
42,421 
24,663 

Chillicothe 
Fremont 
Portsmouth 
-Tiflin 
Sidney 

1                  580 

1                  420 

1                  650 

520 

420 

94,747 
71,715 
46,591 
53,751 
22,342 

122,987 
108,253 
52,766 
57,035 
21,871 

Canton 

Akron 

Warren 

New  Philadelphia 

Marysville 

I                  400 
402 
400 

i                  650 
540 

30,394 
15,330 
25,584 
48,245 
37,870 

29,119 
13,096 
24,497 
45,422 
38,058 

Van  Wert 

McArthur 

Lebanon 

Marietta 

Wooster 

420 
620 
400 

24,953 
51,555 
21,125 

35,198 
46,330 
27,760 

Bryan 

Bowling  Green 
Upper  Sandusky 

4,157,545        4,767,121 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


Hi  D 


